Forest Ecology and Management 138 (2000) 159±165

Elemental storage of forest soil from local to global scales

Paul J. Zinke*, Alan G. Stangenberger
Department of Forest Science, University of California, 145 Mulford Hall, Berkeley, CA 94720-3114, USA

Abstract

The storage of available soil fertility elements is a cornerstone of the sustainability of forest elemental cycles at the local
scale, as well as to those on the global scale. Total soil elemental storage per m2 for relatively undisturbed sites utilizing
cumulative depth functions of amounts of storage for local soil pit pro®les was eventually expanded to a world wide database
from more than 3000 sites. Examples are presented that apply these data to carbon and nitrogen storage problems ranging in
scale from local sites in California's Lake Tahoe Basin to soils at global levels. # 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights
reserved.

Keywords: Soil fertility; Nutrients; Forest management; Landscapes

1. Introduction nitrogen (N) storage data appropriate to single trees

Soil data are important for addressing environmen-
tal questions at many scales. Questions at the global
scale often involve the role of soil as a potential sink or
source for elemental cycles linked to atmospheric or
hydrologic transport. Often at the local scale, there is a
need to know the total storage of available elements in
the soil relative to potential removal in harvested
biomass and sustainable forest productivity. This need
for matching scale of knowledge and management to
the resource scale was emphasized by Costanza et al.
(1998) as one of the basic principles for sustainable
governance of natural resources. Where soil data are
needed for forest, range, and wildland management,
the scale at which the data are presented should match
that of the vegetation±soil system of concern. This
paper reviews examples of soil carbon (C) and
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: ‡1-510-642-6472;
fax: ‡1-510-643-5438
E-mail address: pzinke@nature.berkeley.edu (P.J. Zinke).
or local forest types in the Lake Tahoe Basin, to a large
California watershed, and ®nally to the elemental
storage of global soils.
2. Methods
Regardless of scale, many of the questions relating
soil to vegetation and environment involve soil storage
of elements. Therefore, we have converted laboratory
data obtained on soil samples from pit faces to volu-
metric storage per m2 for each centimeter depth
increment of the soil pro®le. These are integrated to
standard depth increments and ®nally to meter depth
summations. As the landscape scale expands to larger
areas, we developed probability distributions for meter
depth storage for populations of these soil storage
pro®les for each scale. At the smallest scale are pedons
or individual tree crown in¯uence zones associated
with single species, larger scales for forest or vegeta-
tion types, and largest scales for geographic regions of
interest up to global scales.

0378-1127/00/$ ± see front matter # 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 3 7 8 - 1 1 2 7 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 3 9 4 - 7
160 P.J. Zinke, A.G. Stangenberger / Forest Ecology and Management 138 (2000) 159±165

Soil storage calculations used analytical data (avail-
able from most soil survey ®les) including bulk den-
sity, coarse fragment content (soil mass% >2 mm),
and appropriate elements such as C (by dry combus-
tion), total organic N (by kjehldahl), exchange capa-
city, and associated cations (Ca, Mg, K, Na).
Phosphorus Ð either as water, bicarbonate, or acid-
soluble, has been included with many pro®les. Initial
laboratory data concerning soils are amounts per unit
weight of ®ne-earth fraction (particle size 2 mm or
less) gathered on samples obtained from soil pro®les.
Soil samples for analysis and bulk density were taken
from the face of each depth interval. Storage amounts
are calculated as amount in the volume per m2 by
depth increment. Corrections were made for coarse
fragments on the assumption that they present no
storage. Table 1 shows an example of these calcula-
tions with summation to a meter depth of the pro®le.
This becomes the intensity factor of storage per m3, to
be multiplied by the capacity or scale factor of area
extent of the landscape category of concern. Scale
changes occur mainly in the capacity or the area extent
as noted by Khil'mi (1962) in dimensional analyses of
forest models.
This work began with the soil properties associated
with in¯uence patterns of individual forest trees
(Zinke, 1962). It was then extended to vegetation
types throughout California in the California Coop-
erative Soil±Vegetation Survey, to comparative work
in Italy (Zinke, 1973), and eventually to tropical forest
areas, Thailand, Brazil, Zaire, Mexico and the Carib-
bean (Zinke, 1997). Over time we sampled nearly a
thousand soil pro®les.
The expense of gathering and analyzing soil sam-
ples in our laboratory indicated that much valuable
supplemental data are buried in ®les of survey orga-
nizations in almost every country. Where these data
were reliable, were from soils with undisturbed natural
conditions, and were data required to calculate soil
storage values, they were added, with reference to
source, to our global database (Zinke et al., 1984).
Methods of applying these data to site speci®c assess-
ment in forestry have been reviewed in Zinke (1986).
We will present examples of the utilization of soil data
at various scales.
2.1. Local scale soil storage
Our ®rst example will be local scale of storage of C
and N in soils of the Tahoe Basin, the location of the
North American Forest Soil Conference in 1998 for
which this paper was prepared. The need for local soil
storage information in the Tahoe Basin has long been
evident. Since the early 1960s, we have studied ele-
mental storage of soils and vegetation of the Tahoe
Basin. The relative role of the natural vegetation±soil
types of the area is one item of information needed to
estimate potential input of N to Lake Tahoe from
various watershed sources. Vegetation±soil elemental
storage in the Ward Creek watershed, one of the 63
watersheds of the Tahoe Basin, was evaluated. Soil
samples collected at depth increments from soil pit

