SKAA/SKAB 2032

Introduction and overview of the course

 Course Objective

• To give basic information about electrical principle, electrical

machinery, distribution system, wiring and protection for
domestic and commercial buildings

• Mendedahkan Pelajar kepada Bekalan Elektrik, Mesin Elektrik, Sistem

Pengagihan, Pendawaian dan Perlindungan bangunan domestic dan
komersial.

• Lecture hours: 7 weeks @ 14 hrs (electrical part)

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3
4
Course Content

5
Course Content

6
 Assessment
(For Electrical Part Only)

Assignment (GROUP) : 15%

Homework:5%
Project:10%
ONLINE QUIZZES : 10%
QUIZ 1:5%
QUIZ 2: 5%
Final Exam : 25%

Total (E) : 50%

Note: Minimum attendance is 80% to be qualified for

Final exam

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 Contact Information

SESSION 2020/2021, SEMESTER 1

DR SITI MAHERAH HUSSIN

E-MAIL: maherah@fke.utm.my

8
 Basic Electrical System

• Electricity is a form of energy –

renewable or non-renewable
energy
• Examples of energy sources –
hydro, coal, wind, nuclear and
solar
• Electrical systems permits us
easily to transmit energy from a
source of supply to a point of
application
• Electrical engineering is the
profession concerned with
systems that produce, transmit
and measure electrical signals

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA 9

 Basic Electrical System

Basic electrical system shall contain:

1. The source - to provide energy for the electrical system,

e.g. Battery, generator, socket outlet
2. The load - to absorb the electrical energy supplied by the
source, e.g. Lamps, air-cond.
3. The transmission system - conducts energy from the source
to the load, e.g. Insulated wire
4. The control apparatus - permits energy to flow or
interrupts the flow, e.g. switch

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Basic Electrical System

11
Basic Electrical System

Example of Power System

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 Basic Electrical System

Example of
Communication
System

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What is electricity?

14
 Electrical Quantities & Units

• Electric Charge, Q
– Charge can be in positive (__________) or negative (_____________)
where the energy exists
– Unit: _____________ (C)
– 1 C = electrical quantity when 1 Ampere current flows for 1 second in a
conductor

• Current, I
– Rate of ___________ flow
– Two types: DC and AC
– Unit: __________ (A)
– 1 A = transfer of 1 C charge in 1 s
– I=Q/t

15
 Electrical Quantities & Units

• Energy, W • Resistance, R
– Capacity for doing work
✓ All conductors have their own
– Unit: Joule (J) resistance
✓ To __________________ in a circuit
• Voltage, V or E
– ____________________ in a ✓ Unit: ______ ()
circuit
✓ 1  = Element with resistance of 1 
– Unit: _____ (V)
will allow 1 A to pass through if 1 V
– 1 V = Energy needed to transfer voltage is applied across the element
1 C charge through an element ✓ If R = 0 Ω, ____________ → (large
– V = W/Q current flow)
✓ If R =  , ___________ lead to no
current flow
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Voltage, Current and Resistance

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 Electrical Quantities & Units

• Power, P
– Rate for doing work
– Unit: Joule/s or Watt (W)
– 1 W = Power used when 1 A current flowing through a
potential of 1 V

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Current, Voltage and Power
Relationships

I R

19
 Current, Voltage and Power
Relationships

• Current, I which flows through resistance R is directly

proportional to the voltage across the resistor, I  V, i.e., V = IR.
• If voltage V is applied across resistor R, current I which flows
through the resistor is inversely proportional to the resistance
value.
I
V
R

+ V -
I
(a) (b)

20
 Ohm’s Law

Examples:
1. An electric bulb uses 0.5 A of current with voltage generated being
120 V. Determine the value of resistance.
2. If a current of 0.5 A flows through resistor of 15 Ω, calculate the
voltage drop across the resistor.
3. For the circuit shown, determine current flowing and power
absorbed by the resistor if the resistance is 1 kΩ and voltage
across it is 10 V.
4. If the current flowing through the circuit is 3A and power absorbed
is 72 W, determine the resistor value and voltage across it.
I
+
+
V R
Vs
-
-
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Chapter 1 Part 2
Single and Three Phase System
(Delta  and Star  Connections)

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Example of AC and DC sources

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 AC voltage and Alternating Current

• Alternating Current (AC) describes the

flow of charge that changes direction
periodically at a given frequency.
• As a result, the voltage level also
reverses along with the current.
• AC is used to deliver power to houses,
office buildings, etc.

