BSA 2101: ANNUAL CROPS PRODUCTION

Course Name: Annual crops Production

Course Code: BSA 2101
Credit Units: 03

Course Description
This course presents practical and theoretical aspects of production of annual crops that include
characteristics of annual crops, their agronomy and life cycle, storage, processing and value addition in
annual crops.

Course Objectives:
• To explain the basic agronomical principles in production of annual crops
• To train students in the production of annual crops
• To describe the storage, processing and value addition in annual crops

Learning Outcomes:
By the end of this course, the student should be able to;
• Explain the characteristics of annual crops
• Explain the agronomic principles involved in crop production
• Explain the factors that influence annual crop distribution in different farming systems
• Explain conditions suitable for good annual crop performance
• Explain the physiological requirements for maximum annual crop yields
• Describe the growth and developmental stages in annual crops
• Raise a garden of any annual crop for optimum yields

Delivery Mode and Time allocated:

This course is conducted through a series of lectures (35 hrs) and Practicals (30 hrs), adding up to 45 contact
hours.

Course Content:
Lecture topics Sub topics Hrs
1. Agronomic principles of Crop • Principles to improve crop production 6
production • Characteristics of Agriculture in Uganda
• Constraints to agriculture in Uganda
• Agricultural systems in Uganda
• Factors influencing the distribution of crops in different
farming systems
• Origin of annual crops
2. Determinants of crop • Physiological requirements for maximum crop yields 6
performance • Growths and development in cereal, legume and root
crops
 3. Production of legume crops
4. Production of Cereal crops
5. Production of root crops
6 Gender
Practical
Total Contact hrs
• Production of different legume crops 7
• Growth requirements
• Planting, weeding, spacing etc
• Diseases and pests of each legume crop
• Harvesting of each crop
• Processing and value addition
• Production of different cereal crops 7
• Growth requirements
• Planting, weeding, spacing etc
• Diseases and pests of each cereal crop
• Harvesting of each crop
• Processing and value addition
• Production of different root crops 7
• Growth requirements
• Planting, weeding, spacing etc
• Diseases and pests of each root crop
• Harvesting of each crop
• Processing and value addition
• Role of gender in annual crop production 2
• Doing Management practices in each of the crop 10
gardens above from planting to harvesting
45

Mode of Assessment:
Continuous Assessment: This evaluates the continuous performance of students before sitting the final
examination. It is done in form of practicals, tests and assignments. It constitutes 40% of the score.
University examination: This constitutes 60% of the final score. It covers a written examination (essays,
structured and multiple choice questions) at the end of the semester.

References
1. Ssekabembe, C. (2011). General Principles of Agronomy. LAP Lambert Acad. Publ. ISBN:
3844396551.
2. Sheaffer, C. and Moncada, K. (2008). Introduction to Agronomy: Food, Crops, and Environment.
Cengage Learning. SBN: 1418050377.
LECTURE ONE: AGRONOMIC PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITION

Agronomy is a branch of agricultural science that deals with the study of crops and the soils in which they
grow. Agronomy aims to increase crop production and productivity in order to reduce the gap between
supply and demand for food and feeds by the human and livestock population.
Crop production: It is the net produce or output of a crop from a farm land in a season or annually. It deals
with the total volume.
Crop productivity: It is the amount of output per unit input. It deals with the rate of production vaguely.
Annual crops: An annual crop is a crop that completes its life cycle, from germination to the production
of seeds (attain physiological maturity), within one growing season, and then dies. While Perennial crops
are crops that takes two or more years to attain physiological maturity.

S/No. Classification/categories Types Uses

1 Cereals Maize ➢ Provides general human food
Rice ➢ Production of starch
Sorghum ➢ Source of carbohydrate and some protein
Millets ➢ Use in stall feeding
Wheat ➢ Supplement source of firewood
Barley ➢ Source mulching material
Oat ➢ Manure making materials
2 Oil crops Sunflower ➢ Production of raw materials for industries
Simsim ➢ Production of waste for animal feeds as
G/Nuts cakes
Soyabeans ➢ Rich source of oils and proteins
3 Grain Legumes Common beans ➢ Addition of nitrogen in the soil
Pigeon peas ➢ Source of protein in human diet
Cowpea ➢ Stall feeding of livestock
Mungbeans
Chickpea
Field and
garden peas
4 Industrial crops Tobacco ➢ Processed and used as; preserved leaves,
Cotton lint and drugs respectively (sources of raw
Pyrethrum materials for industries)
5 Root tubers Cassava ➢ Sources of carbohydrates and starch in our
Sweet potatoes diet
Potato ➢ Food source for humans
PRINCIPLES TO IMPROVE CROP PRODUCTION
1. Land preparation: The land should be prepared timely and well probably it should be ploughed twice
or more before the onset of rains in order to make a fair/fine seed bed, soft enough to allow the ease of
germination.
2. Early planting: Plant at the onset of rains. Planting early can result in increased yields by taking
advantage of unexpectedly early favorable soil conditions and escape of pests and diseases.
3. Crop rotation: Crop rotation refers to growing crops in a predetermined sequence in a view of achieving
high yields, maintaining soil fertility and controlling pests and diseases.Therefore crop rotation involve
planting crops with different demands on the soil every successive season. This also depends on farmers
needs and income. Crop rotation can also be defined as practice of growing a series of dissimilar types of
crops in the same area in sequential seasons for various benefits such as to avoid the build-up of pathogens
and pests that often occurs when one species is continuously cropped.
4. Intercropping: Intercropping is growing of two or more crops simultaneously in alternate rows or
otherwise in the same area where there is significant amount of inter crop competition. The degree of spatial
and temporal overlap in the two crops can vary somewhat, but both requirements must be met for a cropping
system to be an intercrop.
5. Green fallowing: In green fallow periods, species are shown or favored that have better qualities than
the species that would normally grow spontaneously in fallow period. The goal of green fallow is to quickly
restore the soil fertility. Traditionally fallow periods are used to restore soil fertility after a period of crop
cultivation and to suppress growth of weeds that commonly growth between crops. Many of these weeds
can not compete with weeds that grow during the fallow periods. If farmers has too little land, the fallow
period would be short to restore soil fertility.
5. Use of improved quality seeds/planting materials: Having quality seeds is the basis for increasing
crop yields. Whether you are looking into increasing your annual crop yields, or maximizing your overall
agricultural productivity, you need to consider the strength of your seeds (improved seeds). Using hybrid
seeds that are naturally inclined to grow faster, stronger, and with greater efficiency is pivotal to the success
of your crops. Non-GMO seeds combine sustainability and cost seamlessly, which accounts for both quality
and cost.
6. Pest and disease management: Crop scouting is a crucial step in pest and disease management. It allows
farm managers to quantify the pressure of a pest or diseases within a field consequently pests and disease
management precautions are taken into practice.
6. Proper water management: Water management is essential to crop survival and maximizing your
annual crop yield potential. It’s important to ensure your crop is getting enough water, but also that they
aren’t being over-watered.

