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TCW3207
DESIGN OF STRUCTURES II

OUTLINE

• Design of reinforced concrete structures to BS

• Masonary Design to BS

TEXTS
Concrete
• MacGinely
• Mosley
• Kong and Evans

General
• Chanakya
• Draycott
• MacKenzie

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REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

INTRODUCTION

BASIS OF DESIGN
The design of reinforced concrete elements to BS 8110 (1997) is based on the limit state
method. The limit state design philosophy focuses on:
(i) Ultimate limit state
(ii) Serviceability limit state
The ultimate limit state models the behaviour of the element at failure due to a variety
of mechanisms including excessive bending, shear and compression or tension. The
serviceability limit state models the behaviour of the member at working loads and in
the context of reinforced concrete design is principally concerned with the limit states
of deflection and cracking. Having identified the relevant limit states, the design
process simply involves basing the design on the most critical one and then checking
for the remaining limit states.

MATERIALS PROPERTIES

The two materials whose properties must be known are concrete and steel
reinforcement. In the case of concrete, the property with which the designer is
primarily concerned is its compressive strength. For steel, however, it is its tensile
strength capacity which is important.

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MATERIAL STRENGTHS
Strength tests are carried out on concrete and steel reinforcement done on near perfect
laboratory specimens, under laboratory conditions. Such conditions will seldom exist in
practice. Therefore it is undesirable to use characteristic strengths (statistical strength) to size
members. The material strength used in design are the characteristics strength as opposite to
the mean strength of the concrete.
To take account of differences between actual and laboratory values, local weaknesses and
inaccuracies in assessment of the resistances of sections, the characteristic strengths ( fk) are
divided by appropriate partial safety factor for strengths (γm), The resulting values are termed
design strengths and it is the design strengths which are used to size members.

CONCRETE
The characteristic and mean strength ( fm) of a sample are related by the expression:

The stress–strain behaviour of concrete is never truly linear and that the maximum
compressive stress at failure is approximately 0.8 × characteristic cube strength (i.e. 0.8fcu).
However, because the actual concrete behaviour is complicated to mathematically model
and, therefore, BS 8110 uses the modified stress–strain curve shown in Fig. 1(b) for design.
This assumes that the peak stress is only 0.67 (rather than 0.8) times the characteristic
strength and hence the design stress for concrete is given by:
Where γmc = 1.50

Whenever concrete fails, it is because of a tensile stresses even under a compressive load.
The internal tensile stresses in the concrete become greater than the tensile strength of the
matrix at the particular point of fracture

a) Concrete compressive stress strain curves b) Concrete compressive stress strain curves (BS. Fig. 2.1)

Figure 1: Concrete compressive stress strain curves

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REINFORCEMENT STEEL
BS 8110 recommends that design should be based on the characteristic strength of the
reinforcement (fy) and gives typical values for mild steel and high yield steel reinforcement, the
two reinforcement types available in the UK, of 250 Nmm−2 and 500 Nmm−2 respectively but in
Zimbabwe we can use of 460 Nmm-2 based on the old BS code. High-yield reinforcement is mostly
used in practice nowadays.
Figure 2: Reinforcement steel
stress/strain curves

a) Actual stress/strain curve

b) Design stress/strain curve

(BS modified)

The change from elastic to plastic behaviour occurs at the yield stress and is significant since it
defines the characteristic strength of reinforcement (fy). The maximum design stress for
reinforcement in tension and compression is given by

LOADING
The loads acting on a structure are divided into three basic types: dead, imposed and
wind. i.e. characteristic dead (Gk), imposed (Qk) and wind (Wk) loads The characteristic
loads are taken to be those given in the following documents:
i. BS 648: Schedule of weights for building materials.
ii. BS 6399: Design loadings for buildings, Part 1: Code of practice for dead and
imposed loads; Part 2: Code of practice for wind loads; Part 3: Code of practice for
imposed roof loads
Variations in the characteristic loads may arise due to a number of reasons such as errors
in the analysis and design of the structure, construction inaccuracies and possible
unusual load increases. In order to take account of these effects, the characteristic loads
(Fk) are multiplied by the appropriate partial safety factor for loads (γf).

