ADULT LEARNING THEORIES

Experiential Learning (Kolb)

• Building upon earlier work by John Dewey and Kurt Levin, American
educational theorist David A. Kolb believes “learning is the process
whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience”
(1984, p. 38).

• The theory presents a cyclical model of learning, consisting of four stages

shown below. One may begin at any stage, but must follow each other in
the sequence:

concrete experience (or “DO”)

reflective observation (or “OBSERVE”)
abstract conceptualization (or “THINK”)
active experimentation (or “PLAN”)
Experiential Learning (Kolb)
• Kolb’s four-stage learning cycle shows how experience is translated
through reflection into concepts, which in turn are used as guides for
active experimentation and the choice of new experiences.

• The first stage, concrete experience (CE), is where the learner actively
experiences an activity such as a lab session or field work.

• The second stage, reflective observation (RO), is when the learner

consciously reflects back on that experience.

• The third stage, abstract conceptualization (AC), is where the learner

attempts to conceptualize a theory or model of what is observed.

• The fourth stage, active experimentation (AE), is where the learner is

trying to plan how to test a model or theory or plan for a forthcoming
experience.
 Kolb identified four learning styles which correspond to these stages. The
styles highlight conditions under which learners learn better. These styles
are:

• Assimilators who learn better when presented with sound logical theories
to consider

• Convergers who learn better when provided with practical applications of

concepts and theories

• Accommodators who learn better when provided with “hands-on”

experiences

• Divergers, who learn better when allowed to observe and collect a wide
range of information
 Conscious competence learning model - stages of
learning - unconscious incompetence to unconscious
competence

• The conscious competence model is a useful reminder of the need to

learn, and train others, in stages.

• The learner or trainee always begins at stage 1 - 'unconscious

incompetence', and ends at stage 4 - 'unconscious competence', having
passed through stage 2 - 'conscious incompetence' and - 3 'conscious
competence'.
 Conscious competence learning matrix

Unconscious Incompetence
• The individual does not understand or know how to do something and
does not necessarily recognize the deficit.

• They may deny the usefulness of the skill.

• The individual must recognize their own incompetence, and the value of
the new skill, before moving on to the next stage.

• The length of time an individual spends in this stage depends on the

strength of the stimulus to learn.
Conscious Incompetence
• Though the individual does not understand or know how to do something,
he or she does recognize the deficit, as well as the value of a new skill in
addressing the deficit. The making of mistakes can be integral to the
learning process at this stage.

Conscious Competence
• The individual understands or knows how to do something. However,
demonstrating the skill or knowledge requires concentration. It may be
broken down into steps, and there is heavy conscious involvement in
executing the new skill.

Unconscious Competence
• The individual has had so much practice with a skill that it has become
"second nature" and can be performed easily. As a result, the skill can be
performed while executing another task. The individual may be able to
teach it to others, depending upon how and when it was learned.
Fifth Stage
• The model is expanded by some users to include a fifth stage, which is not
part of the original model from Gordon Training International. The exact
composition of this stage varies between authors. Some refer to reflective
ability, or "conscious competence of unconscious competence", as being
the fifth stage, while others use the fifth stage to indicate complacency
• Linda Gilbert :

Responding to inquiry about "fifth stage of learning model“ I've heard of

one that belongs - I think it was called "re-conscious competence." It
indicates a stage where you can operate with fluency yourself on an
instinctive level, but are ALSO able to articulate what you are doing for
yourself and others. That stage takes attention to process at a
meta-cognitive level. Many people never reach it - we all know experts
who can't tell you how they're doing what they're doing. (Linda Gilbert,
Ph.D., May 2004)
 Honey and Mumford's learning cycle

• Having an experience

• Reflecting on it

• Drawing their own conclusions (theorizing)

• Putting their theory into practice to see what happens

 Felder-Silverman Learning Style Model
This model classifies trainees as:
• sensing learners concrete, practical, oriented toward facts and procedures
or intuitive learners; conceptual, innovative, oriented toward theories and
meanings
• visual learners prefer visual representations of presented
material--pictures, diagrams, flow charts or verbal learners; prefer written
and spoken explanations
• inductive learners prefer presentations that proceed from the specific to
the general; or deductive learners; prefer presentations that go from the
general to the specific
• active learners learn by trying things out, working with others or reflective
learners; learn by thinking things through, working alone
• sequential learners linear, orderly, learn in small incremental steps or
global learners; holistic, systems thinkers, learn in large leaps
 The VARK Category Model
Visual (V):
• Includes depiction of information in maps, spider diagrams, charts, graphs,
flow charts, labeled diagrams, and all the symbolic arrows, circles,
hierarchies and other devices, that people use to represent what could
have been presented in words.

• It does NOT include still pictures or photographs of reality, movies, videos

or PowerPoint. It does include designs, whitespace, patterns, shapes and
the different formats that are used to highlight and convey information.

• When a trainer moves to the whiteboard and draws a diagram with

meaningful symbols for the relationship between different things that will
be helpful for those with a Visual preference.
Aural / Auditory (A):
• This perceptual mode describes a preference for information that is
"heard or spoken."

• Trainees with this as their main preference report that they learn best
from lectures, group discussion, radio, email, using mobile phones,
speaking, web-chat and talking things through.