7. Fertilizer application: Cultivating your soil with fertilizers is an important part of maintaining optimal
soil conditions for crops on your farmland.

8. Weeding: Weeds are not just the enemy of crops, they can also compromise your farmland. Therefore,
keep the crop weed free and weed atleast thrice and don’t allow the weeds to set seeds. The concept of
critical weed competition period should be put into consideration for example finger millet requires weed
free environment for 45 days to develop vigorous plants.

Strategies for Transforming Ugandan Agriculture

➢ Crop genetic improvement

➢ Crop management

➢ Biotechnology

➢ Markets and trade

➢ Meeting market/consumers’ demand

➢ Public infrastructure

➢ Reduced rural vulnerability and insecurity

➢ Policy and institutions

➢ Identifying Drivers: Social, Technological, Economic, Environmental, Political/Policy (STEEP

analysis)

CHARACTERISTICS OF AGRICULTURE
Agricultural landscape in Uganda

According to 2019 estimates, the population of Uganda is around 44.27 million, up significantly from
2013's estimate of 33,640,833 and its projected to reach 47.187M people by 2020 and yet the land is fixed
{Agricultural land (14.06 mHa) with Arable land of 6.9 MHa}. The agricultural sector is fragmented and
dominated by small farmers most of whom combine subsistence farming with cash crop and livestock
farming with an average of 0.5 acres to 10 ha. Most farmers own land individually except in parts of
Northern Uganda where pastoralists land is owned communally. Low productivity due to rudimentary
farming practices (poor tools, inferior varieties and breeds etc) thus very big yield gap between the research
and farmers yield. Farmers depend on few crops for food and income security in addition to lack or very
little value addition. More still there is heavy dependency on rain fed agriculture with if any few cases of
irrigation. There is a rise in food insecurity and Uganda still suffers from the hardships of widespread
poverty, hunger and malnutrition. Under nutrition is widespread, with 36% of the children chronically
undernourished or stunted (USAID 2019). Agriculture contribute to 85% of export earnings and almost
75% of national employment including employing most of the country’s poor however improvements in
the sector are necessary to expand Uganda’s economy and reduce poverty.

