PRACTICAL RESEARCH

RESEARCH
- Research follows a step-by-step process of investigation that uses a standardized
approach in answering questions or solving problems (Polit & Beck, 2004)
- Research plays an important role in tertiary education (Palapsis, 2004)
- Research is a continuous process of making known the unknown (Sanchez, 2002)
- Research is an investigation following ordered steps leading to a discovery of new
information or concepts (Sanchez, 1999)
- Research is a careful investigation of something that purports the contribution of
additional or new knowledge and wisdom (Bassey, as cited by Coleman and Briggs,

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2002)
- Research is a tested approach that employs validated instruments and steps in order to
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obtain a more adequate solution to a problem (Crawford, as cited by Alcantara, and
Espina, 1995)

CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESEARCH PAPER

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● Systematic
● Objective
● Feasible
● Empirical
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● Clear

ROLES OF A RESEARCHER
According to Nieswiadomy (2005), the researcher serves different roles in a study.
These are as follows:
● As principal investigator
● As member of a research team
● As identifier of researchable problems
● As evaluator of research findings
● As user of research findings
● As patient or client advocate during study
● As subject/respondent/participant
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH
1. It provides scientific basis for any practice or methodology in any field or discipline
2. It is undertaken for continuous development and further productivity in any field
3. It helps develop tools for assessing effectiveness of any practice and operation
4. It provides solution to problems concerning almost all issues encountered in the different
areas of work
5. It impacts decision-making
6. It develops and evaluates alternative approaches to the educational aspects of any
discipline
7. It aims to advance the personal and professional qualifications of a practitioner

GOALS OF CONDUCTING RESEARCH

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● To produce evidence-based practice.
● To establish credibility in the profession.
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●
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To observe accountability for the profession.
To promote cost-effectiveness through documentation.

GENERAL FORMS OF RESEARCH

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● SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
- Method that seeks to explain naturally occurring phenomena in the natural world
by generating credible theories
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- Manifests a systematic process

- Requires rational and statistical evidence to draw conclusions

● RESEARCH IN HUMANITIES
- Seeks to define purpose of human experience by tapping into historical facts and
future possibilities
- Derives explanations from human experiences that cannot simply be measured
by facts and figures
 ● ARTISTIC
- Conducting practical methods as substitutes for fundamental and theoretical
ones.
- Generates new knowledge through artistic practices such as defining concepts
- Creates new processes and devises new methods.

RESEARCH DESIGNS

ACTION RESEARCH
- Identifies problem and determines a plan of action
- The action plan is implemented and determines the effects
- Data gathered is analyzed and evaluated.

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- Appropriate for community-based studies and researchers must directly relate
with his/her subjects in the community.

CAUSAL DESIGN
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- Explores how specific change impacts certain situations.
- Employs hypotheses that seek to establish a cause-and-effect relationship
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between variables.
- “Variable X caused Y.”

DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
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- Answers who, what, when, where, and how questions related to a particular
problem.
- Obtains information about the present situation to gain understanding of a
specific phenomena.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
- Researcher controls the factors and variables related to a certain phenomena.
- Manipulates one or several factors to determine the possible effects.
EXPLORATORY DESIGN
- Focuses on topics or problems which have had little or no studies done about
them.
- To gain information and insight that can be used for later researches
- Determine method or approach for a certain topic or problem

COHORT DESIGN
- Identifies a group of people sharing common characteristics who are then studied
for a period of time.
- Seeks to identify how these groups are affected by certain factors and relates to
the research problem.

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CROSS-SECTIONAL DESIGN
- Looks into a large group of people with varied traits
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Determines how they are affected by a certain variable and gathers data at a
specific period of time.

LONGITUDINAL DESIGN
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- Follows a group of people for a long period of time.
- Observations are made to track changes over time and identify factors that may
have caused them.
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SEQUENTIAL DESIGN
- Carried out in stages to gather sufficient data to test the hypothesis
- Combined with cohort or cross-sectional study as it identifies specific groups for
each stage.

MIXED-METHOD DESIGN
- Combines qualitative and quantitative research methods to gain a complete
picture of the research problem.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES

1. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
- Quantitative researchers gather empirical evidence that is within the realm of the
senses. The method used in the analysis of data is usually statistical in nature.
Thus, resulting information from the study is usually quantitative or measurable.

2. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
- Qualitative research puts an emphasis on human complexity and man’s ability to
decide and create his/her own experience. This type of research attempts to
explain the human experience with its dynamic, holistic, and individualistic
aspects through the perspective of the individual himself.

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ETHICAL CODES AND POLICIES FOR RESEARCH

1. Honesty
2. Objectivity
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10. Respect for Colleagues
3. Integrity 11. Social Responsibility
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4. Care 12. Non-discrimination
5. Openness 13. Competence
6. Respect for Intellectual Property 14. Legality
7. Confidentiality 15. Human Subject Protection
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8. Responsible Publication

THE RIGHTS OF THE RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS

- The main purpose of a Research is to produce results that would benefit the
stakeholders in the study. Likewise, the participants are crucial elements of the research,
and they have the same rights as the research beneficiaries. Some of the rights of the
research participants are as follows (Trochim, 2006; Smith, 2003; Polit, 2006):

● Voluntary Participation ● Confidentiality

● Informed Consent ● Anonymity
● Risk of Harm
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
- This type of research focuses on gaining insights and understanding about an
individual’s perception and interpretation of events.

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

1. It is conducted in a systematic and rigorous way. However, it is more flexible than the
quantitative.
2. It usually follows an iterative process
3. It focuses on gathering information from people who can provide the richest insights into
the phenomenon of interest
4. Its collection of data is continuous until saturation

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5. It examines everyday life in its natural context or in an uncontrolled naturalistic setting

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

● PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY
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- It seeks to find the essence or structure of an experience by explaining how
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complex meanings are built out of simple units of inner experience.

● ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY
- It involves the collection and analysis of data about cultural groups or minorities.
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● HISTORY STUDY
- Is concerned with the identification, location, evaluation, and synthesis of data
from past events.

SOURCES OF DATA FOR A HISTORICAL STUDY

a. DOCUMENTS - printed materials that can be found in libraries, archives,
or personal collections.
b. RELICS AND ARTIFACTS - physical remains or objects from a certain
historical period.
c. ORAL REPORTS - information that is passed on by word of mouth.
 CLASSIFICATION OF DATA SOURCES
a. PRIMARY SOURCES - materials providing first-hand information
b. SECONDARY SOURCES - second-hand information such as an account
based on an original source

The validity of materials used in the study are assessed through the following
processes:
a. INTERNAL CRITICISM - this involves establishing the authenticity or
originality of the materials by looking at the consistency of information.
b. EXTERNAL CRITICISM - this is based on the analysis of the material: the
link and the type of paper used, the layout and physical appearance, and
as well as the age and texture of the material itself.

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● CASE STUDY

●
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GROUNDED THEORY
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It is an in-depth examination of an individual, groups of people, or an institution.

- This method involves comparing collected units of data against one another until
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categories, properties, and hypotheses that state relations between these
categories and properties emerge.

● NARRATIVE ANALYSIS
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- The main source of data for this type of research are the life accounts of
individuals based on their personal experiences.

TYPES OF NARRATIVE ANALYSIS

a. Psychological
b. Biographical
c. Discourse Analysis

● CRITICAL QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

- It seeks to bring about change and empower individuals by describing and
critiquing the social, cultural, and psychological perspectives on present-day
contexts.
 ● POSTMODERN RESEARCH
- It seeks to analyze the facts that have been established as truths.

● BASIC INTERPRETIVE QUALITATIVE STUDY

- This is used when a researcher is interested in identifying how individuals give
meaning to a situation

STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF A QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES

● Its requirement of only few cases or ● Its incapability to maintain, assess,

individuals for data collection and demonstrate inflexibility
● Its usefulness in describing complex ● It produces very specific results

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phenomena leading to misunderstanding or
● Its detailed and in-depth analysis of inapplicability
issues ● It creates distraction to the subject’s
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●
information
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Its ability to provide individual case

Its capability to conduct cross-case

comparisons and analysis
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responses just by the presence of the
researcher
It presents problems on issues of
anonymity and confidentiality
● It makes quantitative predictions
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difficult to do
● It involves large participant pools
making hypothesizing and theorizing
difficult
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RESEARCH TITLE

- A Research Title prefaces the study by providing a summary of the main idea and
usually short and concise.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESEARCH TITLE

A Research Title should:
1. Summarize the main idea of the paper;
2. Be a concise statement of the main topic;
3. Include the major variables of the research study;
4. Be self explanatory; and
 5. Describe of imply the participants of the study.

