DISTINGUISHING FEATURES ABOUT ATOMS
ATOMIC NUMBER
• THE NUMBER OF PROTONS IN THE
NUCLEUS OF AN ATOM OF THAT
ELEMENT.
• NUMBER OF PROTONS=NUMBER OF
ELECTRONS.
• THE TOTAL NUMBER OF PROTONS AND
NEUTRONS IN AN ATOM IS CALLED
ATOMIC NUMBER.
• NUMBER OF NEUTRONS=MASS
NUMBER-ATOMIC NUMBER
HISTORY OF THE ATOM
460 BC
Democritus develops the idea of atoms
he pounded up materials in his pestle and
mortar until he had reduced them to
smaller and smaller particles which he
called ATOMA
(greek for indivisible)
1808
John Dalton
suggested that all matter was made up of
tiny spheres that were able to bounce
around with perfect elasticity and called
them ATOMS
I. All matter is composed of
atoms Atoms cannot be
made or destroyed
II. All atoms of the same element are identical
Different elements have different types of atoms
III. Chemical reactions occur when atoms are
rearranged
IV. Compounds are formed from atoms of the
constituent elements
SUBPARTICLES IN AN ATOMS
ELECTRONS
PROTONS
NEUTRONS
Discovery of Protons
Eugene Goldstein noted streams of
positively charged particles in cathode rays
in 1886.
–Particles move in opposite direction of
cathode rays.
–Called “Canal Rays” because they passed
through holes (channels or canals) drilled
through the negative electrode.
Canal rays must be positive.
Goldstein postulated the existence of a
positive fundamental particle called the
“proton”.
Thomson’s Experiment And Discovery of
Electrons
Passing an electric current makes a beam
appear to move from the negative to the
positive end.
By adding an electric field, he found that the
moving pieces were negative
The electron was discovered in 1897 by
Thomson. He imagined the atom as a “raisin
pudding” with electrons stuck in a cake of
positive charge.
J.J. Thomson’s Model of Atom
• Plum Pudding Model, 1896
• Thought an atom was like plum pudding
Dough was cloud
Raisins were electrons
Did not know about neutrons at this time
Rutherford’s experiment and discovery of
nucleus
English physicist Ernest Rutherford (1911)
Shot alpha particles at fluorescent screen.
When an alpha particle hits a fluorescent
screen, it glows.
 He Expected: The alpha particles to
pass through without changing
direction very much.
 He thought the mass was evenly
distributed in the atom
The Nuclear Atom
Since some particles were deflected at
large angles, Thomson’s model could
not be correct.
• Atom is mostly empty space.
• Small dense, positive piece at
center is (NUCLEUS)
In 1912, Rutherford discovered the
nucleus by doing scattering
experiments. He concluded the atom
was mostly empty space, with a large
dense body at the center, and electrons
which orbited the nucleus like planets
orbit the Sun.
The model created by Rutherford had
still some serious discordance.
According to the classic science,
electron moving around the nucleus
should emit an electromagnetic wave.
Electron should than move not by the
circle but helical and finally collide with
the nucleus. But atom is stable.
Rutherford also realized that the
nucleus must contain both neutral and
positively charged particles. The
neutron was then discovered in 1932 by
Chadwick.
Bohr’s Model of the Atom
• Similar to Rutherford’s model
• Thought atom was mostly empty
space
Neils Bohr, 1913
– Nucleus in center is dense,
positively charge
– Electrons revolve around the
nucleus.
Following Rutherford’s planetary model
of the atom, it was realized that the
attraction between the electrons and
the protons should make the atom
unstable
Bohr proposed a model in which the
electrons would stably occupy fixed
orbits, as long as these orbits had
special quantized locations
Parts of an Atom
 Each element has a different
number of protons in its nucleus
 Protons have positive charge
 Change the number of protons à
change elements
 This is called nuclear physics
 The element also has the same
number of electrons
 Electrons have negative charge
 Change the number of electrons
à ionize the element
 This is called chemistry
 Some elements also have
neutrons have no charge
 They are in the nuclei of atoms
Bohr’s model
• Electrons move around the nucleus
at stable orbits without emitting
radiation.
• Electron in one of these stable orbit
ha a definite energy.
• Energy is radiated only when
electrons make transitions from high
energy orbit to a low energy orbit.
• In the Bohr model, the electron can
change orbits, accompanied by the
absorption or emission of a photon
of a specific color of light
1913 – Atomic Model with Fixed Orbits
proposed
Bohr’s Model
The Atom has No Charge
Number of Protons = Number of
Electrons
 The most electrons possible in
the first shell are 2. After the
first shell is filled, the second
shell starts filling up, according
to the number of positive
charges in the nucleus.
 The most allowed in the second
shell is 8 electrons. Then the
third shell starts to fill.
ISOTOPES
ARE ATOMS THAT HAVE THE SAME
NUMBER OF PROTONS BUT DIFFERENT
NUMBER OF ELCTRONS.
-Carbon-12 and carbon-14 are
two isotopes of the element carbon.
The difference between carbon-12 and
carbon-14 is the number of neutrons in
each of their atoms.
IONS Polyatomic ions