Agricultural landscape in Africa

Agriculture is transforming from subsistence systems to more market-led systems. Smallholder farmers
are generating surpluses of products to sell in local, regional and international markets. Demand for
products (food, feed, feed stocks for bioenergy & bio factory plants) is rising with population growth,
urbanization and changing lifestyles. A new breed of consumers–focused, choosy, ready to pay for quality.
Food demand growth is fastest in the world. SSA population c. 800 million however 220 million are
undernourished. The average population growth ~ 3% and population size expected to double in 35 years.
Population growth is double in urban vs. rural areas.
Assignment one:
1. Discuss the various advantages of intercropping and crop rotation?
2. Discuss the biological basis of yield benefits from intercropping?
3. Briefly discuss the advise you would give to farmers when designing crop rotation on their
farms?
Advantages of intercropping:
1. When crops are carefully selected, other agronomic benefits are also achieved. Lodging-prone
plants, those that are prone to tip over in wind or heavy rain, may be given structural support by
their companion crop.
2. Delicate or light sensitive plants may be given shade or protection, or otherwise wasted space can
be utilized. An example is the tropical multi-tier system where coconut occupies the upper tier,
banana the middle tier, and pineapple, ginger or leguminous fodder, medicinal or aromatic plants
occupy the lowest tier.
3. Intercropping of compatible plants also encourages biodiversity, by providing a habitat for a variety
of insects and soil organisms that would not be present in a single crop environment. This
biodiversity can in turn help to limit outbreaks of crop pests by increasing the diversity or abundance
of natural enemies, such as spiders or parasitic wasps. Increasing the complexity of the crop
environment through intercropping also limits the places where pests can find optimal foraging or
reproductive condition.
4. Erosion control through providing continuous leaf cover over the ground surface. Land is protected
from erosion, runoff is greatly checked.
5. Better use of growth resources thus there is also greater stability of yield over different seasons. It
is the small farmers of limited means who is most likely to benefit.
6. Many pests and diseases multiply more rapidly in a monoculture than in a mixed crop. In a
monoculture, insects can disperse easier and faster. When other crops are present in the field the
insects need more time to search for their host plants. Outbreaks of pests and diseases are generally
less serious in mixed cropping systems. Some crops produce odours that repel insect pests of other
crops. Examples of crops with repelling odours are onion, garlic and lemon grass. When crops are
intercropped with these strong smelling crops they will help to suppress insect attack. For example,
Cabbage-Tomato intercropping is reported to reduce infestation of Diamond-back moth in the
cabbage. Cabbage-Garlic intercropping will also reduce infestation of Diamond back moth. In these
two examples, the tomato and garlic act as a repellent for the pest. Intercropping vegetables with
marigolds is an effective way to manage root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.). Most cultivars
of African marigold (Tagetes erecta) and French marigold (Tagetes patula) are effective in reducing
root-knot population.
7. Another advantage of intercropping is that the soil is used more efficiently. A mixture of various
crops will often give a better coverage of the soil leaving less space for the development of weeds.
The soil is better or more continuously covered from the rain drops, sun shine which disorganizes
weeds.
8. If legumes are used in intercropping, they will contribute to improved soil fertility. Nitrogen fixation
legumes are intercropped with other crops and help to fix nitrogen.
9. It leads to more efficient use of solar radiation
10. It’s an insurance against crop failure. If one crop fails a farmer expects the other to yield.
11. Harvest is done through out the year since storage facilities are poor.
12. By intercropping farmers always find space for planting small quantities of food that is required in
small amounts like cabbage, greens etc
13. Exploitation of resources and soil nutrient is possible because of different rooting system.
14. Intercropping with trees protects soil from erosion, weeds and also gives additional returns.
15. Labour requirement is low. The process of weeding one crop will prepare seed bed for the next
crop.
16. Up to 60% higher yields have been reported from mixture of crops compared to growing single
crops.
However, it has some disadvantages such as yield decrease because of adverse competition effect,
allelopathic effect, creates obstruction in the free use of machines for intercultural operations and large
farmers with adequate resources may likely to get less benefit out of intercropping.
Advantages of crop rotation
Please read>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
Discuss the biological basis of yield benefits from intercropping?
Usually, intercropping results in greater total yields from the combination of crops. The biological basis of
yield benefits can be discussed as follows:
1. Different maturity periods and height of the intercrops has led to increased yield. This so because the
critical growth period of these crops are reached at time thus no competition for available resources.
Growing of sorghum intercropped with finger millet, there is up to 40% yield increase.
2. Different growth cycles, thus more efficient light interception leading to increased yield for example
intercropping maize, millet, and sorghum plus soybean or green gram has led to 5-61 % yield increase.
3. Different rooting depths and growth cycle make the crops to utilize nutrients efficiently since they are
able to tap nutrients at deeper layers thus increasing yield like in dwarf sorghum plus beans has led
to up to 55 % yield increase.
4. Usually, improved temporal use of growth resources is involved because when intercrops are grown
together. They complement each other and make better overall use of resources than when grown
separately. This may be due to differences in plant height, growth habit or maturity periods, and
difference in rooting systems that exploit greater soil depths and result into improved water use or
nutrient up take.
5. Intercrops may also have their nutrient demands at different growth stages. A combination of a tall
and short crop may result in better overall interception and utilization of light. Combination of erect
leaved crops with floppy or horizontal leaved ones may also achieve the same. Intercrops that have
different photosynthetic systems including different requirements for light intensity may result in
better utilization of light in photosynthesis thus increased yield. Thus need to intercrop C3 plants with
C4 plants.
6. In some cropping system, the rooting systems of the companion crops occupy different soil horizons.
This results in better overall utilization of soil resources because they draw water and nutrient from
slightly different parts of the soil. Thus the crops utilize a greater volume of soil than when grown
separately. This occurs when shallow rooted crops like Aloevera and finger millet are intercropped
with deep rooted crops like pigeon pea and cow pea leading to increased yield.
7. When legumes are intercropped with cereals, the legume can fix some of its nitrogen from the
atmosphere and so there can be less demand for nitrogen from the soil. Thus soil nitrogen depletion
would be less compared to when cereals are grown separately and frequently. The legume benefit the
cereal through biological nitrogen fixation and also death of legume roots and decomposition of crop
residues in the field releases some nitrogen to the associated crop. Differences between the
components in the way they exploit the site's growth factors; one well-tried type of combination
contains a leguminous species with one or more non-legumes. Hence, on a soil where nitrate is in
short supply, a mixture of clover (a legume) with a grass (non-legume) may over-yield. Importantly,
where there is little nitrogen in the soil, the non-legume component in the mixture often has a much
greater protein content than in pure culture under such conditions, a mixture of grass and clover will
usually be preferred as fodder to pure grass (or to pure clover, which may cause "bloat"). Thus these
factors tend to increase the yield of intercropped crops.
8. Crops may also differ slightly in nutrient requirements with some crops requiring large amounts than
others or demanding the same nutrients at different peak times during growing season. This may
happen when crops grow at different rates or mature at different times for example long maturity
sorghum Namatera can be intercropped with short maturity finger millet. This leads to increased yield
of up to 40% (Ssekabembe, 1986).
9. Another biological yield basis for crop yields from intercropping systems is greater yield stability. It
may occur because not all intercrops are similarly affected by drought stress or disease epidemics.
For example, drought may ruin beans more than maize in maize- bean mixture depending on the time
of occurrence. This therefore implies that intercropping can prevent total crop loss.
10. The relative dates of the component crops influence the yield of the intercrops with the later-planted
crop usually giving lower yield than when planted early or at the same time as the major crop.
11. Insect pests and disease problems are often less in certain crop mixtures like for cassava intercropped
with cow peas helped to reduce white flies. This reduction in pests in cassava cow peas mixture was
partly responsible for 13 % yield loss in mixtures compared to 58% yield loss in pure stand (Gold,
1994).
12. Difference between components in timing of resource use; if the components of a mixture differ in
the times at which they make demands for soil nutrients or light, the mixture may use site resources
more effectively. Experiments with mixtures of early and fate season potatoes at Wageningen,
Holland, have shown over yielding by more than half of 54 mixtures, sometimes by up to 50 per cent.
Mixtures of flax (early maturing) and linseed (late maturing) over yield for the same reason.
 13. One plant modifies environment for benefit of second species; tall vegetation often greatly alters the
micro-environmental conditions below it and use may be made of this in compounding mixtures for
use in harsh climates. For example, the shade trees could be used for protection of shorter crops from
sun (and drying winds). Taller growing components may act usefully as wind-breaks.
14. Pests and diseases in crop mixture; Individuals of a species in pure culture are often more heavily
damaged than individuals of the same species interspersed among individuals of other species. The
advantages claimed are usually that the companion plants reduce pest damage in the other. The
presence of two or more kinds of crop has several effects:

Qn. Advise you would give to farmers when designing crop rotation on their farms.
Crop rotation refers to growing crops in a predetermined sequence in a view of achieving high yields,
maintaining soil fertility and controlling pests and diseases.Therefore crop rotation involve planting crops
with different demands on the soil every successive season. This also depends on farmers needs and income.
Crop rotation can also be defined as practice of growing a series of dissimilar types of crops in the same
area in sequential seasons for various benefits such as to avoid the build-up of pathogens and pests that
often occurs when one species is continuously cropped.
Crop rotations therefore requires planning and may take several years to get a proper crop rotation method
to use,hence the following are the advise one would give to a farmer in designing a good crop rotation on
the farm;
1. When planning a crop rotation ,the farmers should begin with heavy feeders like cassava,sweet potato
etc
2. The farmers should alternate deep rooting crops with shallow rooting crops such as cotton, castor,
pigeon pea, potato, lentil and green gram, cassava and ground nuts among others.
3. The crop rotation should always have a grass break. This helps to improve soil structure. Arable
cropping should not exceed 4 years before resting the land under grass or bush otherwise the soil looses
its structure.
4. The farmer should alternate easy to weed with difficult to weed crops. Crops with problematic weeds
should be followed by clean or multi cut crops and other dissimilar crops such as wheat-puddle rice for
pharalis minor berseem, potato for chicorium intybus, rice-vegetables for Enchinochloa crusgalli
5. The farmer should not allow crop(s) that share common pests and diseases to suceed each other in the
rotation. For example the wheat and barley should not follow each other in the rotation but instead the
oats and rye have fewer pests and disease problems. Most root and leaf diseases become more severe
under continuous cereals and so should not follow each other in the rotation. Crops susceptible to soil
 borne pathogens and parasitic weeds should alternate with tolerant trap crops such as sugar cane, Mari-
gold (for nematodes) mustard, tobacco-rice, pulses ( for orobanche), pearl millet, castor (for striga).
6. All crop rotations should include a legume crop so as to fix nitrogen.
7. When planning for crop rotation the farmer should put in to consideration food security aspect so that
he has enough food for particular season.
8. Farmers should not plant cereals more than two years in the same row.
9. Use integrated pest and disease management practices including cultural, biological, chemical and
physical methods to prevent and control pests and diseases.
10. Dicots crops should be rotated with monocot crops such as mustard, potato, wheat, rice and sugarcane
11. Leguminous crops should be rotated with non-leguminous crops and vice versa such as green gram-
wheat.
12. Exhaustive crops should be rotated with restorative crops such as potato, sorghum, sugar cane castor
sun hemp, black gram, cow pea.
13. Foliage drop crops should be rotated with non-foliage drop crops such as pulses, cotton and rice. Grain
crops should be rotated with foliage crops such as wheat –dhaincha, black gram
14. Long duration crops should be rotated with short duration crops such as sugar cane, Napier, lucern, cow
pea, black gram, ground nuts.
15. Field crops should be rotated with fodder crops such as wheat, potato, maize + cow pea, berseem.
16. Seed crops should be rotated with multi cut or multi harvest crops such as black gram, wheat, barley,
lucern, berseem and oat.
17. Minimum tillage crops should be alternated with deep tillage crops such as green gram, black gram,
sugar cane and potato.
18. Wet crops should alternate with dry crops such as rice and sugar cane.
19. Pasture crops should be followed by fodder or seed crops such as Napier grass-maize + cow pea oat.
20. Heavy irrigated and intense labour requiring crops should be alternated with less water and labour
requiring crops such as sugar cane, paddy mungbean and sesame.
21. Alternate between leaf and straw crops; this is important for weed suppression.
22. Catch crops, green manures and under-sowing techniques should be used wherever possible to keep the
soil covered as much as possible, protecting it from erosion risks and reducing nutrient leaching.
23. Where a risk of disease or soil borne pest problems exists, potential host crops should occur only once
in the rotation at adequate time intervals; to some extent this is indicated by the concept of self-tolerance
of crops.
24. Use variety and crop mixtures where possible; this reduces severity of pests and diseases.
In addition to the above-mentioned advice, the farmer should also consider the following while planning a
rotation;
❖ balance between cash and food crops,
❖ suitability of individual crops with respect to climate and soil,
❖ seasonal labour requirements and availability, and
❖ cultivations and tillage operations.
All the above advice would help the farmer to sustain the production while gaining economic benefits with
limited resource degradation especially the soil resources.
The choice and sequence of rotation crops depends on the nature of the soil, the climate, and precipitation
which together determine the type of plants that may be cultivated. Other important aspects of farming such
as crop marketing and economic variables must also be considered when deciding crop rotations.
NB: Crop roation may vary from one year to another depending on the farmers wish.
Example of crop rotation for the period of 3 years with the following crops; maize beans,millet
sorghum,cassava,sweet potato,peas and ground nuts.

CONSTRAINTS TO AGRICULTURE IN UGANDA

The major constraints to agricultural sector in Uganda are:
➢ Poor land use and degradation; due to high population bulge against static land, soil mining,
fragile ecosystem encroachment, poor farming practices resulting to low production and
productivity and low use of fertilizers among the farming communities.

➢ Land: Land limitation and fragmentation in some areas in Uganda.

➢ Agricultural inputs: Limited access to quality farm inputs by farmers.
➢ Low value addition to agricultural produce couple with high post-harvest losses due to inadequate
post-harvest technologies
➢ Poor market access/system due to inadequate marketing and agro processing facilities, lack of
marketing data and information, poor road network, and closure of cooperatives by the government.
➢ Lack of agriculture finance: High interest rates, limited access to agricultural finance, collapse
of agricultural banks (no clear commercial bank for agricultural loans at subsidized interest) thus
high agricultural loan interest.
➢ Lack of linkage between research and farmers and yet various technologies have been
developed by research organization.
➢ Extension services-poor facilitation for extension service and large coverage area by the
extension agents.
 ➢ Pests and diseases: Inadequate disease, pests and vector control facilities and yet there are new
emergency of pests and diseases due to climate change.
➢ Limited funding by government and private sector to agricultural sector
➢ Inadequate physical infrastructure/ lack of agricultural machinery to support the sector for
example inadequate storage, irrigation and transport facilities (poor transport network),
rudimentary tools, very limited tractor services or non-existent.
➢ Agricultural laws and policies: Weak implementation of agricultural laws and policies.
➢ Agricultural zoning: The country has not yet been zoned on the basis of different agricultural
crops.

AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS IN UGANDA

Cropping system is cropping pattern (the yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops and fallow on
a given area) used on a farm and its interactions with farm resources, other farm enterprises, and available
technology. Cropping systems may be classified based on the following criteria:
➢ The distribution of crops in time, i.e. whether shifting cultivation, continuous cropping, monoculture,
or crop rotation is practiced
➢ The distribution of the crops in space on the field i.e. whether intercropping or sole cropping is
practiced.
➢ The level of management and resources utilized to produce the crops i.e. whether production is
intensive or extensive.
➢ The type of crop grown e.g. orchards (fruit growing), arable cropping, pasture management, and
forestry.
Farming systems is defined as a population of individual farm systems that have broadly similar resource
bases, enterprise patterns, household livelihoods and constraints, and for which similar development
strategies and interventions would be appropriate. Farming systems relates to the whole component of farm
enterprises rather than individual elements of the farm. Therefore, a cropping system is found within a
given farming system. A farming system is a permanent characteristic of a given geographical area since it
is determined partly by environmental factors, while a cropping system of a given farmer/producer in a
given farming system can change from year to year.
Farming system can be defined as a complex of socio and ecological system by which populations derive
food, livelihood and economic growth. Farming system in Uganda have been conveniently divided into
seven broad agro ecological zones based on:
Similar climatic conditions
Similar soil types
Similar topography that also influences rainfall
Similar economic and social characteristics
These are often further split into subzones based on similar crop combinations, size of land holding, average
plot sizes and crop and livestock yields.

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DISTRIBUTION OF CROPS IN DIFFERENT FARMING

SYSTEMS

Various factors influence where annual crops are grown; climate, edaphic, topography and socio-economic
factors:

ORIGIN OF ANNUAL CROPS

Our ancestors started to domesticate wild plants some 10,000 years ago in Near-Asia, some 8.000 years
ago in Central America and possibly some 10.000 years ago in South East Asia. This domestication process
was most likely a gradual process. One of the possible courses could have been the following one:
1. Parts of wild plants are collected (fruits, seeds, roots, tubers etc.)
2. Wild plants, growing around the settlements (temporary or permanent ones) and derived from thrown
away or lost plant parts, are used.
3. Plant species, adapted to disturbed and enriched habitats (due to debris from man and its animals) become
permanent residents of the human settlements (camp followers) and start to become a permanent source of
food.
4. Man tries to improve the growing conditions of those camp followers he considers most useful by for
instance the removal of less useful plants.
5. Man develops activities to obtain more of the desired plants, such as conscious sowing or planting,
preparation of the location to be planted. When moving to another location seed and planting material were
taken with him.
6. By now man has become dependent to a considerable degree on the plants he is tending and growing.
Hunting and collecting however is still an important activity.
7. During the process of domestication the crop is changing. Man selects consciously and unconsciously
the types most suitable to him. At the same time the habitat in which the domesticated plants are grown,
and which is different from the original wild habitat, carries a selection pressure as well (Table 1). The
selection pressures exercised by man, by the growing methods, by the soil, climate, weather, diseases and
pests are in general not in the same direction. The collective result is therefore unpredictable.

Table 1. Characteristics of wild and domesticated forms of plants

S/no. Characteristic Wild Domesticated
01 Ability to compete good poor
with other species
02 Size of seed & small large
fruits
03 Dispersal The ear breaks up does not break up
mechanisms The pods burst easily remain closed
The stolons (potatoes) are long They are short
04 Defensive devices They have thorns, prickles and Thorns/prickles are absent and bitter/
bitter, poisonous compounds poisonous compounds absent or less.
05 Uniformity in Not uniform/ scanty Great
germination

How many plant species have been domesticated? Excluding the wide range of ornamentals, it is only a
group of about 500 species (out of the over 300,000 known botanical species). These crops have often a
world-wide distribution within the climatic zones suitable for them (wheat, barley, rice, maize, potatoes,
cassava, bananas). Others are only of local importance (teff,). Of some families many species have been
domesticated (gramineae, leguminoseae, solanaceae, rosaceae), of many families few to none. When, as
Vavilov did, the variation in a crop is studied in detail, it appears that some regions show a conspicuously
high variation for several to many crops. These regions are indicated as Centers of diversity or as gene
centers. These regions have in general a long agricultural history and tend to be geographically quite
heterogeneous. The most important centers of diversity according to Vavilov, who did his classical research
in the period between 1920 and 1940, were in general terms (see also Fig. 1):

1. The Chinese centre: various millet species (Panicum), soybean, citrus, tea, cucumis, various vegetables.
2/2a. India, South East Asia, Indonesia region: rice, sugarcane, Citrus, Gossipium arboreum (cotton). In
2a. also banana, coconut.
3. The central Asian centre: wheat, rye, flax, pea, cucumis, onion, Gossipium barbadense (cotton), apple.
4. The near east centre: wheat, barley, rye, oats, cabbage, grape, tulip, apple.
5. The Mediterranean region: wheat, barley, cabbage, olive, beet (Beta), asparagus.
6. The Ethiopian centre: Arabica coffee, barley, wheat, pea.
7. The Central American centre: common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris, Gossipium hirsutum) (cotton), pepper
(Capsicum), tobacco.
8. The Andean centre: potato, tomato, common bean, cotton, tobacco.
8a. The Chili centre: potato, one of the parents of out strawberry, Fragaria chiloensis
8b. The Brazil/Paraguay centre: ground nut, rubber, cassava.

