Kinds of Variables and Their Uses

The root of the word variable is related to the word “vary,” which
should help us understand what variables might be. In statistical research, a
variable is defined as an attribute of an object of study or anything that has a
quantity or qualitythat varies.
A variable is something that can change, such as gender, which can be
either male or female, the age which can be 15 years old, 16 years old, or 30 years
old and they are typically the focus of a study.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF VARIABLES

1. Dependent variables represent the outcome of the experiment. In the

given example, if the independent variable is the amount of salt added to
each plant’s water, then the dependent variable is any measurement of
plant health like growth and wilting. In other words, the variation in the
dependent variable depends on the variation in the independent
variable.

2. Independent variables are variables you manipulate to affect the

outcomeof an experiment. For example, the amount of salt added to each
plant’s water. This "control" may involve manipulating existing variables.
Whatever the case may be, the researcher expects that the independent
variable(s) will have some effect on (or relationship with) the dependent
variables.

3. Controlled variables are held constant throughout the experiment. For

example, the temperature and light in the room the plants are kept in, and
the volume of water given to each plant.

4. Intervening or meddling variables are variables that “stand between” the

independent variable and dependent variables, and they show the effects of
the independent variable on the dependent variable.

Example: Even if farm production is good, if the attitude towards

payment is negative, loan repayment would be low, whereas, if the
attitude towards repayment is positive or favorable, loan repayment
would be high.

FARM ATTITUDES LOAN

PRODUCTION TOWARD REPAYMENT
REPAYMENT

Dependent variable Independent variable Dependent variable

5. Moderator variables can be qualitative (non-numerical values like race,

socioeconomic class, or sex) or quantitative (numerical values like weight,
reward level, or age). For example, According to the American
 Psychological Association, stress has a bigger impact on men than
women. Sex is a qualitative variable that moderates the strength of an
effect between stress and health status. These are useful variables
because they help explain the links between the independent and
dependent variables and provide additional information regarding the
association between two variables in quantitative research by
explaining what features can make that association stronger, weaker, or
even disappear.

6. Extraneous variables are those factors in the research environment

whichmay affect the dependent variables but which are not controlled. These
are dangerous. They may damage a study’s validity, making it impossible to
know whether the effects were caused by the independent and moderator
variables or some extraneous factors. If they cannot be controlled, extraneous
variables must at least be taken into consideration when interpreting results.
It depends on the study itself which variables are extraneous. The extraneous
variable is a variable that may affect the variables of your interest, so it could
be anything.

For example, if you are interested in the influence of emotion (independent

variable)on short-term memory (dependent variable), any other variable that you
suspect
influences memory, and that you cannot control is considered an extraneous
variable. It could be personality traits, environmental conditions, use of drugs,
etc.

Writing your ResearchIntroduction

Create a Research Space (CARS) Model of Research Introductions

Sometimes getting through the introduction of a research article can be the
most difficult part of reading it. In his CARS model, Swales describes three "moves"
that almost all research introductions make. The provided summary of Swales’ model
here is a kind of shorthand to help you in both reading research articles and writing
them. When you write your papers, making the same moves yourself will help you
present your arguments clearly and convincingly because following this model can
help you to: (1) begin the writing process, (2) understand how an introduction sets
the stage for the rest of your paper, and (3) assess how the introduction fits within
the larger scope of your study.
Move 1: Establishing a Territory (the situation). In this move, the author
sets the context for his or her research, providing the necessary background on the
topic. This is generally accomplished in two ways: (1) by indicating that a general
area of your research paper is important, critical, interesting, problematic, relevant,
or otherwise worthy of investigation, and (2) by introducing and reviewing key
sources of prior research in that area to show where gaps exist or where prior
research has been inadequate in addressing the research problem. This move
includes one or more of the following steps:
Step 1: Claiming Centrality. The author asks the discourse community
(the audience for the paper) to accept that the research about to be reported
is part of a lively, significant, or well-established research area. Inthis step, you
describe the research problem and you provide evidence to support why the
 topic is worth studying. To claim centrality, the author might write:
"Recently there has been a spate of interest in ..."
"Knowledge of X has great importance for ..."
This step is used widely across the academic disciplines, though less
in the physical sciences than in the social sciences and the humanities.
Step 2: Making Topic Generalizations. The author makes statements
about current knowledge, practices, or phenomena in the field. In this step,
you provide statements about the current state of knowledge, consensus,
practice, or description of phenomena. For example:
"The properties of X are still not completely understood."
"X is a common finding in patients with ..." and/or

Step 3: Reviewing Previous Items of Research. The author relates

what has been found on the topic and who found it. In this step, you synthesize
prior research that further supports the need to study the researchproblem;
this is not a literature review but more a reflection of key studies that have
touched upon but perhaps not fully addressed the topic. For example:
"Both Johnson and Morgan claim that the biographical facts have
been misrepresented."
"Several studies have suggested that. .. (Gordon, 2003; Ratzinger,
2009)."
"Reading to children early and often seems to have a positive long-
term correlation with grades in English courses (Jones, 2002; Strong,
2009)."