Table 1: Values for various load combinations (BS 8110-Table 2.1)

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DURABILITY CONSIDERATIONS
In general, the durability of concrete structures is largely achieved by imposing limits on:
1. the minimum strength class of concrete;
2. the minimum cover to reinforcement;
3. the minimum cement content;
4. the maximum water/cement ratio;
5. the cement type or combination;
6. the maximum allowable surface crack width

Table 2: Nominal cover to all reinforcement to meet specified

periods of fire resistance (based on T 3.4, BS 8110)

Table 3: Classification of exposure conditions (T3.2 BS 8110)

Figure 3: Minimum dimensions of reinforced

concrete members for fire resistance (based on Fig.
3.2, BS 8110).

DESIGN FOR FLEXURE

RC Beam Design

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CLASSIFICATION

Beams in reinforced concrete structures can be defined according to:

1. cross-section
2. position of reinforcement
3. support conditions.
Flexural beam design centres around the moment capacity of the concrete section and
the reinforcement area.

EFFECTIVE SPAN OF BEAMS

(CL 3.4.1.2 )
Beam design calculations must be based on the effective span of the beam. The code
prescribed the conditions for effective spans. For a simply supported beam this should be
taken as the lesser of:
a) the distance between centres of bearings, A, or
b) the clear distance between supports, D, plus the effective depth, d, of the beam (Fig. 4). For
a continuous beam the effective span should normally be taken as the distance between the
centres of supports.

Figure 4: Effective span for simply supported beams

SPAN/EFFECTIVE DEPTH RATIO

Generally, the deflection criteria in (1) and (2) above will be satisfied provided that the
span/effective depth ratio of the beam does not exceed the appropriate limiting values given in
Table 2. The span/effective depth ratio given in the table apply to spans up to 10 m long. Where
the span exceeds 10 m, these ratios should be multiplied by 10/span (except for cantilevers). The
basic ratios may be further modified by factors taken from Tables 2 and 3, depending upon the
amount of compression and tension reinforcement respectively.
Table 3 Modification factors for
Table 2: Basic span/effective depth ratio for
compression reinforcement (T3.11, BS 8110)
rectangular or flanged beams (T3.9, BS 8110)

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ULTIMATE MOMENT RESISTANCE OF

CONCRETE (MU)
For a beam uniformly loaded, maximum design moment (M) occurs at midspan. The beam will
bend and the curvature results in a compressive force in the concrete (Fcc) and tensile force in
the steel (Fst). Because there is no resultant axial force on the beam the beam is in equilibrium:
Fcc = Fst
These two forces are separated by a distance z, which forms a couple (Mu) which opposes the
design moment. For structural stability the moment capacity (Mu) of the concrete section must be
greater than the design moment (M).
Mu = Fccz = Fstz

Figure 5: Singly reinforced concrete stress block

From the stress block

In order to ensure an under-reinforced section BS limits depth of N.A (x) to a maximum

of 0.5d, where d is the effective depth. Hence
x ≤ 0.5d
combining the equations and using mc = 1.5 , then:
Mu = 0.156fcubd2

AREA OF REINFORCEMENT STEEL (AS)

At the limiting condition Mu = M then:

Rearranging and putting γms = 1.05 gives

𝑀
𝐴𝑆 =
0.95𝑓𝑦 𝑧
To obtain the lever arm z, it can be done graphically or using the expression we will derive. Since
the limiting condition is Mu = M

Figure 6: Lever arm graph

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BEAM REINFORCEMENT CLASSES

Under-reinforced beam
It is a beam in which the steel yields before the concrete crushes in compression. Ultimate
resistance of an under-reinforced beam section (fs replaced by fy):

The failure of an under-reinforced beam is characterized

by large steel strains, and hence by extensive cracking
of the concrete and by substantial deflection. The
ductility of such a beam provides ample warning of
impending failure; for this reason, and for economy,
designers usually aim at under-reinforcement.