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 Types of electrical supply

• Direct Current (DC) describes the flow of

charge constantly in one direction.
• As a result, the voltage and current is constant.
• DC is used to deliver power to electronic
gadgets, etc.

V
I
t
25
 AC versus DC

• Edison invented long-lasting, practical incandescent light

bulb and realized the need for an electrical distribution
system to provide power for lighting
• Sept. 4, 1882, world's first electric power distribution
system, providing 110V direct current (DC) to 59
customers in lower Manhattan, around Edison’s Pearl
Street Station.

• Main drawback with Edison's low-voltage DC power network –

short transmission range, with centralized plants only able
to supply customers within a mile (approx. 2km) of each
plant (line loss).
• An AC power system allowed voltages to be "stepped up" by a
transformer for long distance distribution without the severe
power losses suffered by DC systems, and then "stepped
down" by a transformer to a safety level for consumer use
(economies of scale).
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 AC or DC?

• Electricity is produced by generators at power

station.
• Electricity is then distributed by a vast network
of transmission lines called National Grid
System.
• It is easier and cheaper to generate AC than DC.
• It is more convenient to distribute AC than DC
since the voltage can be readily altered using
transformer.
• Whenever DC is needed, devices called
rectifiers are used for conversion.
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Electrical Specification Label

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Electrical Specification Label

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Electrical Specification Label

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Electrical Specification Label

31
Exercise

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33
Pop Quiz

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35
 Single Phase system

• The AC electrical supply has only one electrical source.

• The AC current will flow when there is a load completing
the circuit.
• Frequency of the voltage and current is the same i.e. 50 Hz.
• Energy is supplied through 2 wire conductors. (Life and
Neutral).
• Depending on the load, there will be a phase difference
between the current flowing and the voltage forcing the
current to flow. This is due to the load, being inductive or
capacitive. A fully resistive load gives a power factor of 1.

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 Generation of single phase AC Power

• An electric current can be induced in a circuit by a changing

magnetic field – Faraday’s Law
• The direction of the induced current is such that the induced
magnetic field always opposes the change in the flux – Lenz’s
Law
• Direction of current for generator – Fleming’s right hand rule

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Generation of single phase AC Power

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 Generation of single phase AC Power

• Single phase electricity is generated by rotating a

single turn coil through a magnetic field.
• The shape of the waveform produced by a generator
(i.e. the alternator) is in the form of sine wave.

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 Generation of single phase AC Power

Variation of induced emf during the second half of the cycle of rotation is the
same in magnitude as during the first half but the polarity of the emf has
reversed.

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 Sinusoidal Wave

v(t) = Vm sin (t + )

v(t) = Vm sin t

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 Example 1

Find the amplitude, phase angle, angular frequency, period

and frequency of the sinusoidal waveform

(a) v(t) = 12 cos (50t + 10)

(b) v(t) = 5 sin (4πt - 60)

Answer :
(a) (12V, 10, 50 rads/sec, 0.126 sec., 7.937 Hz)
(b) (5V, -60, 4π rads/sec, 0.5 sec., 2 Hz)

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 Example 2

• An alternating voltage is given by v = 75 sin(200πt – 0.25)

volts. Find:
i. the amplitude,
ii. the peak-to-peak value (Vp-p),
iii. the r.m.s. value,
iv. the period,
v. the frequency, and
vi. the phase angle (in degrees) relative to 75 sin (200πt)

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 Solutions

Comparing the general expression for an alternating voltage,

v = Vm sin(ωt ± )
with v = 75 sin(200πt − 0.25)

i. Amplitude, or peak value = 75 V

ii. Peak-to-peak value = 2 × 75 = 150 V
iii. r.m.s. value = 0.707 × maximum value = 0.707×75 = 53 V
iv. Time, T = 2π/ω = 2π/200π = 0.01s = 10 ms
v. Frequency, f = 1/T = 1/10×10−3 = 100 Hz
vi. Phase angle (radians),  = 0.25 radians lagging behind (75 sin
200πt)
Phase angle (degree), 0.25 radians = 0.25 180/π = 14.32 Lagging!