RESEARCH PROBLEM
- It states the area of concern of the research paper whether it is a circumstance needing
development, a difficulty requiring attention, or an inquiry necessitating an answer.
- It sets the direction of the research study as it provides the foundation for the research
hypothesis and defines what kind of research study is suitable to address the problem.

SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS

Research problems can be commonly based on circumstances with the following
characteristics:
1. It conveys a feeling of discomfort or difficulty.

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2. It has perceived difficulty in broad subjects such as family affairs, home management,
and leadership system.

students see and observe.

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3. It displays a gap between theory and practice: what is said by the elders and what the

4. It utilizes a procedure requiring technologically advanced equipment.

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5. It involves the experience of any kind of individual.
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6. It shows me some kind of pattern or trend.
7. It makes use of literature review, continuous readings, and past studies.
● Replication referst to the repetition of prior research study in a different setting
and time.
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8. It relates to an individual’s curiosity and trend.

FORMULATING RESEARCH PROBLEM

Barrientos-Tan (1997) discussed the different criteria for choosing a problem for research.
These are as follows:

1. EXTERNAL CRITERIA
a. Novelty - practical value of the problem
b. Availability of Subjects - people with desired capability and willingness to
participate in the study
c. Support of the academic community - assistance given by the members of the
institution
 d. Availability and adequacy of facilities and equipment - devices used in
undertaking the study
e. Ethical considerations - avoidance of research problems that pose unethical
demands

2. INTERNAL CRITERIA
a. Experience, training, and qualifications of the researcher - researcher’s
knowledge and expertise
b. Motivation, interest, intellectual curiosity, and perceptiveness of the researcher -
essential attitudes that bring anticipated satisfaction or enjoyment in the
completion of research tasks
c. Time factor - time frame of the study

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d. Cost and returns - amount of funding needed
e. Hazards, penalties, and handicaps - researcher’s physical and intellectual
capacity and moral judgement.

OUTLINE OF RESEARCH
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CHAPTER 1: THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND
a. Introduction, Background of the Study
b. Statement of the Problem
c. Scope and Delimitation
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d. Significance of the Study

e. Hypothesis of the Study
f. Assumptions of the Study
g. Definition of Terms

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE (THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK)

a. Review of Related Literature
b. Review of Related Studies

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

a. Research Design
b. Respondents of the Study
 c. Instrument of the Study
d. Validity and Reliability
e. Statistical Treatment

CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

a. Presentation of Data
b. Analysis
c. Interpretation
d. Discussion

CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

a. Summary of Findings

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b. Conclusion
c. Recommendation

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND ITS BACKGROUND

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I. INTRODUCTION
- It is important in establishing the cognitive setting of the research.

ELEMENTS OF THE INTRODUCTION

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a. Rationale - the reasons of the conduct and also narrates incidences from
international to local scenarios.
b. Setting - the distinctive characteristics of the geographical location of the place
where the study is to be conducted.
c. Literature Foundation - the definition and the description of the major variables
must be done through analyzing literatures
d. Urgency - must be proven by citing statistical evidences
e. General Objective - general statement of the problem
f. General Purpose - benefit or significance of the study

II. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

- It is the heart of the paper - the statement of the general and the specific problems.
WRITING THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM IN A QUALITATIVE STUDY
Creswell and Clark (2014) provide the following criteria in writing the purpose statement:

● General Statement of the Problem (Central Questions)

1. It should use single and not compound sentences
2. It should clearly express the purpose of the study
3. It should include the central phenomenon
4. It should use qualitative words
5. It should identify the participants in the study
6. It should state the research site

● Specific Statement of the Problem (Sub-Questions)

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1. It must be in question form.
2. It must define the population and the samples of the study.

TYPE OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS

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3. It must identify the variables being studied.

1. Non-researchable questions - these are questions of values and are answerable

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by yes or no.
2. Researchable questions - these are questions of opinion, perceptions, or policy
that are raised to accumulate data.
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CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. Factor-isolating questions - these questions are called factor-naming questions
because they isolate, categorize, describe, or name factors and situations.
2. Factor-relating questions - the goal of these questions is to determine the
relationship among factors that have been identified.
3. Situation-relating questions - these questions usually yield hypothesis testing or
experimental designs in which the researchers manipulate the variables to see
what will happen.
4. Situation-producing questions - these questions establish explicit goals for
actions, develop plans or prescriptions to achieve goals, and specify the
conditions under which these goals will be accomplished.
III. SCOPE AND DELIMITATION

A. SCOPE OF THE STUDY

- Is determined primarily by the selection of variables that the research study will
focus on.