Table 1
Carbon and nitrogen storage in soil of a lodgepole pine stand along Ward Creek, Tahoe Basin, CA

Soil physical properties Soil carbon Soil nitrogen C:N

Depth Bulk Mass Concen- Mass Mass per Mass Concen- Mass Mass per Mass
(cm) density >2 mm tration per cm horizon per sum tration per cm horizon per sum
(g cmÿ3) (%) (%) (g mÿ2) (kg mÿ2) (kg mÿ2) (%) (g mÿ2) (g mÿ2) (g mÿ2)

0±5 0.58 24.3 6.86 301.23 1.51 1.51 0.31 13.79 68.94 68.94 21.8
5±10 0.66 26.1 4.72 230.31 1.15 2.66 0.22 10.54 52.70 121.64 21.8
10±20 0.45 27.8 4.82 156.60 1.57 4.22 0.21 6.66 66.60 188.24 23.5
20±40 0.92 26.6 2.24 151.37 3.03 7.25 0.12 8.04 160.83 349.07 18.8
40±60 0.89 29.8 1.83 114.25 2.29 9.54 0.09 5.56 111.13 460.20 20.6
60±80 1.03 27.9 1.10 81.66 1.63 11.17 0.06 4.83 96.50 556.70 16.9
80±90a 1.30 16.1 8.07 860.09 8.80 19.97 0.06 6.54 65.43 622.14 134.5
90±100a 1.37 0.76 4.13 561.51 5.62 25.59 0.04 5.85 58.46 680.60 96.0
a
A buried A horizon occurs below 80 cm depth.
 P.J. Zinke, A.G. Stangenberger / Forest Ecology and Management 138 (2000) 159±165 161

faces provided the analytical data. A general soil
computer program was devised to calculate soil ele-
mental storage values.
Data typifying the scale of the single soil pro®le are
seen in Table 1. Carbon and nitrogen storage calcula-
tions are shown for an alluvial soil pro®le (with a
buried A horizon) associated with a 100-year-old
Pinus contorta tree alongside Ward Creek. This tree
as well as those at other sites was cut, weighed, and
sampled for elemental analyses converted to storage.
This, combined with soil storage values allows esti-
mating total elemental storage on the forest site.
The Ward Creek study was extended eventually to
the Tahoe Basin. Table 2 presents pro®les of C and N
storage to a meter soil depth. Pro®le totals are sum-
marized to a meter depth and arrayed by descending C
storage for the entire Tahoe Basin (Table 3). Addi-
tional data (pro®le numbers beginning with 68, 67, 59)
from the Tahoe Basin soil survey (USDA Soil Con-
servation Service and Forest Service, 1974) are
included. Data are subdivided into populations repre-
senting forests, meadows and seeps, and Carson Val-
ley sagebrush areas. Areas having lower C storage are
mainly in the eastern part of the Basin, where pre-
cipitation is less, and most soils are shallow and
immature, developed from granite.
A primary aim of land management in the Tahoe
Basin is maintenance of the clarity of the water of the
lake through preventing excessive inputs of N and
other fertility elements. Questions often concern the
potential of unwanted elemental release to waters of
Lake Tahoe. This may relate to vegetation change as a
result of ®re, clearing, or urbanization. The meter
depth summary of storage values is appropriate to
these Basin-wide problems. At the local level (as in
Ward Creek watershed), the pro®le of storage amounts
with each pro®le depth increment is important to
understand potential increments to elemental dis-
charge due to mobilization and leaching from storage
or erosion of surface soil layers.