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 Phasor

• Sinusoids can be easily expressed in terms of phasors.

• A phasor is a complex number that represents the
amplitude and phase of a sinusoid.
• Phasors – The magnitude and angle of a wave represented
by complex numbers convention
V
Vrms Sinusoidal voltage wave
 v(t) = Vm sin (t + θ)

Phasor  V = Vrms  θ 
θ
Reference (0)

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 Power in AC Systems

In DC circuits, the power supplied are constant with time.

Therefore, instantaneous power is written as:

P(t) = V(t).I(t) (Watts)

While for AC circuits V(t) = Vm sin ωt I(t) = Im sin (ωt ± θ)

The product of instantaneous voltage and instantaneous current give

the instantaneous power being supplied to the load.

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 Example 3

An alternating voltage can be represented by

v=141.4 sin 377t. Determine:
(a) rms voltage, Vrms
(b) frequency, f
(c) the instantaneous voltage when t = 3 ms, Vt=3ms

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Explanation

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 Average (P), Reactive (Q), Apparent (S)
powers. (refer power triangle)

Generally, Average power, Paverage = 1/T ∫0T p(t) dt

𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝜃
= 𝑚𝑚
2
= (Vm/√2) (Im/√2) cos θ
= Vrms. Irms cos θ (Watt)

Average power indicates the real or active power.

Reactive power, Q is the power that is transferred but not used

by the load, thus it circulates the circuit. How much power
circulates depends on the characteristics of the load being
supplied.

Q = V rms. I rms sin θ (VAR)

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 Average (P), Reactive (Q), Apparent (S)
powers. (refer power triangle)

Apparent power, S is used as a power rating

term for electrical machines or transformers.
S = V rms. I rms (VA)
S = P ± jQ →→ complex power
S = S ± θ 

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 Power triangle

The relationships between P, Q and S can form a right angled

triangle called the Power triangle.

Figure below shows the phasor diagram in triangular form for

an inductive load whereby the current lags the voltage.

S = VI [VA] Volt-Ampere
S
P = VI cos θ [W] Q
Q = VI sin θ [VAR]
Volt-Ampere-Reactive
P
 Power factor (pf)

• Defined as the ratio between the active power to the

apparent power.
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 Vrms  I rms  cos 
• PF = = = = cos 
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑆 Vrms  I rms

• The values of pf lies from 0 to 1.

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 Power factor correction

• Generally, practical loads are formed of resistance and

inductance.
• hence, normal loads has lagging power factors when it is <
1.
• Disadvantages of low power factor:
– The generator used have to has a higher power rating.
– Higher current flow, require a bigger cable size.
– Loss of power within the transmission line is high.
– Thus the efficiency of sending energy through transmission line
becomes lower.

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 Power factor correction

• It is therefore economical to ensure the power factor is

high. And this depends on the user end.

• 2 frequently used methods are:

– Use of a capacitor connected across the load (parallel with
load).
– Connecting a synchronous machine in parallel with the load.

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 Example 4

S = V.I P = V.I cos θ Q = V.I sin θ pf = cos θ

Example:
A single phase induction motor operates with a supply of 240V, 50Hz
takes 5 kW of power. This motor operates with a pf of 0.7 lagging.
Calculate;

a) The current it draws, I

b) Motor’s apparent power, S
c) Motor’s reactive power, Q
d) The phase angle, θ between voltage and current.

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 3 phase system

Previously we deal with only single phase AC systems which

involves only 1 voltage supply.

A 3 phase system is simply a combination of 3 single phase

systems. All three single phase voltage has the same magnitude
but separated from each other by a 1200 phase difference
between them.

Generally the electrical power is generated, transmitted and

distributed to the users through 3 phase system.

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A single phase system can be obtained from the 3 phase
system by using any one of the 3 phase voltages.

Heavy industries usually use 3 phase systems to operate big

machines, while domestic users take one of the three phase
voltages.

There are two types of connection for 3 phase systems, i.e.

Star and Delta connections.

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 3 phase system generation

To generate 3 voltages 1200 apart from each other, 3 loops

(compared to a single loop in single phase systems) needs to be
rotated to through the north and south poles, and these loops
should be physically 1200 apart.

This means 3 phase voltages will be generated on the 3 end

pairs of the 3 loops. If the number of turns in the loop, and the
rotating speed is the same, the magnitude and frequency of the
generated voltages are the same.