Figure 7: Strain distribution in an under-reinforced beam section

BEAM REINFORCEMENT CLASSES

Over-reinforced beam
It is a beam in which the concrete strain will reach the ultimate value (and hence the
beam will fail) before the steel strain reaches yield value. The ultimate resistance of a
over-reinforced beam section:

The failure of an over-reinforced beam is initiated by the crushing

of the concrete, while the steel strain is still relatively low. The
failure is therefore characterized by a small deflection and by the
absence of extensive cracking in the tension zone. The failure, often
explosive, occurs with little warning.

Figure 8: Strain distribution at collapse

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BEAM REINFORCEMENT CLASSES

Balanced beam section
It is a section in which the concrete strain reaches ultimate strain (εcu) simultaneously as the steel
strain reaches yield strain (εy). The ultimate resistance moment is given by:

When x is obtained from equation:

Figure 9: Strain Distribution at collapse

ANALYSIS
The design of continuous sections is based on an analysis to determine maximum sagging and
hogging bending moments and the maximum shear forces in the members. The continuity of the
structure requires an analysis to be carried out for multi-span beams and/or slabs in addition to
multi-storey columns. The design code BS 8110 permits the use of approximate analysis
techniques in which the structure can be considered as a series of sub-frames
Clause 3.2.1.2.4 (‘Continuous beam’ simplification) states that ‘...the moments and forces in the
beams at one level may also be obtained by considering the beams as a continuous beam over
supports providing no restraint to rotation. The critical loading arrangements should be in
accordance with 3.2.1.2.2.’
a) all spans loaded with the maximum design ultimate load (1.4Gk + 1.6Qk);
b) alternate spans loaded with the maximum design ultimate load (1.4Gk + 1.6Qk) and all
other spans loaded with the minimum design ultimate load (1.0Gk).

The shear force and bending moment diagrams can be drawn for each of the load
cases required in the patterns of loading. A composite diagram comprising a profile
indicating the maximum values including all possible load cases can be drawn; this is
known as an envelope as shown in the Figure 8.

Figure 10: Bending moment envelope

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This type of analysis is time-consuming and is more conveniently carried out using
standard computer techniques. Tables are given in BS 8110 which enable a conservative
estimate of shear force and bending moment values to be determined for the design of
continuous beams, Table 3.5, and continuous one-way spanning slabs, Table 3.12 with three
or more spans. There are conditions which must be satisfied in each case before these
tables can be used Cl 3.4.3 (Beams) and Cl 3.5.2.4 (Slabs):
Beams
a) the beams should be of approximately equal span,
b) the characteristic imposed load Qk may not exceed the characteristic dead load Gk,,
c) loads should be substantially uniformly distributed over three or more spans,
d) variations in span length should not exceed 15% of the longest span.

Slabs
a) in a one-way spanning slab, the area of each bay exceeds 30 m2,In this context, a bay
means a strip across the full width of a structure bounded on the other two sides by lines of
support as shown in Figure 9,
b) the ratio of the characteristic imposed load to the characteristic dead load does not
exceed 1.25,
c) the characteristic imposed load does not exceed 5 kN/m2 excluding partitions

Figure 9: One Slab bays

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Flanged Beams
The T -beam and the L-beam in Figure 10 are examples of Flanged beams. In practice the flange is
often the floor slab and the question arises of what width of the slab is to be taken as the effective
width; that is, the width b in Figure 10. BS 8110 gives the following recommendations:
a) for a T-beam the effective width b should be taken as (1) bw + 0.2lz or (2) the actual flange
width, whichever is less;
b) for an L-beam the effective width b should be taken as (1) bw + 0.1lz or (2) the actual flange
width, whichever is less, where bw is the web width (Fig. 10) and lz is the distance between
points of zero moment along the span of the beam. For a continuous beam, lz may of course be
determined from the bending moment diagram, but BS 8110 states that lz may be taken as 0.7
times the effective span.