• An ion is a charged atom or • Polyatomic ions are covalently bonded

molecule. It is charged because the groups of atoms and having a positive
number of electrons does not equal or negative charge caused by the
formation of an ionic bond with another
the number of protons in the atom
ion. Compounds formed from such a
or molecule. An atom can acquire a
combination of ions are polyatomic
positive charge or a negative charge ionic compounds.
depending on whether the number
of electrons in an atom is greater or
less then the number of protons in
the atom.
• When an atom is attracted to
another atom because it has an
unequal number of electrons and
protons, the atom is called an ION. If
the atom has more electrons than
protons, it is a negative ion, or
ANION. If it has more protons than
electrons, it is a positive ion.
Monatomic ion
A monatomic ion is an ion formed from
a single atom. In other words, it is
a single atom that has a different
number of protons and electrons.
Atoms and Molecules “Formula Writing”
Formulas
 Formulas are combinations of
symbols that represent a compound.
A formula indicates which elements
are involved and the number of
atoms of each element contained in
the compound.
 In writing formulas, we use
subscripts, and parentheses in
addition to the symbols of the
elements.
RULES IN WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULA
 Subscripts indicate the number of
IONIC COMPOUNDS
atoms of an element, as in H2 where
two is the subscript meaning two Criss-cross Method
hydrogen atoms. If there is no There is a short cut for writing formulas for
subscript with a symbol, it is ionic compounds, called the crisscross method.
assumed there is only one atom of It is an easy way to get the subscripts right for
that element. each ion, although not the most scientific
method!
 Parentheses or brackets are used to
separate a radical/ polyatomic ion Have a look at this example to see how the
from the rest of the formula when it formula for calcium phosphide is determined
would be confusing. using the crisscross rule.

The formula for calcium phosphide is Ca3P2.

