ES -112 Basic Electronics (Theory)

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Recommended Books
• Principles of electronics by V. K. Mehta

• Introductory Electronic Devices and Circuits, Robert T.

Paynter

• Electronic devices by floyd

• Cirovic, M.M., “Basic Electronic Devices, Circuits and

Systems”, Prentice-Hall, Latest Edition.

• Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, by Robert Boleysted,

7th Ed.
ES -112 Basic Electronics (Theory)
Course learning outcomes
Reference books
• Principles of Electronics by V.K.Mehta

• Electronic devices by floyd

 • We are living in an age of Information
Technology.

• Electronics is the basic foundation of this age

of information technology.

• Different types of electronic equipment are

Introduction used by us in our every day life.

• Devices like TV, AC and Telephone e.t.c

• Electronics have made deep impact on our

every day life such as health care,
automobiles, space travels, e.t.c
What is Electronics?

• Electronics

Electron Mechanics

means to study the behavior of electron and the different condition of

applied electric field.
 • Definition
What is • The science dealing with the
development and application of
Electronics? devices and systems involving the
flow of electrons in
semiconductors.
 • Electronic Engineering is an electrical
engineering discipline which utilizes
non-linear and active electrical
Electronic components like diodes, transistors,
Integrated circuits (ICs) to design
Engineering electronic circuits, devices,
microprocessors, microcontrollers and
other systems.
Major Areas of Electronics
• Control Engineering: deals with designing of diverse range of dynamic
systems such as mechanical systems and the design of controllers.
• Instrumentation Engineering: involves design of devices to measure
physical quantities such as pressure ,flow and temperature
• Communication Engineering: deals with transmission of information
across a channel.
• VLSI design Engineering: deals with VLSI design and fabrication of
Integrated Circuits
• Signal Processing: Deals with analysis and manipulation of signals
• etc
 • The material are composed of very small
particles called atom
• There are two basic components in every
atom

Atomic structure
of elements.
• atoms are made up of three particles:
protons, neutrons and electrons
Atomic structure
of elements
 • Protons and neutrons have approximately the same
mass.
• Atoms always have an equal number of protons and
electrons.
• number of protons or electrons in an atom is called
Atomic structure atomic number
of elements. • atomic number = number of protons or electrons in
an atom
• Atomic weight = no: of protons + no: of neutrons
Atomic structure
of elements
Atomic structure
of elements
 • An electron moving around the nucleus
possesses two types of energies .

• kinetic energy due to its motion and potential

energy due to the charge on the
nucleus.
Atomic structure
of elements • The total energy of the electron is the sum of
these two energies.

• The energy of an electron increases as its

distance from the nucleus increases.
 • The electron in the second orbit possesses more
energy than the electron in the first orbit

• electron in the third orbit has higher energy than in

the second orbit.

• It is clear that electrons in the last orbit possess very

Atomic structure high energy as compared to the electrons in the inner
of elements orbits.

• The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are

known as valence electrons.

• Areas of space in which electrons move around the

nucleus are called energy level
 • The valence electrons of different materials possess different
energies. The greater the energy of a valence electron, the
lesser it is bound to the nucleus.

• The valence electrons which are very loosely attached to the

nucleus are known as free electrons.
Atomic structure
• The free electrons can be easily removed by applying a
of elements small amount of external energy.

• Free electrons which determine the electrical conductivity

of a material.

• On this basis, conductors, insulators and semiconductors can be

defined as under :
 • Solids can be categorized into three
types as far as their conductivity is
concerned,
1. Conductors: have low resistance
which allows electrical current flow
Solid state 2. Insulators: have high resistance
which suppresses electrical current
electronic flow
3. Semiconductors: can allow or
materials suppress electrical current flow
• The primary parameter used to
distinguish among these materials is
the resistivity ρ, with units of Ω·cm.
Solid Materials’ resistivity table

Materials Resistivity ( Ω· cm)

Insulators ρ>105
Semiconductors 10−3 < ρ < 105
Conductors ρ<10−3
 • Good conductors have low resistance
so electrons flow through them with
ease.
• Best element conductors include:
• Copper, silver, gold, aluminum, &
nickel
Conductors • Alloys are also good conductors:
• Brass & steel
• Good conductors can also be liquid:
• Salt water
 • The atomic structure of good conductors
usually includes only one electron in their
outer shell.
• It is called a valence electron.
• It is easily striped from the atom, producing
Conductor current flow.
Atomic
Structure

Copper
Atom
 • Insulators have a high resistance so
current does not flow in them.
• Good insulators include:
• Glass, ceramic, plastics, & wood
• Most insulators are compounds of
several elements.
Insulators • The atoms are tightly bound to one
another so electrons are difficult to strip
away for current flow.
 • Semiconductors are at the heart of almost every
electronic system in use today, from your washing
machine to the space shuttle.