When citing the research of others, the author may use integral citation
(citing the author's name in the sentence, as in the first example above) or
non-integral citation (citing the author's name in parentheses only, as in the
second and third examples above). The use of different types of verbs (e.g.,
reporting verbs such as "shows" or "claims") and verb tenses (past, present
perfect, or present) varies across disciplines.
Move 2: Establishing a Niche (the problem). In this move, the author argues
that there is an open "niche" in the existing research, a space that needs to be filled
through additional research. This refers to making a clear and cogent argument that
your particular piece of research is important and possesses value. This can be done
by indicating a specific gap in previous research, by challenging a broadly accepted
assumption, by raising a question, a hypothesis, or need, or by extending previous
knowledge in some way. The author can establish a niche in one of four ways:
 a. Counter-claiming. The author refutes or challenges earlier
research by making a counter-claim. In this step, you
introduce an opposing viewpoint or perspective or identify a
gap in prior research that you believe has weakened or
undermined the prevailing argument. For example:
"While Jones and Riley believe X method to be accurate, a close
examination demonstrates their method to be flawed."
b. Indicating a Gap. The author demonstrates that earlier
research does not sufficiently address all existing questions or
problems. In this step, you develop a research problem around a
gap or understudied area of the literature. For example:
“While existing studies have established X, they have not
addressed Y."

c. Question-raising. The author asks questions about previous

research, suggesting that additional research needs to be
done. In this step, you do present key questions about the
consequences of gaps in prior research that will be addressed
by your present study. For example:
"While Jones and Morgan have established X, these findings raise
several questions, including ..”
d. Continuing a Tradition. The author presents the research as
a useful extension of existing research. In this step, you extend
prior research to expand upon or clarify a research problem
which is often signaled with logical connecting terminology. For
example:
"Earlier studies seemed to suggest X. Hence, to verify this finding,
more work is urgently needed."

Move 3: Occupying a Niche. In this move, the author turns the niche established
in Move 2 into the research space that he or she will fill; that is, the author
demonstrates how he or she will substantiate the counter-claim made, fill the gap
identified, answer the question(s) asked, or continue the research tradition. The author
makes this move in several steps, described below. In this move, you announce how
your study will contribute new knowledge or new understanding in contrast to prior
research on the topic and you also describe the remaining organizational structure of the
paper. The initial step (1A or IB) is obligatory, though many research articles stop after
that step.
Step 1A: Outlining Purposes. The author indicates the main
purpose(s) of the current article. In this step, you answer the question “So
what?” which clearly explains the objectives of your study. For example:
"In this article, the researchers argue ..."
"The present research tries to clarify ..." or
 Step 1B: Announcing Present Research. The author describes the
research in the current article. In this step, you describe the purpose of your
study in terms of what the research is going to do or accomplish. For example:
"This paper describes three separate studies conducted between
March 2008 and January 2009."
Step 2: Announcing Principal Findings. The author presents the
main conclusions of his or her research. In this step, you present a brief,
general summary of key findings. For example:
"The results of the study suggest..."
"When we examined X, we discovered ..."
Step 3: Indicating the Structure of the Research Article. The author
reviews the organization of the article. For example:
"This paper is structured as follows ..."