Steps in Formula Writing

I. Determine the symbols for the
elements in a compound.
II. Determine the charge of each of the
atoms
III. Write the positive element’s symbol
first, followed by that of the
negative element.
Always name the metal ion first.
Name the nonmetal ion second.
If the anion is a monatomic ion, the anion is
named by adding the suffix -ide to the root of
the element name (e.g., I- = "iodide").
I. Rule 2: When the subscript is number
1, subscript is not written.
II. Rule 3: When the valence of both
elements are numerically equal but
grater than 1, the subscript are not
also written.
III. Rule 4: All radicals take more than
once( the subscript is 2 or more) must
be enclosed in Brackets().
Rules for Naming Ionic Compounds
Containing Polyatomic Ions
Polyatomic ions are ions which consist of
more than one atom. For example, nitrate
ion, NO3-, contains one nitrogen atom and
three oxygen atoms. The atoms in a
polyatomic ion are usually covalently
bonded to one another, and therefore stay
together as a single, charged unit.
Rule 1. The cation is written first in the
name; the anion is written second in the
name.
Rule 2. When the formula unit contains two
or more of the same polyatomic ion, that
ion is written in parentheses with the
subscript written outside the parentheses.
Note: parentheses and a subscript
are not used unless more than one of a
polyatomic ion is present in the formula
unit (e.g., the formula unit for calcium
sulfate is "CaSO4" not "Ca(SO4)").
Rule 3. If the cation is a metal ion with a
fixed charge, the name of the cation is the
same as the (neutral) element from which it
is derived (e.g., Na+ = "sodium"). If the
cation is a metal ion with a variable charge,
the charge on the cation is indicated using a
Roman numeral, in parentheses,
immediately following the name of the
cation (e.g., Fe3+ = "iron(III)").
Rule 4. If the anion is a monatomic ion, the
anion is named by adding the suffix -ide to
the root of the element name (e.g., I- =
"iodide").
Note: Greek prefixes are not used to
indicate the number of atoms, or
polyatomic ions, in the formula unit for the
compound (e.g., Ca(NO3)2 is named
"calcium nitrate" not "calciuim dinitrate").
A polyatomic ion is a group of atoms with
an overall ionic charge.
NH4+ ammonium OH− hydroxide
NO3− nitrate NO2− nitrite
CO32− carbonate PO43−
phosphate
HCO3− hydrogen carbonate (or
bicarbonate)
Naming Covalent Compounds Naming Binary Acids
Diatomic Elements Binary acids contain only two elements,
hydrogen, and a monatomic anion whose
Gases that exist as diatomic molecules are
name ends in the suffix -ide.
H2, F2, N2, O2, Cl2, Br2, I2
1. To name a binary acid like HCl
They are simply given their elements name.
2. Begin the name with the prefix
Exist this way only when not in compounds hydro-
 Two nonmetals 3. Next use the root of the second
 Name each element elements name, e.g. chlor
 End the last element in -ide 4. Replace the suffix of the anion with
the suffix -ic
Add prefixes to show more than 1 atom 5. Add the word acid
Prefixes HCl is hydrochloric acid
 Mono 1
 Hexa 6
 Di 2 Ternary Acids
 Hepta 7 Ternary acids contain three elements, with
 Tri 3 hydrogen being the first element in the
 Octa 8 formula and oxygen being the last.
 tetra 4
1. To name a ternary acid such as
 nona 9
H2SO4
 penta 5
2. Remove the hydrogen ion(s) and
 deca 10
determine the formula of the anion
Naming Acids 3. Replace the suffix