• Semiconductors are materials that essentially can

be conditioned to act as good conductors, or good
insulators, or any thing in between.
Semiconductors
• Historically, germanium was one of the first
semiconductors to be used but almost replaced by
silicon now.

• Why Silicon is preferred over germanium? (Home

work?
 • Semiconductor materials can be Elemental
(consisting of a single type of atom) or compound
(containing more than one atoms to form a
compound).

• Compound semiconductors can be formed from

combinations of elements from columns III and V or
columns II and VI.
Semiconductors
• The compound semiconductor materials gallium
arsenide (GaAs) and indium phosphide (InP) are the
most important material for optoelectronic
applications, including light-emitting diodes (LEDs),
lasers, and photodetectors.
Semiconductors
 Energy Levels:
• We know that outer orbit
electrons possess more energy
than the inner orbit electrons.
Energy band:
• The range of energies possessed
Energy level by an electron in a solid is known
and diagram as energy band.

for solids
 There important energy band are
• Valance band (VB)
• Conduction band (CB)
• Valence band. The range of energies
(i.e. band) possessed by valence
Energy level electrons is known as valence band.
and diagram
for solids
Energy level
and diagram
for solids
 • Insulators: Insulators (e.g. wood, glass etc.) are
those substances which do not allow the passage
of electric current through them.
• In terms of energy band, the valence band is full
while the conduction band is empty.
• The energy gap between valence and conduction
bands is very large (~ 15 eV) as shown in Fig.
• Therefore, a very high electric field is required to
Classification push the valence electrons to the conduction
band.
of Solids and • At room temperature, the valence electrons of
the insulators do not have enough energy to cross
over to the conduction band.
Energy Bands • An insulator has negative temperature coefficient
of resistance.
 • Conductors. Conductors (e.g. copper, aluminium) are those
substances which easily allow the passage of electric current
through them.
• It is because there are a large number of free electrons
available in a conductor.
• In terms of energy band, the valence and conduction bands
Classification overlap each other as shown in Fig. Due to this overlapping, a
slight potential difference across a conductor causes the free

of Solids and electrons to constitute electric current.

Energy Bands
 • Semicondutors. Semiconductors (e.g. germanium, silicon etc.) are those
substances whose electrical conductivity lies in between conductors and
insulators.
• In terms of energy band, the valence band is almost filled and conduction
band is almost empty.
• Further, the energy gap between valence and conduction bands is very
small as shown in Fig.
• Therefore, comparatively smaller electric field (smaller than insulators
but much greater than conductors) is required to push the electrons from

Classification •
the valence band to the conduction band.
A semiconductor has:

of Solids and •
•
(a) almost full valence band
(b) almost empty conduction band

Energy Bands • (c) small energy gap(:::'. 1 eV) between valence and conduction
bands.

•At low temperature, the valence band is completely full and

conduction band is completely empty. Therefore, a semiconductor
virtually behaves as an insulator at low temperatures

.
 Classification
of Solids and
Energy Bands
 • The unique capability of semiconductor atoms is their ability
to combine together to form a physical structure called a
crystal structure.

• The atoms combine together with one another sharing their

valence electrons.

• This combination are called covalent bonds.

Bonds in • Silicon crystal formed by covalent bonds.

Semiconductors
 Bonds in
Semiconductors
• The semiconductor is divided into two types.
• The pure form of the semiconductor is known as
the intrinsic semiconductor.
• The semiconductor in which intentionally
impurities is added for making it conductive is
known as the extrinsic semiconductor.
 • Doping
• To make the semiconductor conduct electricity, other atoms
called impurities must be added. This process is called doping.
• An impurity, or element like arsenic, has 5 valence electrons.
• Adding arsenic (doping) will allow four of the arsenic valence
N-type electrons to bond with the neighboring silicon atoms.
• The one electron left over for each arsenic atom becomes
Semiconductor available to conduct current flow.
• Impurities, such as arsenic, that free up electrons (negative
charges) to move through a semiconductor are called donor
dopants
• You can also dope a semiconductor material with an
atom such as boron that has only 3 valence electrons.
• The 3 electrons in the outer orbit do form covalent
bonds with its neighboring semiconductor atoms as
before. But one electron is missing from the bond.
• This place where a fourth electron should be is
referred to as a hole.
• The hole assumes a positive charge so it can attract
electrons from some other source.
• Impurities, such as boron, that free up holes (positive
charges) to move through a semiconductor are called
acceptor .
 • If you use lots of arsenic atoms for
doping, there will be lots of extra
electrons so the resistance of the
material will be low and current will
flow freely.
Resistance • If you use only a few arsenic atoms,
Effects of there will be fewer free electrons so
the resistance will be high and less
Doping current will flow.
• By controlling the doping amount,
virtually any resistance can be
achieved.
Based on the impurities present in extrinsic
semiconductors they are classified in to two categories
• N-type semiconductors
• P – Type semiconductor