Examples of research introduction integrating the CARS Model:

I. Move 1: Establishing a Territory
Step 1 (Claiming Centrality): Autism Spectrum Disorder refers to a group of
brain development disorders, often characterized by repetitive behaviors, and
problems with social interaction and communication. (lead-in should be brief and
clear)
Step 2 (Making Topic Generalizations): In today’s world of social media, the
socialization of children must involve many different mediums and approaches. (flesh
out the context and point to its relevance)
Step 3 (Reviewing Previous Items of Research): American theorist John
Dewey concluded that human beings learn best from a “hands-on” approach to
education. (connect what has been proposed to who proposed it)

Move 2: Establishing a Niche

a (Counter-claiming): However, recent experiments in the laboratory show

However, these experiments have failed to recognize that…

(point out flaws in already-established research in the field)
b/c (Indicating a Gap/ Question-raising): The question remains, is Freud’s
theory of psychosexual development relevant in today’s social climate? (demonstrate
a deficiency of research on the topic or raise a specific question)
d (Continuing a Tradition): Hence, additional research of … are needed… (use
logical connectors such as “therefore”, “consequently”, “hence”, or “thus”)

Move 3: Occupying a Niche

Step 1A (Outlining Purposes): The study will evaluate the link between anxiety
disorders and internet usage. (outline what you intend to accomplish in conducting the
research)
 or
Step 1B (Announcing Present Research): The researcher will argue that the use
of electronic readers has had an improvement in literacy rates among grade school
students. (give a sense of how you reached your conclusion, but avoid too much detail)
Step 2 (Announcing Principal Findings): The results show that there is an
observable correlation between social media activity and test scores in high school
students. The results support popular scholarly theories that a traditional high
school curriculum does not engage today’s generation of students. Further research
could examine the links between social media and educational reform. (quick
summary of the results of your study)
Step 3 (Indicating the Structure of the Research Article): This paper will be
divided into four main sections: Hypothesis, Initial Research, Comparative Studies,
and Final Results.

Writing your Research Hypothesis

A research hypothesis is considered as an educated guess. A hypothesis is an assumed answer to

a question (A Research Guide 2019).

Types of Research Hypothesis

In providing a research hypothesis to your research problem, you must
acquaint yourself with the types of the research hypothesis, alternative hypothesis,
and null hypothesis (Bacon-Shone 2013). Although in your research work, the null
hypothesis is the one you either reject or failed to reject, it will be more beneficial if
you get yourself acquainted with the different of these two types of hypotheses.
1. Null Hypothesis (H0)
A null hypothesis is a statement telling that either the significant
difference or significant relationship does not exist.
Example:
a. Is there a significant relationship between households’ monthly electricity
bills and the sleeping schedule of the family members?
Ho:
There is no significant relationship between households’ monthly
electricity bills and the sleeping schedule of the family members.

b. Is there a significant difference between the gas consumption of the three

motorcycle brands having the same horsepower?
Ho:
There is no significant difference among the gas consumption of the three
motorcycle brands having the same horsepower

c. Is there a significant difference in the students’ mastery of the lesson before

and after using the mobile research application?
Ho:
There is no significant difference in the students’ mastery of the lesson
before and after using the mobile research application.
 d. Is there a significant difference between the level of cultural awareness of
the two groups?
Ho:
There is no significant difference between the level of cultural awareness
of the two groups

A null hypothesis, to put it simply, is a statement telling that there is no

existence of significant difference or relationship or no significant effect of a
variable to another.

2. Alternative Hypothesis (H1)

An alternative hypothesis is a positive statement of what you, as a
researcher, expect to find (Burke and Christensen 2014). An alternative
hypothesis, to put it simply, is a statement telling that there is the existence
of a significant difference or relationship or existence significant effect of a
variable to another variable.
a. Is there a significant relationship between households’ monthly electricity
bills and the sleeping schedule of the family members?
H1:
There is a significant relationship between households’ monthly electricity
bills and the sleeping schedule of the family members.

An alternative hypothesis could also be directional which states the

greater or lesser value or non-directional which states of non-equal value.

b. Is there a significant difference among the gas consumption of the three

motorcycle brands having the same horsepower?
H1:
There is a significant difference in the gas consumption of the three
motorcycle brands having the same horsepower. (Non-directional)
Brand X has significantly greater gas consumption among the three
motorcycle brands having the same horsepower. (Directional)

c. Is there a significant difference in the students’ mastery of the lesson

before and after using the mobile research application?
H1:
There is a significant difference in the students’ mastery of the lesson
before and after using the mobile research application. (Non-directional)
Before using the mobile research application, students’ have a significantly
lesser mastery of the lesson. (Directional)

d. Is there a significant difference between the level of cultural awareness of

the two groups?
H1:
There is a significant difference between the level of cultural awareness of
the two groups. (Non-directional)
Group A has a significantly higher level of cultural awareness then Group
B. (Directional)
Stating the Significance ofyour Research Study
Stating the Scope and Delimitation of your Study

Scope
The scope is the extent of the study and contains measurements, which is a
quantitative study would include the number of participants, the geographical
location, and other pertinent numerical data.
This also refers to the depth at which the research area will be explored. Facts
and theories about the subject are included in this area. For instance, one might
decide to carry out a study of the impact of mobile devices on the behavior patterns
of elementary school kids. However, it is infeasible to cover all aspects of the selected
subject. If so, the scope will have to be restricted to a specific section of the target
population over a specified duration.