Formulas of Acids -ate becomes -ic acid

An acid is a substance that when dissolved -ite becomes -ous acid

in water, dissociates or breaks apart into a H2SO4 anion SO42- sulfuric acid
hydrogen ion (H+) and an anion.
Acids always have hydrogen as the first
element in the formula,
HCl , HNO3 , H2SO4 , etc.
 Hydrochloric acid
 Nitric acid
 Sulfuric acid
Balancing Chemical Equations and Word
Equations
Chemical Reaction
 Is the process by which a chemical
change takes place.
 A change where a new substance is
formed.
 Is the shorthand way of expressing
chemical reaction using numbers,
symbols and formula.
TWO MAJOR PARTS
REACTANTS
 The starting materials
 These are the substances that changes
when it is combined with another
substance in a chemical reaction
PRODUCTS
 The new substance
 The substances that result of the
chemical reaction
 EXAMPLES (WORD EQUATIONS)
1. Calcium plus water yield to calcium
hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
Ca + H2OCa  Ca (OH)2 +H2(g)
2. Sodium carbonate and sodium sulfate
produce sodium chloride precipitate
and calcium carbonate.
Na2CO3 + Na2SO4  NaCl () + CaCO3
3. Barium nitrate and sodium sulfate react
to produce barium sulfate and sodium
nitrate.
Ba (NO3)2 +Na2SO4  BaSO4 + NaNO3
4. Aqueous solution of magnesium
hydroxide and phosphoric acid and
produces solid lead (III) chloride and
nitric acid in aqueous solution.
Mg (OH)2(aq) +H3PO4  PbCl3(s)
+HNO3(aq)
5. Dinitrogen pentoxide when placed in
water produces nitric acid.
N2O5 + H2O  HNO3
6. Calcium oxide plus diphosphorus
pentoxide yield calcium phosphate.
CaO+P2O5  Ca3(PO4)2
7. Iron and sulfur when heated produces
iron (III) sulfide.
8. Calcium oxide plus water produces
calcium phosphate.
9. Chlorine gas + sodium produces sodium
chloride
Cl2+Na  NaCl
Balancing Chemical Equations
 Balancing a chemical equation is
much like the work of an accountant
who has to show every penny that
comes in and where it has gone to.
 Law of Conservation of Mass
You need to remember this law!
 The Law of Conservation of Mass
states: that mass is neither created
nor destroyed in any chemical
reaction. Therefore balancing of
equations requires the same
number of atoms on both sides of a
chemical reaction.
 The number of atoms in the
Reactants must equal the Number
of atoms in the Products
Chemical Equations
 Because of the principle of the
Conservation of Matter, an
equation must be balanced.
 It must have the same number of
atoms of the same kind on both
sides.
 Lavoisier, 1788
Law of Conservation of Mass
balancing an element that appears
in only one reactant and product.
 Once one element is balanced,
proceed to balance another, and
another, until all elements are
balanced.
 Balance chemical formulas by
placing coefficients in front of them.
Do not add subscripts, because this
will change the formulas.

 The mass of all the reactants (the

substances going into a reaction)
must equal the mass of the products
(the substances produced by the
reaction).
 Reactant + Reactant = Product

Guidelines for Balancing

Chemical Equations
 Write the unbalanced equation.
Chemical formulas of reactants are
listed on the left-hand side of the
equation.
 Products are listed on the right-hand
side of the equation.
 Reactants and products are
separated by putting an arrow
between them to show the direction
of the reaction. Reactions at
equilibrium will have arrows facing
both directions.
 Apply the Law of Conservation of
Mass to get the same number of
atoms of every element on each side
of the equation. Tip: Start by
 1. DECOMPOSITION of metallic
carbonates- when heated,
5 TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTION
decomposed into metallic oxide and
carbon dioxide.
EXAMPLE

2. DECOMPOSITION of BICARBONATES
-when heated, bicarbonates decompose
Synthesis Reaction into oxide, water and carbon dioxide

Occurs when two substance combine to EXAMPLE

form a compound. The substance could be
both elements, elements and compounds.

General Formula:
A + BAB 3. DECOMPOSITION OF METALLIC
HYDROXIDES
- When heated, will yield metallic oxides
and water vapor.
Analysis Reaction EXAMPLE
Decomposition reaction compound is
broken into elements.
Also called analysis

General Formula:
AB A + B
4. DECOMPOSITION OF CHLORATES
-when heated, decomposes into metallic
chlorides and oxygen gas
EXAMPLE
Substitution Reaction
In this type of chemical reaction
happens when a free element is more
active than the combined element.
A more reactive element replaces a less
active element in its compound

4. DECOMPOSTION OF OXIDES Two possibilities of replacement in the

-Oxides are stable compounds, and Substitution Reaction:
they are not decomposed by heat.
 Cation Replacement
But there are some oxides that can
 Anion Replacement
be decomposed by heat and they
will separate into two elements. GENERAL FORMULA

A+BCAC+B AND B ARE METALS

C IS NON METAL

A + BC → BA + CA AND C ARE NON

METALS

B IS METAL
5. DECOMPOSTION OF ACIDS
- decompose into water and
nonmetallic oxide in gaseous form
 This type of reaction is also called
metathesis
When one compound reacts with another
compound, new compounds are formed
The positive ion of one compound interacts
with the negative ion of the other, thus,
there is an exchange of partners.