• Email is included here because; although it is text and could be included in

the Read/write category (below), it is often written in chat-style with
abbreviations, colloquial terms, slang and non-formal language. This
preference includes talking out loud as well as talking to oneself .
Read/write (R):
• This preference is for information displayed as words.

• This preference emphasizes text-based input and output - reading and

writing in all its forms but especially essays, reports and assignments.

• People who prefer this modality are often addicted to PowerPoint, the
Internet, lists, diaries, dictionaries, quotations and words

• Note that most PowerPoint presentations and the Internet, GOOGLE and
Wikipedia are essentially suited to those with this preference as there is
seldom an auditory channel or a presentation that uses Visual symbols as
described above.
Kinesthetic (K):
• By definition, this modality refers to the "perceptual preference related to
the use of experience and practice (simulated or real).“

• The key is that people who prefer this mode are connected to reality,
"either through concrete personal experiences, examples, practice or
simulation" [Fleming & Mills, 1992, pp. 140-141].

• Includes demonstrations, simulations, videos and movies of "real" things,

as well as case studies, practice and applications. The key is the reality or
concrete nature of the example
Perception
Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret
their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their
environment.
 Perception Process
Stimulus

Registration

Interpretation

Feedback

Consequence
How two employees perceive the same situation in work place differently?

“They must be talking and

laughing about me !”

“They are so friendly and smiling!”

 Why Managers study Perception?

Following are the biases perceived by managers:

a. People do not want to work; they have to be controlled or motivated

b. Happy workers are always productive workers
c. People’s emotions guide them more than logic
d. Effective leaders are fair but micro-managers

Managers must judge their perceptions before jumping to conclusions.

Dynamics of Perception
 Basic Perceptual Process (Singh, K.)

Environmental Stimuli
Observation

Perceptual Selection Taste

Smell
Hearing
External Factors Internal Factor Sight
Touch
Size Personality
Intensity Learning
Contrast Motivation Perceptual Organization/
Motion
Repetition Grouping
Novelty Continuity
Familiarity Closure
Proximity
Interpretation

Perceptual Errors Attribution Response

Perceptual Defence Internal External Covert Attitude, Feeling
Halo Effect Learning
Projection etc. Overt Behaviour
 Perceptual Selection

Process by which people filter out most stimuli so that the most
important ones can be attained to.

External Factors:
▪ Size (larger size )
▪ Intensity(loud colours)
▪ Contrast (Black-white)
▪ Motion (Neon/ Display Advertisements)
▪ Repetition
▪ Novelty-Familiarity
CONTRAST
 Perceptual Selection cont…

Internal Factors

▪ Personality

▪ Learning (Tend to perceive as per your specialization: Engineer/MBA)

 Perceptual Organization
• Process by which people group environmental stimuli into recognizable
patterns

• Gestalt principles
– Figure-ground
When perceiving a visual field, some objects (figures) seem prominent, and
other aspects of field recede into the background (ground)
 Perceptual Organization

– Proximity
I. We tend to perceive objects that are close to each other as forming a
group.
II. Even if four people in a section of a building leave jobs even for different
reasons, people will perceive the ‘resignation has been due to common
reason like low morale, low pay etc’.
– Similarity
I. We tend to perceive objects that are similar to each other as forming a
group.
II. Company visitors may wear yellow hats while employees wear white
hats.
 Perceptual Organization
– Continuity
We tend to perceive smoothly flowing or continuous forms rather than
disrupted of discontinuous ones. Tendency to perceive continuity may
result in an inability to perceive change.
In business forecasting a common continuity error is to assume that the
future will be a simple continuation of current trends.
– Closure
We tend to perceptually close up, or complete, objects that are not, in fact,
complete
Managers from their experience often “fill in missing pieces” when
information is not available in totality.
Continuity

35
Closure
 The Absolute Threshold

The lowest level at which an individual can experience a sensation is called

the absolute threshold. The point at which a person can detect a
difference between “something” and “nothing” is that person’s absolute
threshold for that stimulus.
People who smoke cigarette no longer notice the odour of cigarette
 The Differential threshold

The minimal difference that can be detected between two similar stimuli
is called the differential threshold or the just noticeable difference.

Marketing Applications…
 Subliminal Perception
People are motivated below their level of conscious awareness.

They can perceive stimuli without being consciously aware that they
are doing so. This process is called subliminal perception because the
stimulus is beneath the threshold
Person Perception: Fundamental Errors
Perceptual Defense: Defensive against ideas that are threatening to belief
system

Stereotyping: Doctors always give unnecessary medical tests; an honest teacher

has to be a very poor man.

Halo Effect: Excellent Attendance of an employee means s/he is also productive.

Horns Effect: When deficiency of a person is identified in the beginning itself.

Projection: People perceive their own traits in others; E.g. Employee frightened by
organizational change may judge others to be more frightened than him or her.

Expectancy Effects: Prior expectations bias perception.

For e.g. your perception about a committee can be positive if your boss tells you
that ‘the committee is filled up with talented people’ or your perception can be
negative if your boss had told you that ‘the committee is only filled with people
having political reasons’.
 Attribution Process

Manner in which people come to understand the cause of Behaviour

▪ Internal –versus-External Causes

THANK YOU!