Brain Pointer Xii

Brain Pointer
BRAIN POINTER
Class - XII
PHYSICS,
CHEMISTRY,
BIOLOGY
Brilliant
STUDY CENTRE
PALA
Mutholy Campus, Ph: 04822 - 206100, 206800

Arunapuram Campus, Ph: 04822 - 212415, 210949, 216975
Ernakulam - Ph: 0484 - 2665080, 2665090
www.brilliantpala.org
email: brilliantstudycentre@gmail.com
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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Page 2
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CONTENTS
PHYSICS
1. Electrostatics ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 05
2. Current Electricity ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 38
3. Moving Charges and Magnetism ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 63
4. Magnetism and Matter -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 70
5. Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current ------------------------------------------- 75
6. Electromagnetic Waves ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 82
7. Ray Optics & Optical Instruments -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 86
8. Wave Optics ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 100
9. Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation ------------------------------------------------------------------ 104
10. Atoms and Nuclei ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 109
11. Semiconductor Electronics ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 119
12. Transistors -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 125
CHEMISTRY
1. The Solid State -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 133
2. Solutions ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 140
3. Electrochemistry ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 147
4. Chemical Kinetics --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 155
5. Surface Chemistry -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 162
6. General principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements ------------------------------ 174
7. The p Block Elements (Class XII) --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 178
8. The d and f Block Elements ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 191
9. Coordination Compounds -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 195
10. Halo Alkanes and Halo Arenes ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 201
11. Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 210
12. Aldehydes and Ketones ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 223
13. Carboxylic Acids ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 228
14. Nitrogen Compounds ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 235
15. Biomolecules ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 245
16. Polymers ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 255
17. Chemistry in Everyday Life ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 264
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CONTENTS
BOTANY
1. Reproduction in Organisms ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 267
2. Sexual reproduction in Flowering Plants ------------------------------------------------------ 272
3. Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production ------------------------------------------ 281
4. Biotechnology : Principles and processes ------------------------------------------------------ 286
5. Biotechnology and its Applications ---------------------------------------------------------------- 293
6. Organism and Population --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 297
7. Ecosystem ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 305
8. Environmental Issues ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 311
ZOOLOGY
1. Human Reproduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 321
2. Reproductive Health ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 336
3. Animal Husbandry --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 344
4. Genetics : Principles of Inheritance and Variation --------------------------------------- 349
5. Molecular Basis of Inheritance ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 365
6. Evolution ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 378
7. Human Health and Disease ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 388
8. Microbes in Human Welfare ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 399
9. Biodiversity and Conservation ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 403
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PHYSICS
CHAPTER - 01
ELECTROSTATICS - I
ELECTRIC CHARGE
 The intrinsic property of matter which is responsible for electrical
and magnetic effects.
 Total charge in a system, q   ne where n = 1, 2, ........and

e  1.6  1019 C (Quantization Property)
 Total charge in an isolated system of ‘n’ point charges q1, q2 .....qn is
n
Q   qi (additive property)
i1
 Units & Dimension of Electric Charge

Coulomb (SI)
Electrostatic unit (e.a.u) CGS  stat coulomb / Frankline 
1C  3  109 e.s.u
1
1C  ab  Coulomb  e.m.u.of charge 
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Dimensional Formula     AT 
 Coulomb’s law in Free space
q1 q2
1 q1q2 r
F0 
40 r 2

0  Permittivity free space 8.85  1012 C2 / Nm2 
1
 9  109 Nm2 / c 2 (SI)
40
q1q2
 F0  9  109
r2
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 Coulomb’s law in a dielectric medium of dielectric constant K
1 q1q2 F0  K  1
Fm  Fm 
40K r 2 K Fm  F0
 Vector form of Coulomb’s law
 1 q1q2 q1 r̂21 q2