● Variable - it refers to any characteristic that can have different values or traits that
may vary across research participants.
● Attributes - it refers to the value assigned to a specific variable

CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIABLES
1. Dependence - this refers to how the variable is considered in a cause-and-effect

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relationship.
a. Independent Variables - are those characteristics that are changed,
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manipulated, or selected by the researcher.
b. Dependent Variables - are those that change because of changes to the
independent variable.
2. Mutually Exclusive - this means that a participant or respondent cannot possess
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two attributes of a variable.
3. Exhaustive - this means that the researcher shoul consider all possible attributes
of a certain value
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KIND OF VARIABLES
1. Continuous variables - have an infinite number of values and may vary widely
among the research participants.
2. Discrete variables - have specific limits to their value
3. Categorical variables - these cannot be expressed in numbers but are given in
non-quantitative, descriptive terms.

B. DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY

- Describes the various limitations that arose during the design and conduct of the
study.
 POSSIBLE LIMITATIONS
● FROM RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY:
1. Sample Size
2. Lack of available and/or reliable data
3. Lack of prior studies
4. Chosen data collection method
5. Nature of the information collected

● FROM THE CHARACTERISTICS AND EXPERIENCES OF THE

RESEARCHER:
1. Access
2. Time Period

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3. Bias
4. Language

IV. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

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Should clearly discuss the purpose that the research will serve to society, the
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country, the government, the institution or agent concerned, the curriculum
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planners and developers, and the research community.

CHAPTER 2: THE REVIEW PROCESS

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REVIEW OF LITERATURE
- The Review of Literature is the process of compiling, classifying, and evaluating what
other researchers have written on a certain topic.

PURPOSES OF REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The review of literature is a crucial aspect of research and serve the following purposes:
1. It helps in placing the work being reviewed in its context
2. It describes the relationship of each work to the research being undertaken
3. It identifies new ways to interpret and shed light ot various gaps based on previous
researches.
4. It helps in solving conflicts among seemingly contradictory previous studies.
 5. It points to another research undertaking.

STEPS IN REVIEWING
The review of related literature/studies is a systematic process composed of three steps:
1. Finding Relevant Materials
2. Actual Reading
3. Note-Taking

TYPES OF READING
The investigator’s reading skills are essential in conducting the review of literature. In the book,
Research in Nursing, Wilson (1990) identifies four types of reading:
1. Elementary Reading

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2. Systematic Skimming
3. Analytic Reading
4. Comparative Reading

STRATEGIES IN READING
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There are three strategies in reading.
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1. Previewing
2. Highlighting
3. Annotating
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I. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

- It examines facts and principles from other resources that are related to the
present study.
● Books
● Encyclopedias
● Published Journals
● Newspaper and Magazines

- It serves to clarify the different variables being studied.

● Major Variable - is the central idea of the entire literature
● Sub-variable - helps specify which particular aspect of the major variable
is being referred to.
 ● Indicators - are specific information that describes the sub-variables

- It does not only restate facts but rather critique and highlight their relevance to
the research.

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF A LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Overview of the subject or topic, issues, or theories to be considered.
2. Explanation of the comparison of the gathered literature
3. Conclusion and the best arguments

STAGES OBSERVED IN WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Problem Formulation

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2. Literature Search
3. Data Evaluation
4. Analysis and Interpretation

FORMAT OF LITERATURE REVIEW

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1. Introduction
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2. Body
3. Conclusion

CONSIDERATIONS IN CHOOSING A LITERATURE

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1. Provenance
2. Objectivity
3. Persuasiveness
4. Value

II. REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES

- It is an essential part of the planning and research stage of the study
- It serves as the basis of the analysis of results because it allows the researcher
to compare and contrast his/her findings with those of past studies
- The gathered studies are related to the present study when they have the
following similarities:
1. They have the same variables, sub-variables, concepts, or construct
 2. They have the same subject or topic

- In writing a review of a related study, the following data must be indicated:

1. The name of the author, the date, and the setting of the study
2. The title
3. The salient findings

STYLES OF RESEARCH WRITING

1. Modern Language Association
2. American Psychological Association
3. Chicago Style and Turabian Style

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