A three-phase system is superior economically and advantage,

and for an operating of view, to a single phase system. In a
balanced three phase system the power delivered to the load is
constant at all times, whereas in a single-phase system the
power pulsates with time.

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• Suppose three similar loops of wire with terminals R-
R’, Y-Y’ and B-B’ are fixed to one another at angles of
120 and rotating in a magnetic field.

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The instantaneous e.m.f. generated in phase R, Y and B:
• VR = VR sin ωt
• VY = VY sin (ωt – 120)
• VB = VB sin (ωt – 240) = VB sin (ωt + 120)

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 RYB or positive sequence

VR leads VY, which in turn leads VB. This sequence is

produced when the rotor rotates in the
counterclockwise direction.
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 3 phase system connection method

• The three phase system is usually connected using: Star, Y

(transformers, motors and other loads) and delta, 
(sources i.e. alternators)
• Therefore a few configurations for 3 phase supply and load
can be established:
• First connection is for supply, next is for load.
– Star-star connection,
– Star-delta connection,
– Delta-delta connection
– Delta Star connection.

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POP Quiz

63
 Star connection

• 3 phase star connected generator is also known as a wye

(Y) connected generator.
• Star connection is established by joining the ends of
each loop conductor which has the same polarity to a
common point termed the neutral point, N.

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STAR – STAR connection

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Load in STAR Connection

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STAR Connection - VOLTAGES

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STAR Connection - Currents

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STAR – Line voltages

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Vector Diagram

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3 phase 4 wired connection

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 Balanced Load Star Connection

If the loads between the 3 phases are balanced (i.e.

their impedance values are the same) no neutral line is
required.

However, the neutral line is required when the loads are

not balanced, to provide a common path for the nett
current to flow back to the generator.

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 Example 5

• Three loads, each of resistance 30Ω, are connected in star

to a 415 V, 3-phase supply. Determine
(a) the system phase voltage
(b) the phase current, and,
(c) the line current.

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DELTA Connection

76
DELTA – Line currents

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Vector Diagram

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 Example 6

Three loads, each of pure resistance 50 Ω are connected in

delta to a 400 V, 3-phase supply. Determine
(a)the phase voltage, Vp
(b)the phase current, Ip, and
(c)the line current, IL.

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 Power in 3 phase systems

Star connection
• For a balanced 3 phase star connected system, the total active
power in the system can be calculated by considering the active
power for a single phase system, multiplied by 3.
• This is due to the equal powers dissipated by each phase. The
active power for the three phases R, Y and B for a balanced star
connected load is given by:

(
PR = VRN I R cos VRN − I R ) (
PB = VBN I B cos VBN − I B )
PY = VYN I Y cos(
VYN −  IY )

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Power Calculation
• The three phase power is equal the sum of the phase powers
P = PR + PY + PB

• If the load is balanced:

P = 3 Pphase = 3 Vphase Iphase cos θ

• Wye connection system:

I phase = I L & 𝑉𝐿 = 3𝑉𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒

P = 3 Vphase Iphase cos θ = 3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 cos 𝜃 [𝑊]

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Reactive power:

Q = 3 Vphase Iphase sin θ

= 3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 sin 𝜃 𝑉𝐴𝑅
Apparent power:

S = 3 Vphase Iphase = 3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑉𝐴

or S = P + jQ

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Delta connection system:

𝑰𝑳 = 𝟑𝑰𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆

𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒

P = 3Vphase Iphase cos θ = 3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 cos 𝜃

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 Example 6

Example 1
A 345 kV, three phase transmission line delivers 500 MVA, 0.866 power
factor lagging, to a three phase load connected to its receiving end
terminals. Assume the load is Y connected and the voltage at the
receiving end is 345 kV, find:

• The line and phase currents.

• The load impedance, Z for each phase.
• The total real, P and reactive power, Q.