F21  r̂21 
40 r21 2 F12 
F21
r̂12
 1 q1q2
F12  r̂12
40 r12 2
 Electrostatic force between two point charges q 1 and q 2 if the

separation between them is filled with ‘n’ number of dielectric media
of dielectric constant k1, k2.......kn and respective thickness t1, t2,....tn is
q1q2
F 2
 n 
4  0   k i t 
 i1 
 Equilibrium of charges
Let ‘P’ is a point on the line joining two charge q1 and q2 where the net
force on a third charge ‘q’ is zero. Assume q1  q2 . ‘x’ is the position
of ‘p’ from q1
Case (i) q1 q2 > 0
Point
x
r P
x A
q2
1
q1 q1 q q2
r
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Case (ii) q1 q2 < 0
r P A B
x
q2 q q1 q2
1
q1 x r
 Equilibrium of suspended charges
T sin   F
T cos   mg
At equilibrium F  mg tan 
 ELECTRIC FIELD
Electric field is the force per unit positive charge

 F
E  Lt
q0 0 q
0
Units & Dimension

Newton / coulomb Nc 1  
 SI units

Volt / meter Vm1  
`
Dyne / Stat coulomb : CGS unit
Dimensional formula E  MLT3 A1 
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 Electric field due to a point charge
 q0  1C 
y
 r̂ P
Q
Ep  rˆ
40r 2 r
Q
1
Ep  x
r2 O
z
 Motion of charged Particle in a uniform electric field
 
Force on charge F  qE
 Force is acted in the direction of electric field for positively charged

particles and is acted in the opposite direction of electric field for
negatively charged particles.
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 For a positively charged body of mass ‘m’ and charge ‘q’ with initial
velocity zero (  = 0)
qEt
 Velocity acquiredafter a time t,  
m
1 1 q2E2 t 2
 Kinetic energy acquired KE  mv 2 
2 2 m
 If v is the electric potential applied to
1
accelerate the particle, then qv  m2
2
2qv
 
m
 Particle is projected in a direction : Perpendicular to the electric field

with a velocity v
 Deviation of charged particle, parallel to electric field

2
1 1 qE  x 
d  at2  
2 2 m   
 Time period of oscillation of a particle of mass ‘m’ and charge

‘q’
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case (i) Electric field is horizontal
  
Fnet  qE  mg
2
 qE 
Net acceleration g    g
1 2
 m 

T  2 1
  qE 2  2
 T  2 1  g2 
g  
 m  
case (ii) Electric field is vertically upward
qE
g1  g
m

T  2
qE g
m
Case (iii) : Electric filed is vertically downward

qE
g1  g
m
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
T  2
qE
g
m
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO SOME CHARGED DISTRIBUTIONS
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ELECTRIC DIPOLE
 
 Dipolemoment P  2qa
 Electric field due to Electric dipole

 At an Axial Point  At an equaterial point
1 2pr
Ep 
40 (r  a2 )2
2
For short dipole r > > a
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 
 1 2p  1 p
Ep  Ep 
40 r 3 40 (r 2  a2 )3 2

 1 p
For short dipole r >>a Ep 
40 r 2
Electric field due to an electric dipole at any arbitrary point P (r, Q) for
a short dipole
p
Ep  1  3 cos2 
40r 3

Torque acted on an electric dipole of dipolemoment p in a uniform
electric field E
 
  p  E  PE sin  ,  is the angle between dipolemoment and
electric field.
max  PE(  900 )   0(   o0 or1800 )
 Force acting on a dipole in non-uniform electric field E
 
  dE dE
F p , where is the spectial change in electric field
dr dr
 
 Electric flux    E  da , when area is non uniform
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 
For uniform area, flux   E  A
 = EA (  o0 )
   EA
  0 (  900 ) (  1800 )
GAUSS LAW IN ELECTROSTATICS
The electric flux across any closed surface enclosing a net charge q
is
  q
   E  da 
0
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Gauss law for continuous charge distributions
1
 
0   d (linear ch arg e enclosed)
1

0  dA (surface ch arg e enclosed)
A
1
 
0  dv (volume ch arg e enclosed
 Electric field due to an infinitely long unifamily charged wire
 1 2
Ep  rˆ
40 r
Electric field is non-uniform

 Electric field due to an infinite, uniformly charged thin sheet
  
Ep  r
2 0
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 Electric field due to multiple charged thin sheets
 Electric field due to a thin hollow cylinder
 R
For r>R (outside point) Ep  r
0r
 R
(r= R) (surface) Ep  r
0r

r <R (inside point) Ep  0
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 Electric field due to a solid cylinder
R 2
For r>R , Ep =
2 0r
R
For r + R, Ep = 20
r
For r <R Ep = 2
0
Electric field due to a charged non-conducting sphere
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 Electric field due to a thin charged spherical shell
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 Electric field due to a conducting sphere
 Electrostatic pressure acted on a charged conducting surface
2
P outwards
20
Equilibrium of charged soap bubble