Table 2
Profiles of cumulative storage of C and N with soil depth, Tahoe Basin, CA

Soil depth (cm) Soil profile number and dominant vegetative covera

232Pc 236Am 239Ac 238Pj 242Pj 234M 235C 237A

Cumulative carbon storage (kg mÿ2)

10 2.7 2.1 4.1 3.4 2.0 3.1 0.9 3.8
20 4.2 3.4 6.0 6.8 2.9 6.1 2.1 9.9
30 5.7 4.0 8.2 9.1 3.8 8.5 4.6 12.2
40 7.3 4.6 9.8 11.4 4.7 10.8 7.1 14.5
50 8.4 5.0 11.4 13.4 5.5 12.7 10.9 15.4
60 9.5 5.3 12.9 15.4 14.6 14.6 15.7
70 10.4 5.9 14.8 17.0 15.8 16.2 15.9
80 11.2 6.6 16.6 18.6 17.1 17.8 16.2
90 20.0 6.8 17.9 21.2 18.8 18.1
100 25.6 7.1 19.2 23.8 20.5 18.3
Cumulative nitrogen storage (g mÿ2)
10 122 57 115 109 50 288 80 276
20 188 96 183 228 79 529 128 728
30 269 124 259 330 109 733 313 901
40 349 153 335 433 139 937 498 1074
50 405 175 403 490 169 1131 797 1152
60 460 196 471 547 1324 1096 1219
70 508 229 554 624 1434 1188 1287
80 557 261 638 700 1545 1280 1354
90 622 278 705 801 1672 1300
100 681 295 773 901 1800 1319
a
Species codes for dominant vegetative cover are Pc (Pinus contorta), Am (Abies magnifica), Ac (Abies concolor), Pj (Pinus jeffreyi),
M (meadow), C (Carex sp), A (Alnus sp).
162 P.J. Zinke, A.G. Stangenberger / Forest Ecology and Management 138 (2000) 159±165

Table 3
Carbon and nitrogen storage in cubic meter soil pedons of the Tahoe Basin, CAa

Landform Location description Soil series Profile No. C (kg mÿ2) N (g mÿ2)

Forest
Moraine slope Fallen Leaf Tallac 213CA 30.3 1197.7
Stream terrace Ward Creek Elmira 232CA 25.6 680.6
Moraine SE/SW 34, 138N, 178E Tallac 68CA 9-16 25.4 1372.8
Moraine slope Fallen Leaf Tallac 211CA 25.2 1056.4
Moraine slope Ward Creek Tallac 238CA 23.8 901.1
Glacial outwash Homewood Tallac 207CA 19.7 616.7
Moraine Center 18, 128N, 188E Tallac 68CA 9-15 16.4 824.1
Moraine Homewood Tallac 206CA 15.6 605.9
Andesite slope SE 8, 148N, 168E Head Blackwood Ck. Waca 68CA 31-2 14.8 NA
Moraine Homewood Tallac 209CA 10.9 500.1
Moraine 30, 128N, 188E Meeks 68CA 9-14 10.8 NA
Moraine Homewood Tallac 210CA 10.7 542.5
Lake terrace NW 22, 128N, 188E Jabu 68CA 9-33 10.1 NA
Granite slope Center 28, 138N, 198E, Genoa Highway Toem 68NV 3-1 9.7 771.1
Moraine slope Fallen Leaf Tallac 212CA 8.3 387.5
Moraine Homewood Tallac 208CA 8.2 303.5
Lake terrace NW 28, 128N, 188E Jabu 68CA 9-30 7.7 NA
Andesite slope SW/SE 34, 158N, 168E, Blackwood Cr. Waca 68CA 31-1 7.6 NA
Moraine slope Ward Creek Tallac 236CA 7.1 294.6
Granite slope SW 12, 128N, 188E Cagwin 68CA 9-24 7.0 NA
Lake terrace SW 21, 128N, 188E Jabu 68CA 9-29 6.9 NA
Glacial outwash 21, 128N, 188E Elmira 68CA 9-28 6.2 NA
Granite SW 21, 128N, 188E Cagwin 68CA 9-27 6.2 NA
Granite slope SW 8, 128N, 188E Cagwin 68CA 9-21 6.0 NA
Alluvium 11, 128N, 188E Elmira 68CA 9-26 6.0 NA
Glacial outwash SW/NE 3, 128N, 188E Elmira 68CA 9-22 6.0 NA
Lake terrace SW/SW 23, 128N, 188E Jabu 68CA 9-34 5.9 NA
Granite slope NW/SW 17, 128N, 188E Toem 68CA 9-20 5.8 NA
Rocky granite Incline ski area Cagwin 242NV 50 cm 5.5 168.7
Granite slope SW/SE 11, 128N, 188E Toem 68CA 9-23 5.0 NA
Granite slope 1, 128N, 188E Cagwin 68CA 9-32 4.9 NA
Glacial outwash SW/SE 11, 128N, 188E, UpperTrout Ck. Inville 67CA 9-17 4.6 NA
Granite slope 1.3 mi S/8 mi E, NW 1, 128N, 188E Toem 68CA 9-31 4.3 NA
Meadows and seeps
Wet meadow Homewood Elmira 205CA 26.2 1987.5
Meadow Ward Creek Colluvium 233CA 11.6 926.6
Meadow Ward Creek Elmira 234CA 20.5 1800.2
Carex meadow Ward Creek Elmira 235CA 18.3 1319.2
Alder thicket Ward Creek Tallac 237CA 80 cm 16.2 1353.8
Carson Valley arid sage-
brush
Alluvium Reno Grave 59NV 3-4 3.2 334.4
Alluvium Washoe 59NV 3-9 2.8 300.0
a
Source: Zinke (unpublished), USDA Soil Conservation Service and Forest Service (1974).

