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Research Problems and Methods in Teaching English as a Second Language

Brian A. Vasquez
University of the Visayas
crpd@uv.edu.ph; brianquez@gmail.com

Abstract

This article explores potential research topics and methods in teaching English as
a second language. It introduces Evidence Based Practice (EBP) in English language
teaching. EBP grounded the need to conduct research to improve practice. The
identified researchable topics are clustered in terms of: (1) instructions; (2) affective
and behavioral concerns; and (3) technology. The research methods explored are: (1)
narrative research; (2) ethnography; (3) phenomenology; and (4) grounded theory.
This paper is aimed to provide English teachers in exploring scholarly investigations in
the domain of English language teaching for second language learners.

Keywords: research problems, research Methods, English language teaching

Introduction
Vasquez (2012a&b) cited that the third millennium brought the countries
around the world to globalization directing most nations in learning a universal
language for competitiveness (Engram & Sasaki, 2003). He further claimed that
almost all non-English speaking nations are trying to make their people learn English
as their second language. This is because English is considered as the international
language (Fleury, 2011). Proficiency in English makes it easy for individuals to
o u i ate ith the ajorit of the orld’s popula e. “i e it is ot possi le to
learn all the languages, the need to learn a universal language is necessary.
This paper will concentrate on issues concerning students learning English as a
second language. They are identified by the American Federation of Teachers (2002)
in the AFT Policy Brief Number 14 as: (1) English-language learners (ELL); or (2)
students with limited-English proficiency (LEP). These learners require the best
assistance they can get. This can only be addressed with good empirical evidence
drawn from scholarly researches. Coyne, Kami'enui & Carnine (2011) pointed the
need for researches to improve the instruction for English language learners. They
claim that when English class instruction is given to them, identical to those who
already use English as their lingua franca, they: (1) struggle; (2) become stunned; (3)

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cerebrally cease to pay attention; and/or (4) pull out to participate in class activities
(Gersten, 1999; Gersten & Woodward, 1994).
With the increasing number of non-English-speaking students, challenges occur.
These challenges have been observed to be not exhaustively explored. This
confronts the need to produce empirical and theoretical studies necessary to
develop, refine and expand the body of knowledge or practice (Polit & Beck, 2008,
2012). With these explorations, essential actions will attend to the present concerns
and improve practice.
This paper will reconnoiter research problems in teaching English as a second
language. Furthermore, it will enumerate methods that can be useful in answering
the domain of inquiries.

Evidence-Based Practice (EBP) in Teaching English as a Second Language

Before I present the different researchable topics and methods in teaching
English as a second language, I would like to start my discussion by introducing the
concept of Evidence Based Practice (EBP). This concept is a very good foundation
before commencing any research work. EBP has been utilized in most clinical and
health care professions (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 2013; Polit
& Beck, 2012). This has been very helpful in improving practices in various
service-oriented disciplines. I will borrow this concept and repackage its application
to make it relevant in English language teaching.

Figure 1. EBP Triad

I the EBP triad, oth the pra titio er’s

e perie e a d lie tele’s prefere e a e
explored through research (Houser, 2009). In each
pillar, research is at all times implicated.

The definitive goal of EBP is to efficiently provide and conscientiously utilize the
best evidence for application in practice. Houser (2008) identified the triad of EBP (1)
best s ie tifi e ide e; pra titio er’s e perie e; a d lie tele’s prefere e.
The best scientific evidences are the result of empirical researches ranging from
des ripti e studies to e peri e tatio . The pra titio er’s e perie e refers to the