On charging, irrespective of polarity, its radius increases
4T 2
At equlibrium  , T surface tension
r 2 0
For equlibrium amount of change required
q = 8 r 2 0rT
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ELECTROSTATICS -II
 Electric potential due to a point-charge “Q” at a distance r
Q
Vp 
40rp
 Electric potential difference between two points P and Q
Q 1 1
VPQ  VP  VQ    
40  rP rQ 
 Electric Potential energy of a charge q at a point P
qQ
Up  qVp 
40rp
 Electric Potential energy difference between two points P and Q is
qQ  1 1
UpQ  qV  Up  UQ    
4  0  rp rQ 
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 UNIT AND DIMENSIONAL FORMULA FOR ELECTRIC

POTENTIAL
Unit = Volt (SI)
Stat volt (CGS)
Dimensional Formula = [V]   ML T A 

2 3 1
 Electric Potential due to multiple charges ( Additive Property)
1  q1 q2 q 
VP     ......  n 
40  r1 r2 rn 
n
1 qi
VP  
4o i1 ri
 When the sound change is not located at the origin
Q
VP 
40 r2  r1
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 Potential energy of a two charge system
1 q1 q2
U
40 r1 2
 Potential Energy of a three charge system
1  q1q2 q2q3 q3 q1 
U    
40  r1 2 723 r3 1 
 Potential energy of a system of ‘n’ point charges
 
1 1 n qij 
U 
2  40

i1 rij 

 j i
i j 
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 Potential due to continuous charge distributions
 Electric Potential due to an electric dipole
1 P cos 
Vp 
40 r 2  a2 cos2 
For short dipole r  a
case(i)on axial po int  (  0o )
1 P
Vp 
4o r 2
Case(ii)on equatorial po int (   90o )
VP  o0
Case(iii) on any arbitrory point (  )
1 P cos 
Vp 
40 r2
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Relation between electric fiels and potential

 Electric potential difference between
A&B
rB
 
V  VB  VA    E  dr
rA
 Electric potential at a point
rB
 
VB    E  dr

whereVA  o
asrA  
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 General Relation between Electric field and potential at a point
r  
V    E  dr 

r - position vector of point
 Electric field as spatial gradient of Electric Potential
dv
E
dr
 In rectangular components
dv
Ex  
dx
dv
Ey  
dy
dv
Ez  
dz
B  
VB  VA    E  dl
A
 
B
(using line integral)
VB    E  dl

 If the electric field is uniform

VB  VA    AB
  E x
 
VA  VB   E  BA
 E x
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 Potential difference between two points due to an infinitely charged
wire
  rA 
VB  VA  In  
2 0  rB 
 Potential difference between two points due to an infinite thin charged

sheet

VB  VA  (rA  rB )
20
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 Potential due to a uniformly charged ring
Q
Vp 
4 0 R2  r 2
Q
V0 
40R
Whenr  R
Q
Vp 
40r
 Potential due to a uniformly charged disc
  2 2
Vp  R r  r 
2 0  
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 Potential due to a charged non conducting sphere
 Potential due to a charged spherical shell
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 Potential energy of a sphere of radius R- and charge Q
3 Q2
Usphere 
5 40R
 Potential energy of spherical shell of radius R and charge Q
1 Q2
Ushell 
2 40R
 Work done in rotating an electric dipole from an angle 1 to 2 in a

uniform electric field E
w  U  PE (cos 1  cos 2 )
 Potential energy of an electric dipole of dipolemoment P in an electric

field E
 
U  P  E  PE cos 
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U = –PE U = PE
(Stable equilibrium) (unstable equlibrium)
 Coalescence of charge n drops
Parameter of single drop Parameter of coolescent drop
Electric charge (q) nq