Data appropriate for answering such questions show clearly that the soil is the major factor in the N
include storage in vegetation. Vegetation storage balance of a watershed. However, vegetation and how
expressed per m2 is shown with the soil storage in it is managed have a large role in maintaining this soil
Table 4. Combined soil and vegetation storage data storage.
 P.J. Zinke, A.G. Stangenberger / Forest Ecology and Management 138 (2000) 159±165 163

Table 4
Soil±vegetation carbon and nitrogen storage for Ward Creek sites

Ecosystem component Profile number (dominant vegetation)

232 (Pinus contorta) 237 (Alnus tenufolia) 234 (Meadow/Carex)

ÿ2
Carbon (kg m )
Soil to 1 m 25.000a 16.200 20.500
O horizon 3.766 2.055 0.209
Vegetation 8.950 4.180 0.509
Nitrogen (g mÿ2)
Soil to 1 m 681.0 1364.0 1800.0
O horizon 216.9 98.7 11.4
Vegetation 72.4 86.1 30.8
a
Due to buried A horizon.

2.2. Regional scale of soil storage
The next example in scale is a large watershed or
regional landscape. We estimated the C storage of the
soils of the San Joaquin River watershed on the west
slope of the Sierra Nevada by remote sensing methods
applicable to regional soil storage estimates (Zinke
et al., 1985). Sites providing soil pro®le samples
ranged from the Mammoth mountain area near Mono
Lake to the lower western slopes of the Sierra Nevada
immediately northeast of Fresno, CA.
Probability distributions using the Weibull function
were ®tted to populations of soil C storage strati®ed by
vegetation categories. The Weibull function formula
was applied to the array of storage values for each
category. This function
f …x† ˆ 1 ÿ exp…1 ÿ ‰fx ÿ agBÿ1 Šg †
has three parameters, a or threshold, b or scale, and g
or shape used to fit the distribution. The derived
cumulative probability distributions for C and N
storage and their parameters are presented in Table 5.

Table 5
Cumulative probability distributions for soil carbon and nitrogen storage to 1 m depth

Elemental mass per square meter for

Dense conifer forest Low density forest Meadows and seeps All California Wildlands

C (kg) N (g) C (kg) N (g) C (kg) N (g) C (kg) N (g)

Cumulative probability
<0.01 2.4 110 2.8 70 3.8 171 1.7 121.7
0.10 6.0 266 3.6 107 5.5 389 4.4 250.1
0.20 8.4 367 4.4 144 7.8 559 6.4 352.6
0.40 12.5 532 5.9 224 13.4 864 9.9 541.1
0.50 14.4 612 6.8 270 17.0 1023 11.7 640.1
0.60 16.5 696 7.8 323 21.5 1197 13.6 749.5
0.80 21.8 905 10.6 478 35.7 1655 18.7 1040.3
0.90 26.0 1071 13.2 621 50.1 2042 22.9 1288.3
0.99 36.7 1488 20.6 1053 98.7 3086 34.0 1966.1
Parameters
Threshold (a) 0.8316 38.2540 2.6600 63.7450 3.6100 104.8400 0.7833 85.4700
Scale (b) 16.4140 686.3565 5.4965 279.0931 19.6207 1153.4460 13.5040 702.5360
Shape (g) 1.9513 2.0417 1.2900 1.2065 0.9675 1.6082 1.6982 1.5510
No. profiles 66 66 45 45 25 20 315 315
164 P.J. Zinke, A.G. Stangenberger / Forest Ecology and Management 138 (2000) 159±165