However, the situation appears to be more complex. Many crops find their centers of diversity outside the
centers described above. The area south of the Sahara carries a great diversity of various crops such as
Robusta coffee, oil palm, pearl millet, sorghum, white yam (Dioscorea rotundata), and cowpea (Vigna
unguiculata). The centers of diversity are often called centers of origin. This is not a correct term since
various crops have more than one centre of diversity (see barley, wheat etc.).
Several crops have been domesticated for various purposes. With flax there are cultivars for long fibers and
cultivars with large seeds and a high oil content for oil production. With peas there are cultivars grown for
the young and tender pods, cultivars for the young and tender peas and for the dry peas. The evolution from
a wild species to a modern crop has been very drastic in some cases, so drastic that the wild progenitor is
hardly recognizable (maize, lettuce, cabbage) or the wild progenitor is unknown or has disappeared (faba
bean, date palm).
Fig 1: Center of diversity (Gene centers)
Assignment 2:
1. What are the significances of knowing the centers of diversity of crops?
2. Is it erroneous to conclude the centers of crop diversity or gene centers are similar with center of origin?
Why? Why not? Give examples.

DETERMINANTS OF CROP PERFORMANCE

Physiological requirements for maximum crop yields
Discuss factors that determine yield potential in crops?
Yield potential is the maximum or the highest possible yield attainable when the crop is grown with the
ideal agronomic practices and in the presence of optimum soil conditions (particularly soil fertility and soil
moisture content) and favorable weather (NUE web, 2009). Potential yield is attained with good
management practices. Factors that determine yield potential in crop production are discussed as follows
and its determined by five physiological factors: prior events, photosynthesis, partitioning, pod (grain)
filling period, and prior accumulation and remobilization as discussed below;
1. Prior events of yield determination-This include the establishment of an adequate leaf area or
canopy cover that is responsible for interception of solar radiation. The accumulation of biomass
and yield of crops depends greatly on the amount of incident photosynthetically active radiation
(PAR) intercepted by the canopy and the efficiency with which the intercepted PRA is used to
produce dry matter (Lizaso et al., 2003). Early establishment of leaf area index enhances
interception of solar radiation. The factor that influences leaf initiation and leaf area development
have direct bearing on leaf area index and canopy cover and, ultimately, light interception and yield.
The leaf growth and longevity are influenced by temperature, rainfall, and soil fertility
(especially its N content).
2. Photosynthesis-Its production of carbohydrates by plants and it takes place in chloroplast
(chlorophyll) by utilizing carbondioxide in the presence of solar energy, water, and certain enzymes
and co-factors. Photosynthesis is influenced by leaf area index, light intensity, temperature, soil
moisture, carbon dioxide concentration and the photosynthetic path ways (c3 versus c4). These
factors may affect photosynthesis positively or negatively thus influencing yield potential in either
direction. When the rate of photosynthesis is high, there will be adequate carbohydrates for plant
growth and development thus maximum yield of the crop will be achieved.
3. Partitioning of assimilates- Partitioning refers to allocation of carbohydrates to different plant
parts including the organs of the plant that can be harvested. This has a central role in determining
yield potential. The photo-assimilates in the leaves (and other green parts of the plant) are divided
 into roots, shoots (stems), and grains or tubers and other centers of growth. Sink size and
activity and management factors (such as pruning and topping) are among the factors that
influence partitioning of assimilates. During drought period assimilates can be remobilized from
roots, stem, and leaves and subsequently partitioned to the yield forming organs such as grains. For
higher yields, it is desirable that during reproductive growth the plant allocates a higher proportion
of assimilates to the developing grains. Similarly, in tuber crops such as yams and potato, tuber
yield is not only dependent on the rate of dry matter production but also degree of distribution or
partitioning to the tubers.
4. Pod-filling period or duration of partitioning of assimilates to the yield forming organs determines
yield because it influences the amount of photosynthates that are accumulated in the pod or grains.
In cereals it is called the grain filling period and its length has a direct bearing on yield. The rate
of filling the pods or grains, rate of current photosynthesis and thus the availability of
photosynthates are among factors that influence this parameter. Crop whose yield potential has been
improved through a long grain or pod filling period include soya bean in the tropical parts of
Australia, hybrid maize in the Kenya highlands etc (Cavalieri and Smith, 1985).
5. Prior accumulation and remobilization of carbon and nitrogen occurs when materials previously
stored in other organs, such as stems and roots, are solubilised and translocated to the grains during
grain filling period. This process is particularly important when; plants are growing under hot and
dry conditions or when drought stress occurs during the grain filling period, and the supply of
current assimilates is reduced due to the effect of drought on the rate of photosynthesis (Papakosta
and Gigianas, 1991; Royo et al., 1999). For example, stem carbohydrate reserves can contribute 10-
12% of the final grain yield of wheat grown under normal conditions and more than 40% for plants
grown under drought or heat stress conditions (Rawson and Evans, 1971; Austine et al., 1980). In
sorghum, a large stem storage reserve at the beginning of grain filling period also enables stable
grain filling under conditions of stress that depress photosynthesis or source capacity for filling the
grains (Blum et al., 1997). Remobilized nitrogen can be considerable source of N for the grains and
estimate of its contribution to the total seed N content at maturity are 11-100% in soya bean and 41-
69% in maize (Zeiher et al., 1982; Rajcan and Tollenaar, 1999; Egli, 2004). Genotype that do not
remobilized N have to rely more on the soil N source during grain filling period (Rajcan and
Tollenaar, 1999). N deficit is translocated from the bottom older leaves and stems to the young
leaves since N is mobile in plants and the same happens during grain filling period when N is
translocated to the developing panicle and the grains thereafter.
Conclusion
Of the five factors that determine yield potential, it is perhaps the prior events that the farmers can
manipulate most with some degree of success and enhance their yield targets. Thus, farmers can plant early
and apply some nitrogen fertilizer where applicable so that the crop can develop critical leaf area for quick
light interception and enhance the process of photosynthesis which they can hardly manipulate in other
ways. Plant in narrow rather than wide rows also enables faster leaf area development and canopy cover
over the soil surface, thus better light interception. Other factors like pod and grain filling and its duration
may possibly be influenced through selection or breeding for better varieties and ensuring that stresses like
moisture stress do not occur during these critical periods.

Discuss factors that limits crop yield?