1
Radius (R) n 3r
1
Electric field (E) n 3E
Electric Potential (V) 2
n 3V
1
Capacitance (C) n 3C
1
Charge density () n 3
Electric Potential Energy (U) n
5
3
U
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 Uniqueness Theorem
1  R
  or 1  2
R 2 R1
 Capacitance or electrical capacity of a conductor is its ability to store

electric charge
C= q q  charge on conductor
V
V  Voltage across the conductor
C  Capacitance
 Unit of capacitance : Farad (F)
 Dimensional Formula : [C] = [M-1 L-2 T4 A2]
 Energy stored in a capacitor
1 2 qv q2
U cv  
2 2 2c
 When ‘n’ capacitors of capacitance C1, C2, ......... Cn are connected

in series, effective capacitance
1 1 1 1
   ............. 
Ceff C1 C 2 Cn
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1 C

 If n capacitors are identical Ceff n
 Voltage across the capacitors connected in series is given by
1 1 1
V1  V2: :................... : Vn  : : .............:
C1 C2 Cn
 If ‘n’ Capacitors of capacitance C1, C2, ..............Cn are connected in

parallel, effective capacitance
Ceff  C1  C2  C3 .............Cn
 If ‘n’ capacitors are identical
Ceff  nC
 Charge across the capacitors connected in parallel
Q1 : Q2 :........... : Qn  C1 : C2 :............. : Cn
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33
 Connection of charged capacitors :

Let the capacitors have initial voltage V1 & V2 across their plates
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C1V1  C2 V2
Common potential across eacg capacitor V  C1  C2
1 CC
 Loss of electrical energy  U  2 C  C (V1  V2 )
1 2 2
1 2
1
 Energy density of parallel plate capacitor U  0E2 E  Electric
2
field between the plates
 Force acted on each plate of a parallel plate capacitor

 2 A Q2
F  (Always attractive)
20 2A0
 On introducing a dielectricmedium of dielectric constant K between

KA0
the plates of a parallel plate capacitor the new capacitance C 
1
 If ‘n’ dielectric media each having dielectric constants K1, K2, K3 ........Kn
and respective thickness t1, t2, t3, .......tn are placed between the plates,
such that d = t1 + t2 + .......... + tn, then effective capacitance
A 0 A0
C 
n
ti t1 t 2 t

i 1 Ki

K1 K 2
 .......... n
Kn
A 0
C
 t
(d  t) 
K
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A 0
 C
(d  t)
K 1 A1 0 K 2 A 2 0 K n A n 0
Ceff    ....... 
d d d
 n
C 0
d
K A
i1
i i
1
 Induced charge on the periphery of dielectric medium Q  Q [1 
1
]
K
where Q  charge on capacitor plates
K  dielectric constant
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 Change in electrostatic parameters on introducing a dielectric

medium (K) between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor.
With dielectric medium (K)

Electrostatic Without dielectric
parameters medium Battery Battery
connected disconnected
Electric charge Q KQ Q
Capacitance C KC KC
V
Voltage V V
K
E
Electric field E E
K
U
Potential energy U KU K
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CHAPTER - 02
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Electric Current
q dq
I (charge flow uniform) i (charge flow non uniform)
t dt
q  I t tf
dq  idt q   idt
ti
Drift Velocity & Current

eE
Vd   I  nAeVd
m
Current Density
I
J  neVd
A
Mobility
Vd e
 
E m
Ohm’s Law
VI or V  IR
Resistance of a conductor
 m
R  
A ne 2 
Conductance Conductivity
1 1
G= 
R 
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Resistance
On stretching wire
 2 V
R    2
A V A
on stretching V remains constant
1  1
R   2 or R A 2  R r 4 
 
Percentage change in resistance
R  
2
R   If change in length or area is less than or equal to 5%

R A 
2
R A 
R R 2  R 1 1
 R  2 , R
R R1 A2
R   2    1 

2 2
 
 1 
2
R 
2 2
 1   1  
    
R  A2   A1   If change in length or area > 5%
 2 
R  1  
  
 A1  
Variation of resistivity of metal with temperature
t  0 1  t  0  resistivity at 0o C
t  resistivity at t o C
  temperature co-efficient of resistivity
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Temperature co-efficient of resistance
R 2  R1
 R1  Resistance at t10 C
R 1  t 2  t1 
R 2  Resistance at t 02 C
(anyone temperature is 0o C )
R 2  R1
 t1  0 , t 2  0
R 1 t 2  R 2 t1
Colour coding of resistors
Colour Figure
Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Grey 8
White 9
Colour Tolerance
Gold  5%
Silver  10%
No colour  20%
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 For resistances in series
R eq  R 1  R 2
 In general, for n resistors in series
n
R eq   R i
i 1
 If ‘n’ identical resistances are connected in series
R eq  nR
v
and potential difference across each resistance V 
n
 Sum of the voltages across all resistance is equal to the voltage
applied across circuit i.e. V  V1  V2
1 1 1
 The effective conductance G is,  
G G1 G 2
V
 The current I in the circuit, I 
R1  R 2
 By voltage division rule
voltage across resistance R1, V1  IR1