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Chapter 1 – Part 3
Electrical Supply, Transmission and Distribution
(Punca bekalan, penghantaran dan pengagihan)
 TNB’s supply system

3 phase voltage (50Hz)

Main transmission network consists of voltage systems:

275kV, 132kV, 66kV

Distribution networks uses:

33 kV, 11 kV, 415 V
22 kV & 6.6 kV (for restricted areas)
240 V (single phase) drawn from 415 V, 3 phase (phase
voltage), between line (R, Y, B) and Neutral (N)
 Stepped-down 11 kV
132 kV,
transformer 22 kV
Stepped-up 275 kV, 33 kV
500 kV
transformer
End – user

Substations

415/240 V

Transmission:
1. Overhead line
2. Underground cable

10.5 kV, 13.8 kV

Generation
 10.5 kV
Generation Station
STESEN PENJANA
13.8kV

132kV
PENGUBAH LANGKAH
Stepped-up NAIK
transformer
Transmitter 275kV
PENGHANTAR
500kV
TALIAN
Overhead
RENTANG
line
ATAS

33kV
Stepped-down transformer
PENGUBAH LANGKAH TURUN 22kV
11kV

Substations
STESEN PENCAWANG
Distributor
PENGAGIH

TALIAN
Underground
ATAS/DALAM
cable
TANAH

Stepped-down transformer 11kV

PENGUBAH LANGKAH TURUN
415V
PEMBEKAL
Distributor

Consumer
PENGGUNA

415/240V 11kV 11kV 415/240V

 Supplying Method

1. Single consumer as in housing areas, factories and

shophouses.
– Single-phase, 2-wire, 240 V up to 12 kVA maximum demand
– 3-phase, 4-wires, 415 V up to 45 kVA maximum demand
– 3-phase, 4-wires, C.T. metered 415 V up to 1,500 kVA
maximum demand

2. Multi tenanted premises such as high rises flats, office

blocks and commercial buildings:
a. Low voltage:
i. 3-phase, 4-wires, CT metered 415 V up to 1500 kVA
b. High voltage, Extra High Voltage
i. 3-phase, 4-wires, 6.6 kV & 11 kV for load of 1,500 kVA
max demand and above, whiever voltage is available
ii. 3-phase, 4-wires, 22 kV & 33 kV for load of 5,000 kVA max
demand and above, whichever voltage is available
iii. 3-phase, 4-wires, 66 kV, 132 kV dan 275 kV for
exceptional high load maximum demand above 20 MVA
max demand
 Calculating Your Electric Bill

• Although the unit of energy is the joule (W=Pt), when

dealing with large amounts of energy, the unit used is
the kilowatt hour (kWh) where:

1 kWh = 1000 watt X 1 hour

= 1000 X 3600 watt seconds (or joules)
= 3 600 000 J = 3.6 MJ

Electricity Bill = Electricity (kWh) x tariff rates ($$/kWh)

 Estimating Power Usage (kWh) Using
Manufacturer’s Label

Maximum Power the appliance operates at, which may be

higher than the actual average wattage. Some devices
show a range of watts, such as "200W–300W." It may be
more accurate to choose the middle of this range, or
250W.
Example:
A large window fan rated at 250 watts runs for an
average of 5 hours a day. The fan's daily power
consumption
= (250 watts) x (5 hours / day)
= 1250 watt-hours per day = 1.25 kWh/day
 Electricity Consumption

Electricity cost for different appliances can be calculated

using
the following:
1. Power rating of the electrical appliance and its efficiency
2. Number of hours used
3. The domestic tariff rate per kilowatt - hour (kWh)

Electricity Consumption (kWh)

= Power (watts) x Hours of Operation x 30 days ÷ 1000
 Calculating Your Electric Bill

Pricing & Tariffs (Domestic Consumer)

The Energy Efficiency Label for Electrical
Appliances
Summary of Terms, Units, Symbols &
Relationships
 Summary of Terms, Units, Symbols &
Relationships

➢ Current is the rate of flow of electric charge in a circuit. The term is

often used to describe the flow of electric charge, e.g. ‘a current is
flowing in a circuit’; this is ambiguous but is so common that we have
to accept it.
➢ A source supplies energy to a system.
➢ A load accepts energy from a system.
➢ Electric charge may be either positive or negative. Negative electrons
are free to move around a circuit thus transporting energy from source
to load.
➢ The potential difference across a load indicates in volts the energy
lost per coulomb of charge passing through the load.
➢ Since the current is the rate of flow, its product with the voltage gives
the rate of energy transmission, i.e. the power.
➢ Resistance is a measure of the opposition to the flow of charge
through a load.
➢ Ohm’s law states that the ratio of voltage to current is constant,
provided other physical factors such as temperature remain
unchanged.