The data apply to the broad vegetation categories:
dense conifer forests, sparse conifer forests, and mea-
dows and seeps.
These categories were chosen for ease of satellite
evaluation of the watershed using blue±red (Landsat
channel 7/5) ratios of pixel color. The values in the
cumulative probability table for elemental storage
amounts allow determining combined total elemental
storage values for all the vegetation±soil categories on
the watershed area.
Soil storage values for wildland areas of California
derived from data of the California Cooperative Soil±
Vegetation Survey were used to derive a still broader
regional scale perspective in Table 5. Eventually, the
distribution of each increment in scale nests within the
larger, all encompassed by the global scale distribution
of soil storage values.
2.3. Global scale of soil storage
Soils at the global scale interact with global cycles
of elements through the hydrologic cycle or through
atmospheric cycles involving mainly water, C, N, and
Ð to a lesser extent Ð other volatile or soluble
compounds and elements. Expanding to the global
scale involves large numbers of soil storage data
representative of large areas.
During the past 40 years, we have been collecting
soil data on a global basis during ®eld work in loca-
tions in Asia, Europe, Africa, and South America in
the radar mapping project of the Amazon Basin in
Brazil. These sources are referenced in Zinke et al.
(1984). This database now includes more than 3000
soil pro®les. Their variation can be related to climatic,
vegetation, geologic, or composite geographic (lati-
tudinal) variables. One way of interpreting data at this
scale is to make a latitudinal pro®le of soil storage.
The cumulative probabilities of soil C storage by 108
latitude increments (north and south from the equator)
to 808 are shown in Table 6.
These distributions have shapes similar to those at
regional scales. At each latitudinal increment, C sto-
rage values range from very low amounts in a small
proportion of the soil population with a gradual
increase in storage to a cumulative population prob-
ability of 70%, rising sharply in storage at the upper
end of the cumulative probability. Values are high near
the equator, generally decrease from the equator to the
20±308 band, then gradually rise to a peak at 60±708
latitude with a sharp drop at higher latitudes. These
amounts most likely are related to climatic controls of
C ®xation and respiration rates characterizing each
latitude. The shape of the distributions result in many
central tendencies such as averages skewed towards

Table 6
Cumulative probability distributions for global soil carbon storage (kg mÿ2) by latitude