 R1 
 V 
 R1  R 2 
41
Voltage across resistance R2, V2  IR 2

 R2 
 V 
 R1  R 2 
V1 R1
 In case of resistances in series, 
V2 R 2 as the current through
each resistor is same
 In series combination of resistors
i) Amount of current flowing through each resistor is same
ii) Potential difference across each resistor is directly proportional to
the value of resistance
iii) The value of equivalent resistance of the combination is greater
than the higher value of resistance in series combination
 For resistances in parallel,
1 1 1
 
R eq R1 R 2
 In general, for n resistors in parallel
1 1 1 1
   ... 
R eq R1 R 2 Rn
 If ‘n’ identical resistances are connected in parallel
R I
R eq  and current through each resistance I 
1
n n
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Brain Pointer
 Main current I is divided equally and main current I equal to sum of

branch current
i.e. I  I1  I2
 The effective conductance of parallel combination
G  G1  G 2
R 1R 2 Multiplication
 If two resistances are in parallel, R eq  
R1  R 2 Addition
 R1R 2 
 The p.d. across the circuit, v  I.R eq  I  
 R1  R 2 
 By current division rule,
Current through any resistance
 Resistance of opposite branch 

I1  I x   
 Total resistance 
where I1 = required current (branch current)
I = main current
So, current flows through resistance R1,
V I.R eq I R 1R 2  R2 
I1     I 
R1 R1 R1 R1  R 2  R1  R 2 
and current flows through resistance R2,
V I.R eq I R1R 2  R1 
I2     I 
R2 R2 R 2 R1  R 2  R1  R 2 
I1 R 2
 In case of resistance in parallel, 
I2 R1
 If three resistances are connected in parallel,
R eq   R 11  R 21  R 31 

1
43
R 1R 2 R 3
or R eq 
R 1R 2  R 2 R 3  R 2 R 1
 In parallel combination of resistors,
i) Potential difference across each resistor is same
ii) Current through any resistance is inversely proportional to its
resistance i.e. V = IR = constant
1
or I 
R
iii) The value of equivalent resistance of this combination of
resistances is less than the lowest value of the resistances connected
in parallel.
 If we have ‘n’ identical conductors, each of equal resistance, then
the number of combination, we can have using all at a time is 2n 1
 If we have ‘n’ different conductors, then the number of possible
combinations are 2 n
 If n identical resistances are first connected in series and then in
Rp n2
parallel, the ratio of the equivalent resistance is given by 
Rs 1
 If equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 in series and parallel be Rs and
Rp respectively then
1
R1  R s  R s2  4R s R p 
2 
1
and R 2  R s  R s2  4R s R p 
2 
 If a wire of resistance R, cut in ‘n’ equal parts and then these parts
are connected to form a bundle then equivalent resistance of
R
combination will be
n2
 For equivalent resistance of infinite network of resistances
1 1 1/2
 R1  R 2    R1  R 2   4R 3  R1  R 2  
2
R AB 
2 2
44
Brain Pointer
1  R 
R AB  R1 1  1  4  2  
2   R1  

 Equivalent Resistance in cube (symmetry)
i) Resistance between two nearer corners

7
R 12  r
12
ii) Resistance across face diagonal
3
R 13  r
4
45
iii) Resistance across main diagonal
5
R 17  r
6
 Cell - The device which converts chemical energy into electrical

energy
 EMF of a cell (E) - The potential difference across the terminals of

a cell when it is not delivering any current (open circuit)
 Internal resistance (r) - Resistance offered by the electrolyte of the

cell when an electric current flows through it
r  d , d - distance between electrodes
1
r , A - area of electrodes
A
r  C , C - concentration of electrolyte
1
r , T - temperature of electrolyte
T
 Terminal potential difference (v) - The voltage across the terminals

of a cell when it is supplying current (closed circuit)
 When I current is drawn from cell, the terminal voltage V is less

than it’s emf i.e. V  E  Ir
 When cell is discharging (closed circuit)
current inside the cell is from cathode to anode