General Formula:

AB+CD AD+CB

.
5 . Zn + CuCl2 → ZnCl2 + Cu

6. Mg + CuF2 → Cu + MgF2
7. Ag + NaCl → N/a
8. Ca + Sn(NO3)2 → Sn + Ca(NO3)2
9. Al + CuSO4 → Cu + Al2(SO4)3
10. Zn + Au(NO )  Zn(NO ) + Au
22 22

a chemical reaction in which a substance

combines with oxygen and releases energy.

Always produce Carbon Dioxide and

Water

GENERAL FORMULA
CxHy + O2  CO2 + H2O

EXAMPPLE
AVOGADRO’S NUMBER
defined as the number of molecules in a
mole of a substance, approximately (6.022
x 1023)
-It is called Avogadro's constant. A mole of
any material on the hand contains (6.022 x
1023) pieces of that substance.
Amadeo Avogadro, who analyzed chemical
changes in terms of atoms and molecules.
-Determining the number of moles
determining its mass per atomic mass.

Molar Mass (molecular Mass)

 The percent composition by mass of a
compound represents the percent that each
element in a compound contributes to the
total mass of the compound.
 Formula:

 %mass = grams of element in

1 mol compound x 100%
molar mass of compound
Example: What is the percent composition
of water (H2O)?
Step 1: figure out the molar mass from the
formula
2 mol Hydrogen x 1.008g = 2.02g
1mol Oxygen x 16.00g = 16.00g
molar mass of water = 18.02g MM
Step 2: divide the answer for each atom
by the molar mass and multiply by 100 to
get a percentage
2.02 g of H / 18.02 g of H2O x 100 % =
11.21% Hydrogen
16.00 g of O / 18.02 g of H2O x 100 % =
88.79% Oxygen
Your percentages should add up to 100%
What is the percent composition of glucose
(C6H12O6)
Step 1: figure out the molar mass:

C 6(12)=72/180.1 X100=40%

H 12(1.008)=12.1/180.1 X100=7%

O 6(16)=96/180.1 X100=53%

MM=180.1

Percent Composition
Step 2: Divide the answer of each atom by
the molar mass and multiply by 100
Empirical Formulas
The empirical formula for a compound is
the formula with the smallest whole-
number mole ratio of the elements.
Use the following poem to
remember the steps:
 Percent to mass
 Mass to moles
 Divide by small
 Multiply ‘til whole
Step One: Percent to Mass
Let’s assume we have a 100. g sample of
methyl acetate. This means that each
element’s percent is also the number of
grams of that element.
48.64% C = 48.64 g C
8.16% H = 8.16 g H
43.20% O = 43.20 g O
Step Two: Mass to Moles
Convert each mass into moles using the
molar mass of each element.
48.64 g C x 1 mol C = 4.053 mol C
12.0 g C
8.16 g H x 1 mol H = 8.08 mol H
1.01 g H
43.20 g O x 1 mol O = 2.700 mol O
16.0 g O
Step Three: Divide by Small
Oxygen accounts for the smallest number of
moles in the formula, so divide each
element by oxygen’s number of moles:
2.700 mol
Carbon: 4.053 mol / 2.700 mol = 1.501 = 1.5
Hydrogen: 8.08 mol / 2.700 mol = 2.99 = 3
Oxygen: 2.700 mol / 2.700 mol = 1.000 = 1
Remember, we will want whole-number
ratios
Step Four: Multiply ‘Til Whole
In the previous slide, the ratio of C:H:O is
1.5:3:1
We need a whole-number ratio, so we can
multiply everything by 2 to get rid of the 1.5
C 3, H 6, O  2
So, the final empirical formula is C3H6O2
Molecular Formulas
If the empirical formula is different from the
molecular formula, the molecular formula
will always be a simple multiple of the
empirical formula.
Shows the actual number of atoms in each
in a compound. To determine the molecular
formula from percentage composition, the
molar mass must be given.