Definition of crop yield: Crop yield is the amount of produce that the farmer harvest at the end of crop
growth and development thus it includes all the dry matter produced by the plant, and biological yield or
biomass. In general, yield can be summarized as amount of economic or commercial part of the crop the
farmer harvests.

The factors that limit crop yield in agricultural production can be biological, edapthic, socio-economic
and physical:
Biological factors
1. Insect pests-these can be very damaging to potential yield both in the field and store. In the field
some pests live in the soil and cause damage to the crop by feeding on the crop roots thus reducing
plant development or they may kill the plant for example termites, nematodes etc. some pests
damage the growing points and cause dead hearts in crops like stem borers. Others like white flies
and aphids affect crop growth though sucking of the sap and transmission of viral diseases. Wild
pest like bush pigs and monkeys can damage crops in the field. Birds also damage crops in the field
right from planting to harvest. If these pests are not controlled, they are capable of inflicting total
crop loss in some crops thus low crop yield.
2. Weeds –these affect all crops and can cause total yield loss if not controlled. Weeds compete with
crops for the available nutrient thus reducing plant growth and development thus reduction in yield.
Other weeds are parasitic to crops like Striga sp on sorghum and maize. Weeds also act as
alternative hosts for insect pests and diseases. This later has an indirect effect on yield reduction.
Certain weeds carry pathogens from one season to another. Some weeds can also lower the quality
of the produce and make harvesting of underground tubers, difficult resulting in many tubers being
 left in the ground. Others block the drainage pipes and make irrigation difficult when they block the
water channel.
3. Diseases- they cause damage to crops in several ways; for example pathogens may lead to necrosis
and mottling or yellowing in the leaves which are associated with loss of chlorophyll in leaves,
distortion or twisting of leaves that has direct effect on photosynthesis thus low crop yield. Some
diseases cause wilting of the plants by blocking the xylem vessels like bacterial diseases. Others
affect the growing points leading to dieback, lower yields through premature defoliation, faster
maturity and reduced number of normal pods per plant thus reduced weight of the grains.
4. Lodging-lodging of cereals during windy rain weather and when too much nitrogen fertilizer is
used that induces faster or vigorous growth with very weak stems. The lodged plant may rot in the
ground and loss seeds thus reduced yield.
5. Premature abscission of flowers, pods, capsules and fruits. This may result due to nutrient
deficiency in the soil like potassium in fruiting crops. It can result due to infection from diseases
and pest infestation. Even natural calamities like drought when it concides with the on set of
flowering can lead to premature abscission of flowers common in mangoes thus low yield.
6. Shattering in some crops like beans before it is harvested results in loss of grains. This may result
due to genetical factor in the crop.
7. Degeneration of the quality of planting materials used. The quality of planting materials used may
degenerate due to repeatedly use of seeds for planting, use of low quality seeds or infected seeds
as planting material and even cross pollination in open pollinated plants can low the quality of
hybrid released. Hence reducing crop yield in agricultural production.
Edapthic factors
1. Soil fertility-low soil fertility can lead to declining and low crop yield. Low soil fertility may be
caused by over cultivation and the related problems of nutrient deficiencies or excessive nutrient in
the soil.
2. Soil salinity resulting from use of poor quality irrigation water. This leads to accumulation of salts
in the soil therefore altering the soil PH which may be unfavorable for plant growth and
development thus low yields.
3. Soil moisture-shortage of soil moisture during drought periods may result reduced plant growth
that ends up affecting the crop yield since people mostly depend on rainfall for soil moisture that
are not reliable in most cases.
4. Water logging or flooding of low lying areas are not favourable for plant growth thus can lead to
total crop failure if the water is left standing in the field for a prolonged period.
 5. Soil temperature-high soil temperature may affect seed germination leading to poor crop stand in
the field thus low yield. Chilling temperatures also posses serious problem in some areas or parts
of the world.
Socio-economic factors
1. Labour shortage-this results into poor crop management in terms of late planting, failure to control
insect pests, diseases and weeds or untimely control of weeds, low plant populations and poor crop
nutrition.
2. Limited availability of tools and equipment including those for sowing and weeding and yet it is
tedious in the broad cast crop.
3. Poverty-many small-scale farmers lack resources to acquire inputs like fertilizers, improved seeds
etc that could have resulted into high crop yield. Thus they use local unimproved variety with low
yields.
4. Poor attitude- some people have negative attitude towards use of improved technologies in crop
production that would otherwise, improve crop yield.
5. Shortage of suitable planting materials such as stem cuttings, improved seeds, and seed tubers in
rural areas result into low yields.
6. Shortage of crop land and difficulties in renting land for crop production has resulted into
continuous cropping without replenishment of soil fertility which leads to low soil fertility thus low
yield.
7. Poor land tenure system that has resulted into land fragmentation. This has made farmers not to
use some of improved method of production hence low yields.
8. Poor government policies including low priority to agriculture where low percentages of the
government funds have being allocated for agriculture results in to low yields.
9. Scarcity of foreign exchange to import agricultural inputs has increased the price of these inputs
making it uneconomical for farmers to acquire.
10. Poor social relationship among people has resulted into tribal/clan wars which disrupt food
production in affected areas and crop destruction thus low yield.
Physical/weather
1. Rainfall in relation to poor distribution and reliability-some times there is excessive rainfall that
leads to flooding which affects plant growth therefore low yield. There is shortage of moisture in
soil especially during drought period. This affects plant growth due to wilting some times.
2. Hailstones –this split leaves thus affecting photosynthesis and produce quality if the leaves are of
economic interest.
 3. Light intensity- some crops require high light intensity, but this may be altered by weather which
may be cloudy during growing season thus affecting crop growth.
4. High temperature and relative humidity favour pest multiplication both in field and store that tend
to reduce crop yield.
Conclusion
Crop yield is influenced by interaction between inherent genetic and environmental factors as discussed
above. The environmental factors include climate, soil, and other living organism that interact with the
growing crops and management capability of the farmer like plant spacing, water/fertilizer application,
weed control etc. A given genotype does not respond in the same way in terms of performance and yield
when grown in different environment. Hence in order to increase crop yield or cab factors that limits crop
yield we must take in to consideration both genetic and environmental factors.