46
Brain Pointer
E
Current I 
rR
 E  IR  Ir
 v  Ir
or v  E  Ir,
Potential difference is less than the emf of the cell
 When cell getting charged current inside the cell from anode to
cathode
VE
Current, I 
r
 v  E  Ir, potential difference is greater than the emf of the cell
 When the cell is in the open circuit

When no current is taken from the cell it is said to be in open circuit
In open circuit R  
E
I  0
Rr
 V = E, i.e. terminal potential difference is equal to emf of the cell

 When the cell is short circuited
In short circuit R = 0
47
E E
I  and V  IR  0
Rr r
 Let I1 be the current in a circuit with an extreme resistance R1 and I2

be the current in the circuit with external resistance R2, then the emf
of the cell,
 R  R1 
E  I1I 2  2 
 I1  I 2 
 I2 R 2  I1R1 
Internal resistance of the cell used, r 
 I1  I 2 
 Cells in series
i) In series grouping of cells their emfs are additive or subtractive
while their internal resistances are always additive
E eq  E1  E 2
req  r1  r2
E eq  E1  E 2  E1  E 2 
req  r1  r2
ii) emf of battery = sum of emf of various cells
= E1  E 2  ....  E n
48
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iii) Current in each cell is the same and is equal to the main current
iv) Total internal resistance of battery = Sum of the individual internal
resistance
r  r1  r2  .....  rn
v) Let n cells each of emf E and internal resistance ‘r’ are connected
in series with ‘R’
Total emf = nE
Total resistance = R + nr
nE
Main current I 
R  nr
E
vi) If nr > > R, I  i.e. current from any cell when short circuited
r
nE
vii) If nr < < R, I  i.e. n times the current due to one cell
R
2
 nE 
viii) power dissipated in the external circuit =  R
 R  nr 
 E2 
P
ix) condition for max. power, R = nr, and max  n  4r 
 
 If ‘n’ cells each of emf E and internal resistance ‘r’ are connected in
series and by mistake ‘m’ cells are wrongly connected to an external
resistance R, then
total emf of the combination E   n  2m  E

1
total internal resistance = nr

total resistance of the circuit = R + nr
 n  2m  E
current through the circuit, I 
R  nr
49
 Cells in parallel
1) emf of the battery = emf of a single cell

2) reciprocal of total internal resistance of a battery is equal to the
sum of reciprocal of internal resistance of individual cell, i.e.
1 1 1 1
   ..... 
r r1 r2 rn
3) main current is divided equally among various cells

4) If n identical cells each of emf E and internal resistance ‘r’ are
connected in parallel to an external resistor R
1 n
total internal resistance r  r
eq
r
req 
n
the current through the external resistance, is
E nE
I 
r r  nR
R
n
nE
5) If r > > R, then I   n  current due to single cell
r
50
Brain Pointer
E
6) If r < < R, then I  = current due to single cell
R
2
 
 E 
P R
7) Power dissipated in the circuit r
R  
 n
r  E2 
8) Condition for max. power is, R  and Pmax  n  
n  4r 
 The strength of current in a wire of resistance R will be the same for

connection in series and in parallel of n identical cells, each of the
internal resistance r if R = r
 If non-identical cells are connected in parallel (with right polarity)
E1r2  E 2 r1
Equivalent emf, E eq 
r1  r2
r1r2
Equivalent internal resistance req 
r1  r2
E1r2  E 2 r1
Main current I 
r1r2  R  r1  r2 
51
If V is the potential difference across R, then
E1  V E1  IR
I1  
r1 r1
E 2  V E 2  IR
I2  
r2 r2
 If non-identical cells are connected in parallel (with reversed polarity)
E1r2  E 2 r1
E eq 
r1  r2
 Mixed combination of identical cells

If n identical cells are connected in a row and such m row’s are
connected in parallel
52
Brain Pointer
1) Equivalent emf of the combination, E eq  nE