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consensus statement from the panel of experts or practice groups. The lie tele’s
preference refers to the acceptability of the evidence to the clientele. Each one is
considered a pillar in EBP. Without one, EBP will not be effective. One must realize
that the best scientific evidence shall be accepted and delivered by the practitioner.
However, it cannot also be put into practice when it is not acceptable among the
clientele.
Polit and Beck (2008) presented the hierarchy of scientific evidence in EBP. The
lowest form of evidence is the opinion of experts that are not based from researches.
When researches are unavailable, practitioners tend to seek recommendations from
authorities. Those that are already practiced are subjected to descriptive and
qualitative studies. In reality, researchers tend to conduct higher form of
researches without good basis for lower form of researches. This is not
recommended although observed in most practices.
Investigators must realize that higher forms of researches necessitate
requirements or prerequisites which can only be derived in conducting lower forms
(Berg, 2001). For example, in doing observational or non-experimental studies (e.g.
correlational studies) theoretical or conceptual frameworks are essential. We only
commence observational studies when there are already available literatures to
formulate frameworks. In principle, these frameworks are drafted based from
descriptive and qualitative studies. The results of descriptive and qualitative studies
are conceptualizations or theories. Same holds true in conducting experiments.
Aside from the theoretical/conceptual framework requirements, experiments
require a good amount of observational studies to make the procedure safe. The
induction of manipulation (intervention or treatments) requires safety measures
that can only be determined with an enormous amount of available literature.

Figure 2. Hierarchy of Scientific Evidence in EBP

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In between research levels (research types) are systematic reviews. Systematic

reviews are the hallmark for EBP (Johnson & Austin, 2005). There are three forms of
systematic reviews: (1) meta-analysis, a method that integrates quantitative results
statistically (Polit & Beck, 2012); (2) metasynthesis, a method that integrates
qualitative results by synthesizing narrative information (Beck, 2009); and (3) mixed
methods analysis, a method that integrates both quantitative and qualitative results
(Thorne, 2009). The systematic reviews for descriptive quantitative, observational
and experimental studies are meta-analysis. In all forms of systematic reviews, the
units of analysis are the individual studies.
There is a bias in EBP wherein there is high confidence towards results based
from experimentation (Polit & Beck, 2012). It is also logical to claim that those on the
tip of the iceberg are better than those found at the bottom. However, practitioners
must realize that the effectiveness of those discovered on the tip is nourished
sturdily by the foundation which is located in its base. Otherwise, it will theoretically
collapse easily.
Take note that this argument may resolve the quantitative-qualitative debate.
Quantitative researchers argue that qualitative researches are (Lamont & White,
2007; Joy, Sherry, Troilo & Deschenes, 2006; Rook, 2006; Cassell, Buehring, Symon,
Johnson & Bishop, 2005; Camic, Rhodes & Yardley, 2003; Mason, 2002; Westmarland,
2001; Denyer, 2000): (1) invalid; (2) unreliable; (3) nonscientific; (4) subjective; and
(5) unimportant. This is because qualitative researches do not follow highly
restrictive and prescriptive structures. Though qualitative researches are weak in
terms of concepts of control, validity and reliability, a separate set of criteria are
situated to establish its trustworthiness.

Gu a o stru ted: redi ilit , i fa or to internal validity; (2)

transferability, in favor to external validity or generalizability; (3) dependability, in
favor to reliability; and (4) confirmability, in favor to objectivity. Lincoln and Guba
(1985) collectively referred them as trustworthiness with the fifth criterion
authenticity, which is distinctive only to qualitative approach, was added (Guba &
Li ol , .
Vasquez, 2013

It is imperative to note that the division must be seen as a continuum and not a
discontinuity. Wherein, qualitative researches situate in the initial point and
quantitative researches at the end point. This type of framework hopes to put the
debate into an end by putting in mind the objectives. This is to improve the practice

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and break up the normative standards that marginalize the other way of determining
things.