Figure 12: Flanged beam sections

KEY CODE CONSIDERATIONS

Minimum Areas of tension reinforcement (Cl. 3.12.5)
The requirements for steel of fy = 460 N/mm2 are as follows:
a) Rectangular beams: The tension steel area As should not be less than 0.13% of bh where b is
the beam width and h the overall depth. (The I.Struct.E. Manual recommends a minimum of
0.2% bh.)
b) Flanged beams (web in tension): The minimum percentages depend on the ratio of the web
width bw to the effective flange width b. If bw/b < 0.4, the minimum is 0.18% bwh; if bw/b ≥ 0.4,
the minimum is 0.13% bwh. (The I.Struct.E. Manual [14] recommends 0.2% bwh for both cases.)
c) Flanged beams (flange in tension over a continuous support): 0.26% of bwh for T-beams; 0.2%
of bwh for L-beams.
d) Transverse reinforcement in flanged beams: Transverse reinforcement shall be provided near
the top surface of the flange, over the full effective width b. The area Ast of such reinforcement
should not be less than 0.15% of htl, where ht is the flange thickness and I the beam span.

Minimum areas of compression reinforcement (BS 8110: Clause 3.12.5)

Where compression reinforcement is required for the ultimate limit state, A’s should not be less than 0.2% of bwh for a
rectangular beam or 0.2% of bwh for a flanged-beam web in compression. Use size 16 or larger bars (I.Struct.E).

Maximum areas of main reinforcement (BS 8110: Clause 3.12.6)

Neither As nor A’s should exceed 4% of bh (or 4% bwh for flange beams)

Links or stirrups (BS 8110: Clauses 3.4.5 and 3.12.7)

Links or stirrups are required either to resist shear or to contain the compression reinforcement against outward
buckling.The minimum practical link size is size 8. The following requirements must be met:
a) Where compression reinforcement is used in a beam, links of at least one-quarter of the diameter of the largest
compression bar must be provided, at a spacing not exceeding 12 times the diameter of the smallest compression
bar. These links should be so arranged that every corner and alternate bar in an outer layer of reinforcement is
supported.
b) Links for shear resistance, where required, must satisfy eqns (1) and (2).
c) Except in beams of minor structural importance, such as lintels, minimum links are required along the entire span;
see eqn (1).
0.4𝑏𝑣 𝑠𝑣
𝐴sv min. links ≥ ………Equation 1 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑐 )𝑏𝑣 𝑠𝑣
0.95 𝑓𝑦𝑣 𝐴sv ≥ ……….Equation 2
0.95 𝑓𝑦𝑣

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Slenderness limits (BS 8110: Clause 3.4.1.6)

To guard against lateral buckling, the slenderness limits in Table 2 should not be exceeded.
In the table, the term slenderness limit is defined as the clear distance between lateral
restraints, d is the effective depth and bc the breadth of the compression face of the beam
midway between restraints.

Table 2 Slenderness limits

Minimum distance between bars (BS 8110: Clause 3.12.11.1)

a) The horizontal clear distance between bars should not normally be less than hagg + 5 mm, or
less than Ø, whichever is greater, where hagg is the nominal maximum size of the coarse
aggregate and if Ø is the bar size (or the size of the larger bars if they are unequal).
b) Where the bars are arranged in two or more rows, the gaps between the corresponding
bars in each row should be vertically in line and the vertical clear distance between the
bars should not be less than ⅔hagg or if Ø, whichever is greater.
c) Where an internal vibrator is intended to be used, sufficient space should be left between
bars to enable the vibrator to be inserted.

Maximum distance between bars (BS 8110: Clause 3.12.11.2)

The restrictions on maximum distance are intended for controlling crack widths. When the
limitation of crack widths to 0.3 is acceptable and cover to reinforcement does not exceed 50 mm,
the maximum rules given in BS may be adopted. They therefore apply to tension bars only and
are summarized in Figure 13.
Comments:
(i) In measuring the clear distances ab between tension bars, ignore any bar with a size smaller than 0.45 times that
of the largest bar. (Note: 0.45, and not 0.5, is used so that, say size 12 bars may be used with size 25 bars).
(ii) Similarly, in measuring the clear distance ac to the corner, ignore any bar having a size less than 0.45 times that
of the largest bar.
(iii) The side bars should have a size not less than √(sbb/fy ) where sb is the centre-to-centre bar spacing and b the
beam width. (Note: b need not be taken as greater than 500 mm.) For sb = 250 mm, which is the maximum
permissible spacing, the minimum sizes of the side bars are
0.75√b (for fy = 460 N/mm2)
100√b (for fy = 250 N/mm2)

Table 3: Clear distance between bars (Cl. 3.12.11.2.3)

Figure 13: Reinforcement spacing rules for control

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Minimum lap length (BS 8110: Clause 3.12.8)

The minimum lap should not in any case be less than 15 times the bar size or 300 mm whichever
is the greater; for fabric reinforcement it should not be less than 250 mm. BS 8110's further
requirements are as follows.