Degrees latitude north and south of the equator

0±10 10±20 20±30 30±40 40±50 50±60 60±70 70±80 Global

Cumulative probability
<0.01 1.0 0.5 1.1 0.7 1.1 1.0 1.6 2.5 0.7
0.10 2.2 1.4 1.8 2.4 3.5 3.5 3.6 3.2 2.6
0.20 3.5 2.7 2.7 4.0 5.3 5.6 5.8 4.3 4.3
0.40 6.6 5.8 5.0 7.0 8.7 9.7 10.5 7.6 7.7
0.50 8.4 7.8 6.5 8.6 10.4 11.9 13.3 10.0 9.6
0.60 10.6 10.2 8.3 10.5 12.3 14.4 16.6 13.2 11.8
0.80 17.1 18.0 13.9 15.6 17.4 21.1 26.2 24.2 17.8
0.90 23.4 25.9 19.5 20.1 21.6 26.9 35.2 36.5 23.2
0.99 43.1 52.6 38.1 33.1 33.2 43.3 63.0 83.4 38.7
Parameters
Threshold (a) 0.801 0.395 0.990 0.297 0.395 0.395 1.247 2.475 0.297
Scale (b) 10.618 10.764 7.957 10.836 12.618 14.880 16.562 11.960 12.255
Shape (g) 1.105 0.967 0.991 1.380 1.600 1.441 1.161 0.799 1.336
No. of profiles 292 211 52 1075 544 485 56 14 2995
 P.J. Zinke, A.G. Stangenberger / Forest Ecology and Management 138 (2000) 159±165
high values. It may be more appropriate to use the
mode or median values, or storage at 0.5 of the
population, or a probability density weighted storage
value. We have published another way of looking at
these data for C and N soil storage in relation to world
climatic zones in Post et al. (1982, 1985).
3. Discussion
We have presented examples of soil data needed to
solve management problems at scales from local to
global. Local level concerns often relate to sustaining
or improving site productivity, to the interaction
between soil and vegetation and choice of crops, or
to the impact of our management on soil storage of
fertility elements. The appropriate scale of soil data at
this level is at the square meter. The distribution with
depth, and the summation to a meter depth, were
appropriate data at this level.
The next larger scale is applicable to regional or
watershed management. Here many soil conditions
may be present. Soil data needed at this level are
mainly needed to solve problems of elemental and
material balances. Management objectives involve
water yield and quality, or the sustained production
of forest products for rural economies. Soil data at this
level of management are scaled to broad landscape
categories of vegetation, geologic, or watershed order.
Large populations of soil pro®le storage data are
needed. We applied probability distributions to
describe the expected storage values for elements at
this level. Questions at the global scale concern soil
interaction with worldwide cycles of C, N, trace
elements, and water. This involves global soil ele-
mental storage data summarized by probability dis-
tributions from appropriate geographic categories
such as latitude, climate, broad vegetation zones, or
zonal soil types. Having probability distributions
of soil properties at each level from local to global
makes it becomes possible to place a single soil
storage datum into the perspective of rank at
landscape scales from local to global. Given this
perspective, it is possible to relate local soil manage-
ment problem (such as for C storage) to a global
problem (such as atmospheric CO2 ¯ux), or to a local
problem of maintaining soil fertility to sustain forest
growth.
165
A problem with all of these presented applications
of soil data is that most soil pro®les are not randomly
located within the landscape categories involved.
There is a need for a systematic global sampling
and analysis of soils strati®ed by new satellite remote
sensing techniques appropriate to global soil±vegeta-
tion survey. Although expensive, this is minor com-
pared to economic costs of faulty global
environmental policies based upon data inadequate
to cope with the scale of the problem.
References
Costanza, R., Andrade, F., Antunes, P., et al., 1998. Principles of
sustainable governance of the oceans. Science 281, 198±199.
Khil'mi, G.F., 1962. Theoretical Forest Biogeophysics. Translated
from Russian Original of 1957 by Israel Program for Scientific
Translations. Published for the National Science Foundation
and the US Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC, 155
pp.
Post, W.M., Emanuel, W.R., Zinke, P.J., Stangenberger, A.G., 1982.
Soil carbon pools and world life zones. Nature 298, 156±159.
Post, W.M., Pastor, J., Zinke, P.J., Stangenberger, A.G., 1985.
Global patterns of soil nitrogen. Nature 316, 613±616.
USDA Soil Conservation Service and Forest Service, 1974. Soil
Survey Tahoe Basin Area. General & Index Map, 11 Map
Sheets. US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 84
pp.
Zinke, P.J., 1962. The pattern of influence of individual forest trees
on soil properties. Ecology 43, 130±133.
Zinke, P.J., 1973. Analogies between the soil and vegetation types
of Italy, Greece, and California. In: Di Castri, F., Mooney, H.A.
(Eds.), Mediterranean Type Ecosystems. Springer, New York,
pp. 61±80.
Zinke, P.J., 1986. Problems related to site specific chemical
assessment of soil. In: Hermann, R. (Ed.), Proc. Div. 1, Forest
Environment and Silviculture, International Union of Forest
Research Organizations 18th World Conference, International
Union of Forest Research Organizations, Lubljana, Yugoslavia,
Vol. 1, pp. 405±414.
Zinke, P.J., 1997. Tropical protection forests and their manage-
ment. In: Proc. Tropical Forestry in the 21st Century, Vol. 1,
Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand, pp. 38±54. ISBN
974-553-372-6.
Zinke, P., Katibah, E., Stangenberger, A.G., 1985. Quantity and
area distribution of soil organic carbon related to vegetation
cover classes from Landsat data. In: Proc. Pecora 10, Remote
Sensing in Forest and Range Resource Management. American
Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Ft. Collins,
CO, pp. 464±472.
Zinke, P.J., Stangenberger, A.G., Post, W.M., Emanuel, W.R.,
Olson, J.S., 1984. Worldwide organic soil carbon and nitrogen
data. ORNL/TM-8857. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak
Ridge, TN, 141 pp.