Researchable Topics in Teaching English as a Second Language

A number of researchable topics can be enumerated related to teaching English
as a second language. I am classifying them in three focus areas: (1) instructions; (2)
affective and behavioral concerns; and (3) technology. The matrix presents some
suggested research topics that English teachers can pursue:
Matrix 1. Research Problems in Teaching English as a Second Language
Focus Possible Research Problems or Project Evaluations
Instructions  Benefits of bilingual and multilingual education

 Shortcomings of bilingual and multilingual education

 Transitional English language education

 Assessment and evaluation in the use of English instruction to English-language learners

 Comparing native language instruction and English Language Instruction

 Tea hers’ preparation in teaching English as a second language

 English language immersion for students with limited-English proficiency

 Differentiated instructions for students with limited-English proficiency

Affective and  Students lived-in experiences in learning English as a second language

Behavioral  Teachers lived-in experiences in teaching English as a second language

 Obstacles of students in learning English as a second language

 Emotional state of students in learning English as a second language

 Analysis of teacher-learner interaction

Technology  Effectiveness of teaching aids in teaching English as a second language

 Electronic language portfolios in learning English as a second language

 Digital immersion for teaching English as a second language

Research Methods in Teaching English as a Second Language

Research methods that can be explored ranges from qualitative to quantitative
approaches. However for this paper, I will only explore on the qualitative research
methods for two reasons: (1) quantitative research methods are famous and are
exhaustively presented in books and literature compared to qualitative research
methods; and (2) there are few empirical studies in the domain of teaching English
as a second language which calls for more exploratory, theoretical and descriptive
studies.
I will be presenting four major qualitative research approaches English teachers
can pursue. These are: (1) narrative research; (2) ethnography; (3) phenomenology;
and (4) grounded theory.

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Narrative Research. Jason J. Campbell (2011) in his lecture videos identified

types of narrative inquiries based from John W. Creswell (2007). These are: (1)
biography, an a ou t of a other perso ’s personal life experiences; (2)
autobiography, an account of the researcher’s perso al life experiences; and (3) oral
history, an amalgamation of personal reflections of events and their causes and
effects from one individual or several individuals. Biographies and autobiographies
can be a: (1) life history, an account of the entire life; or (2) personal experience
story, an episodic accounts (single or multiple) of experiences.
Clandinin & Connelly (2000) presented general procedures in conducting
narrative approaches. This must not be taken as dogmatic prescriptions but only
recommendations. These are: (1) determine the domain of inquiry; (2) select the
focus individual or individuals that have stories to tell; (3) collect field texts from the
parti ipa ts’ le s; a al ze the stories a d the restor them into a logical outline;
and (5) collaborate with participant(s) as co-researcher(s).

Ethnography. Ethnography is a study that involves the description and

interpretation of cultural behavior. This approach aims to be aware of a culture that
is communicated and portrayed in the ethnographic report (Polit & Beck, 2012). It
documents both the process of conducting the study and the product which is the
description of the culture.
According to Kenneth Pike (1954, 1955, 1960, revised 1967), there are two
lenses that can be employed in the study of a communal system presenting the
possibility of taking the perspective of either the insider or the outsider. The insiders
are the exclusive adjudicators of the validity of an emic description while the
researchers are the solitary adjudicators of the validity of an etic account. The
outsider perspective (etic, referring to the researcher) examines extrinsic concepts
and categories that have meaning. Both of these perspectives are complementary
(Morris, Leung, Ames & Lickel, 1999) and must be amalgamated in the ethnographic
report (Berry, 1990; Greenfield, 1996; Lytle, Brett, Barsness, Tinsley & Janssens, 1995;
Brett, Tinsley, Janssens, Barsness & Lytle, 1997).
There are different forms of ethnography. These are: (1) performance
ethnography, the performance or interpretation through performing arts (e.g.
theater, music, dance, monologue, poetry and etc.) (Alexander, 2005); (2)
institutional ethnography, the e a i atio of the i stitutio ’s ulture so ial
organization and institutional processes) from the perspective of clients or
front-liners for organizational change (Smith, 1999); and (3) autoethnography, the

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conscientious autobiographic exploration of the introspected self within its cultural

dimension (Ellis & Bochner, 2000).
Creswell (2007) as cited by Campbell (2011) enumerated general guidelines in
conducting ethnographic research. These are: (1) identification of the group of
cultural interest; (2) select a specific and suitable style of ethnography to employ; (3)
recognize patterns within the cultural group of interest; (4) identify the cultural
domains taken from the cultural enablers; (5) field working with continuous
transcription, coding and ethnographic analysis; and (6) formulation of holistic
cultural descriptions.