GROWTHS AND DEVELOPMENT IN CEREAL, LEGUME AND ROOT CROPS

Growth is the irreversible change in size of cells and plant organs due to both cell division and enlargement.
There are two types of growth; determinate-when an organ or part or whole organism reaches a certain
size and then stops growing or indeterminate-when cells continue to divide indefinitely. Plants in general
have indeterminate growth.

Plant development is the progression from earlier to later stages in maturation, e.g. a fertilized
egg develops into a mature tree. It is the process whereby tissues, organs, and whole plants are produced.
It involves: growth, morphogenesis (the acquisition of form and structure), and differentiation. The
interactions of the environment and the genetic instructions inherited by the cells determine how the plant
develops. The interactions of the environment and the genetic instructions inherited by the cells determine
how the plant develops.

In broad terms, the stages of development in plants can be divided into the following: vegetative,
reproductive, ripening, and senescence. Each stage can be subdivided into various component substages
or phases. Although plant development is cyclical, here the seed is considered as the starting point for the
sequential events leading to a mature plant, the formation of seed, and finally death.

The Major Stages of Development in Plants

1. Vegetative Stage. - This is generally a lengthy period of development in plants, starting from seed
germination until prior to reproductive stage. In seed germination the young, quiescent plant (embryo)
within the seed initiates active growth and ultimately the embryonic root (radicle) and the embryonic shoot
(epicotyl) extend outward from the seed.

Fig. Initial stage of plant development from seed germination

The seedling emerges from the soil and soon assumes independent growth. Subsequently, the plant grows
bigger with more roots and more aerial parts such as tillers (as in rice), nodes and internodes, branches and
leaves. This stage terminates immediately before it reaches reproductive stage at which time it starts to
initiate the formation of inflorescences (i.e., panicle in rice) and flower primordia.

In trees and other perennial crops, this stage of development is also called the juvenile stage during which
the tree progressively increases in root mass and size of trunk, branches, canopy and height, but not
reproductive parts. Therefore a tree which cannot be induced to flower is referred to as a juvenile while
another which has reached fruit-bearing age is called mature or adult.

2. Reproductive Stage. - This stage of development in plants occurs after the vegetative or juvenile stage
is completed. At this stage the plants are considered mature, that is, they are physiologically capable of
commencing the production of reproductive parts: the flowers, fruits and seeds. This stage consists of the
period from the time that the plant starts to form inflorescence or flower primordia (called booting in rice)
until flowering, pollination, and fertilization. According to Ryugo (1988), in fruit trees the reproductive
stage commences with a transition phase during which few flowers are produced.

3. Ripening stage. - In annual crops, this is the developmental stage during which botanical fruits and seeds
are formed. But for horticultural crops, ripening has been defined as “the composite of the processes that
occur from the latter stages of growth and development through the early stages of senescence and that
results in characteristic aesthetic and/or food quality, as evidenced by changes in composition, color,
texture, or other sensory attributes” (Watada et al. 1984).
In rice, ripening starts after fertilization (syngamy) and ends when the grains (commonly called seeds)
become mature (GRiSP 2013). A seed is physiologically mature when it has achieved maximum
accumulation of dry matter (and dry weight). However, at this stage of maturity the seeds would have high
moisture content of about 30-35%. To accelerate drying of seeds even while still attached to the plant, it is
a common practice to drain the paddy field of water about 1-2 weeks before the harvest schedule.

4. Senescence. - This is the final stage of development in plants during which physical and chemical
changes occur leading to the death of the whole plant. In annual plants, senescence may start during the
reproductive stage and plant death sets in soon after seed maturity which marks the end of irreversible
growth. Progressive change in color from green to yellowish (chlorosis) is a major indicator of leaf
senescence and the start of whole-plant death.

Case study 1: Cereals

Phase I: Vegetative phase: Germination to flower initiation
➢ Germination: Its influenced by temp, air (O2) & moisture. Other factors are seedbed condition,
depth of planting, seed type and quality.
➢ Leaf production, growth, expansion (LAI): Depends on early planting, Pests and disease, Shading,
Nutrients and water.
➢ Stem growth; elongation and expansion (food reserve) and tiller production: This is influenced by
Spacing adopted (close spacing limits tillering, too wide spacing leads to too much tillering- mutual
shading and tiller death and environmental facto and Nutrient availability (N & P).

Phase II: Flower initiation to Anthesis

➢ Anthesis is the period during which a flower is fully opened and fuctional.
➢ Rapid growth and unfolding of leaves- maximum number of leaves formed; 6-10 wheat, 10-14
sorghum, and 12-18 maize.
➢ Carbohydrates production & partitioning (stem growth, reproductive structures, tassel, panicle
production & maintenance.
Phase III: Anthesis to Physiological maturity
➢ Grain growth and expansion: Assimilates produced in Phase III by the flag leaf (30-40%), other
leaves (30-40%), other green parts (20-30%) & remobilization from stem reserves.
➢ Nodal tillers are formed as a result of excess assimilates and Leaf area index decline and formation
of black layer.
Case 1: Growths and development in cereals

Case 2: Growths and development in legume

Case 2: Growths and development in Root crops
➢ Emergence and sprouting: Adventitious roots develop from cut point of the stem and
buds and emergence of young leaves
➢ Beginning of leaf development & root system: True leaves start to develop and
expand, shoot & root development, Fibrous roots d development to replace
adventitious, Water and mineral use efficiency, and storage root development.
➢ Stem development and canopy establishment: LAI maximum, Stem enlargement,
branching effective, Storage root bulking and Reproductive structures emerge.
➢ Carbohydrate translocation: Partitioning of assimilates (roots and flowers). This
determines yield of root crop (harvest index). High DM accumulation, Leaf senescence
and fall and stem lignification.
➢ Dormancy: Rate of leaf production reduced, fall of leaves and starch translocation to
roots and remobilization in case of stress. A cycle is completed, and new vegetative
growth starts.