Tension laps
The lap length should be at least equal to the anchorage length (See eqns 3 and 4) required to
develop the stress in the smaller of the two bars lapped.
a) Where a lap occurs at the top of a section as cast, and the minimum cover is less than twice
the bar size, the lap length should be multiplied by a factor of 1.4.
𝑓𝑠∅ 0.95𝑓y∅
𝑙= ………Eq. 3 (anchorage bond length) 𝑙u = ………Eq. 4 (Ultimate bond length)
4𝛽√𝑓𝑐𝑢 4𝛽√𝑓cu

Table 4: Bond coefficient ꞵ (Cl. 3.12.8.4)

b) Where a lap occurs at the corner of a section and the minimum cover to either face is less
than twice the bar size, or where the clear distance between adjacent laps is less than 75
mm or six times the bar size, whichever is greater, the lap length should be increased by
a factor of 1.4.
c) In cases where both conditions (a) and (b) apply, the lap length should be increased by a
factor of 2.

Compression laps
The lap length should be at least 25% greater than the compression anchorage length (see
eqns 3 & 4)). Table 2 gives values of ultimate anchorage bond lengths and lap lengths for
Type 2 deformed bars (fy = 460 N/mm2) and BS 4483 Fabrics, for fcu = 40 N/mm2 and over, as
calculated from eqn 4.
Table 2 Ultimate anchorage lengths and lap length for fcu ≥ 40MPa

Curtailment and anchorage of bars (BS 8110: Clause 3.12.9)

a) Except at an end support, every bar should extend beyond the theoretical cut-off point for a
distance not less than the effective depth of the member or 12 bar sizes, whichever is
greater. The theoretical cut-off point is defined as the location where the resistance moment
of the section, considering only the continuing bars, is equal to the required moment.
b) A bar stopped in a tension zone should satisfy the additional requirement that it extends a
full anchorage length lu (eqn 4) from the theoretical cut-off point, unless other conditions
detailed in Clause 3.12.9.1 of BS 8110 are satisfied.
c) At a simple end support, each tension bar should have an effective anchorage of 12 bar
sizes beyond the centre line of the support unless other conditions detailed in Clause
3.12.9.4 of BS 8110 are satisfied. The effective anchorage lengths of hooks and bends are
explained in Figure 12.
Figure 14: Anchorage lengths for hooks and
bends (a) anchorage length for 90 o bend = 4r but
not greater than 12Ø; (b) anchorage length for
hook = 8r but not greater than 24Ø

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• Simplified rules for curtailment of bars (BS 8110: Clause 3.12.10.2)

• The recommendations above relate the curtailment of bars to the theoretical cut-off points. In
practical design, bending moment diagrams are often not drawn for members of secondary
importance, and the theoretical cut off points are not then known without further calculation. BS
8110 permits the following simplified rules to be applied, where the beam supports substantially
uniformly distributed loads. In these rules, l refers to the effective span length, and if Ø the bar
size.
a) Simply supported beams: All the tension bars should extend to within 0.08l of the centres of
supports. At least 50% of these bars should further extend for at least 12Ø (or its equivalent in
hooks or bends) beyond centres of supports.
b) Cantilevers: All the tension bars at the support should extend a distance of l/2 or 45Ø,
whichever is greater. At least 50% of these bars should extend to the end of the cantilever.
c) Continuous beams of approximately equal spans
(i) All the tension bars at the support should extend 0.15l or 45Ø from the face of support,
whichever is greater. At least 60% of these bars should extend 0.25/ and at least 20% should
continue through the spans.
(ii)All the tension bars at midspan should extend to within 0.15l of interior supports and 0.1l of
exterior supports. At least 30% of these bars should extend to the centre of supports.
(iii)At a simply supported end, the detailing should be as given in (a) for a simply supported beam.

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