Phenomenology. Phenomenology explores the relative phenomena in the

belief that significant truths about the subjective reality are founded from those
experiencing it (Polit & Beck, 2012). Furthermore it explores the meaning of the
lived experience from the lens of the actors (embodiment or being-in-the-world).
The goal is to be aware of the phenomenon and the perceptions to which it gives
rise in terms of: (1) spatiality; (2) corporeality; (3) temporality; and (4) relationality.
There are two main schools of thought with numerous subcategories. However, this
paper will only cover the two main categories (Lopez & Willis, 2004): (1) descriptive
phenomenology; and (2) interpretive phenomenology.
Descriptive phenomenology was introduced by Husserl in 1962. Its key feature
is epoch or bracketing. It is isolating in abeyance a priori conceptualizations (Ray,
1985). Though not achieved totally, it attempts to hold what is already known to
confront the information gathered to its pure form (Polit & Beck, 2012). This is aided
with the process called reflexivity (Ahern, 1999). It is clarifying personal values and
identifying biases. It also involves intuiting. It is the process of being open to the
meanings as perceived by the actors. This culminates in understanding, defining and
describing the phenomenon.
Interpretive Phenomenology is first defined by Heidegger in 1962. A student of
Husserl, Heidegger stirred away from into a more interpretative or hermeneutic
philosophy. This form focuses on interpreting and understanding amalgamated with
the descriptions of human experiences. Bracketing is absent in interpretative
phenomenology. However, reflexivity is emphasized and reported for transparency.
This is sometimes aided also with the analysis of supplementary texts (e.g. novels,
poetry, paintings and etc.). The process of analysis involves three principal
ideologies: (1) exploration of the phenomenon from the lens of the participant; (2)
passionate interpretation and engagement with the information provided by the
participant; and (3) cautious examination of details.

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Grounded Theory. Grounded Theory (GT) is a systematic method that accounts

for actions in a substantive area from the perspective of those involved and
culminates in the discovery of the main concern with its basic social processes (Polit
& Beck, 2012). The discovery of the main concern with its basic social processes
comprise the substantive theory. This is then transcended to its more abstract form
(formal theory). Conceptualization is a principal facet of grounded theory (Glaser,
2003). The generated concepts that emerged from data are transcended to
constructs. This occurs when its properties are already identified.
Initial incident sampling includes purposive technique. When initial codes are
identified, theoretical sampling exhausts better conceptualizations. Constant
comparative analysis of incidences helps develop and refine theoretically relevant
concepts and constructs. Commonalities and variations are determined during the
constant comparative analysis and aided with theoretical sampling. Initial coding is
then transcended to memoing when properties of the theory start to emerge.
There are three main schools of thought that can be differentiated: (1) Classical
or Glasserian GT, the original way of doing it (Glasser & Strauss, 2006); (2)
Straussian GT, the more prescriptive way of doing it (Strauss & Corbin, 1990); and
(3) Constructivist GT, the amalgamation of the shared experiences of the participants
and the interpretative analysis of the researcher (Charmaz, 2006).

Conclusion
Numerous researchable topics in Teaching English as a Second Language can be
explored using qualitative research methods. Although quantitative methods sleets
supreme in improving practice, qualitative methods induce relevant
conceptualizations that formulate theoretical foundations necessary in conducting
deductive research approaches. The contributions of qualitative researches are
necessary in EBP and must not be left unrecognized. In improving the practice for
language teaching, both approaches are indispensable. It is a continuum that
facilitates in shaping and improving practice.

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