The researcher’s task under “Scope” is to specify how much and/or what
aspects of the problem or relevant subject-matter is to be tackled, and how large
the study area and population will be included.
Delimitations
These are choices that “describe the boundaries” set for the study during the
research design, “imposed deliberately by the researcher”.
In a social sciences study, delimitations would be the specific entity (school,
hospital, community, etc.), where a study took place; in a scientific study, the number
of repetitions.
Delimitation parameters or characteristics that limit the scope and outline the
boundaries of the study. These parameters include sample size, time, and geographic
area. Additionally, the researcher is free to decide which research tools and
methodologies to use as well as theories that apply to the data. delimitations like
insufficient time and financial resources might be imposed to allow further analysis
or investigations.
Here, a researcher is tasked with the responsibility of explaining why specific
exclusions and choices were made and how they might affect the outcome of the
research.

Limitations
These refer to “influences that the researcher could not control”. Hence, they
are “the shortcomings, conditions or influences that placed restrictions on the
researcher’s methodology and conclusions”, and such should be reported.
Thoroughness is a must in reporting limitations and these would include
how the limitations influenced the analysis of results. The kind of instrument used,
“the sample constraints” can render findings not applicable to the larger
population.
Limitations are the constraints on the concept of any data collected,
applications to practice, and utility of findings that were not accounted for
beforehand. Theses affect the methods used to set internal and external validity.
 Under “Limitations”, the researcher indicates the extent to which the intended
scope may not be fully realized.
To further explain the concepts of scope, limitations, and delimitations, the
following table is made for you.

Points to Ponder in Stating the Scope and Limitations/Delimitations of the

Study

It is important to narrow down your research topic and limit the scope of your
study. As a researcher, you should inform the reader about the limits or coverage of
the study. The scope identifies the boundaries of the study in terms of subjects,
objectives, facilities, area, time-frame, and the issues to which the research is
focused.
Sample phrases that help express the scope of the study:
• The coverage of this study…
• The study consists of…
• The study covers the…
• This study is focused on…
A group of 25 kids in grades 3 to 5 at one particular school would be an ideal
coverage to study their behavior patterns for five months.
The delimitation of the study is delimiting a study by geographic location, age,
sex, population traits, population size, or other similar considerations.
Sample phrases that help express the delimitations of the study:
• The study does not cover the…
• The researcher limited this research …
• This study is limited to…
The researcher might explain why a sample group of 25 children was chosen
together with children from grades 3 to 5 and not the rest of the grades.
Sample phrases that help express the limitations of the study:
• There may be some possible limitations in this study…
 • The findings of this study have to be seen in the light of some limitations…
• The empirical results reported herein should be considered in light of
some limitations…
The researcher might discover that several children from grades 3 and 5 could
not make it to school on the research day due to heavy rain.

Remember that…
• Scope incorporates the giving of the “reason why”; that is why the scope is as
we are called upon to see it---in terms of time, space, and/or number.
• Limitations answer the questions “given your scope, to what extent will your
findings be generalizable; that is, to what extent beyond your actual area of study,
or your sample?”.
• Delimitations explain the “reasons for specific exclusions and choices”.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

One section that is often required in a research study is the “Definitions of Terms.” This gives your readers
an understanding of the concepts or factors that will be discussed throughout your study, as well as contextual
information as to how you will be using those concepts in your study. The “Definitions of Terms” ensures
that your readers will understand the components of your study in the way that you will be presenting them,
because often your readers may have their own understanding of the terms, or not be familiar with them at
all.

TYPES AND FUNCTIONS

CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION- is the universal meaning that is attributed to a word or group of words and
which is understood by many people. It is abstract and most general in nature. The usual source of conceptual
definition is the dictionary which is the reference book of everyday language.

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION- is the meaning of the concept or term as used in a particular study. Unlike
the conceptual definition, it is stated in concrete term in that it allows measurement

The usual practice when using both types of definition is to state first the conceptual followed by the
operational definition