2) Equivalent internal resistance of the combination,
1 m

req nr
nr
or req 
m
E eq
3) current in the circuit or main current I 
R  R eq
nE

nr
R
m
mnE

mR  nr
nr
4) current in the circuit is maximum, when R 
m
E2
5) maximum power Pmax   mn 
4r
6) total number of cell = mn
 Kirchhoff’s law
There are two laws given by Kirchhoff for determination of potential
difference and current in different branches of any complicated
network
 First law (junction rule) : In an electric circuit, the algebraic sum of
the currents meeting at any junction is zero i.e.  I  0
While applying this rule, we (arbitrarily) take the currents entering
into a junction as positive and those leaving it as negative
53
I1  I2  I3  I 4  I5  0
I1  I3  I2  I 4  I5
This is based on conservation of charge
 Second law (loop rule)
In any closed circuit algebraic sum of emfs and algebraic sum of

potential drop is zero
 IR   E  0
This law is based on law of conservation of energy
 Sign convention for the application of Kirchhoff’s law
1) The change in potential in traversing a resistance in the direction

of current is –iR while in the opposite direction is +iR
2) The change in potential in traversing an emf source from negative

to positive terminals is +E while in the opposite direction –E
irrespective of the direction of current in the circuit
 The Wheatstone’s bridge
is an arrangement of four resistances which can be used to determine

one of them interns of the rest
If current in galvanometer is zero (Ig = 0) then bridge is said to be

balanced
54
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VD = VB
P R
 I1P  I 2 R and I1Q  I 2S  
Q S
P R
If  then VB  VD and current will flow from B to D
Q S
P R
If  then VB  VD and current will flow from D to B
Q S
 Equivalent resistance between points A and B in an unbalanced

Wheatstone’s bridge as shown in the diagram
PQ  R  S   P  Q  RS  G  P  Q  R  S
R AB 
G  P  Q  R  S    P  R  Q  S
55
2PQ  G  P  Q 
R AB 
2G  P  Q
 Metre Bridge or slide wire bridge
works on the principle of Wheatstone’s bridge
P R
At balanced condition 
Q S
 R
 
100   S
S
100    R

 Applications of Metre bridge

1) If an unknown resistance X is used in the left gap and a standard
resistance R in the right gap then if metre bridge is balanced, then
X 

R 100   
2) If two unknown resistances are connected in series in the left gap
and balancing length is  s then
56
Brain Pointer
x1  x 2 s 1 2
  
R 100   s  100  1  100   2 
3) If two unknown resistance are connected in parallel in the left gap
and balancing length is  p , then
x1 x 2
xp x1  x 2 p
 
R R 100   p
R 100   p  100  1  100   2 

or   
xp p 1 2
 Potentiometre
1) Potential gradient (x)
(1) Potential difference (or fall in potential) per unit length of the wire
V
i.e. x 
L
 e 
where V  iR    .R
 R  Rh  r 
57
V iR i  e  R
So, x     .
L L A R  Rh  r L
V iR
(2) In balanced condition, E  x , E  x    
L L
 e  R
 . 
 R  Rh  r  L
x1 L 2  2
If V is constant then L  ,   
x 2 L1 1
3) Standardisation
Process determining potential gradient experimentally.
If balanced length for a standard cell emf E0 be  0 , then by the principle

of potentiometer E 0  x 0
E0
x
0
4) Sensitivity
Sensitivity is assessed by its potential gradient
Sensitivity is inversely proportional to the potential gradient
To increase sensitivity length of potentiometre wire increases
 Applications of potentiometre
1) comparison of emfs of two cells
E1  x1  Plug only in 1  2  

E 2  x 2  Plug only n  2  3 
E1 1
 
E2  2
58
Brain Pointer
2) Internal resistance of a given primary cell
   
r   1 2 R
 2 
3) Comparison of two resistances
R 2  2  1

R1 1
Thermal effect of current

 Electric power - is the rate at which electrical energy is dissipated
W
into other forms of energy is called electrical power i.e. P   VI
t
 SI unit of electric power is joule/sec or watt
1W  1V 1A
 Bigger unit of electric power
1 kilowatt (kW) = 103 W 1HP = 746 watt
1 megawatt (MW) = 106 W
 Other expression for power
P  I2 R
V2
P
R
59
 Electric energy is defined as the total electric workdone or energy
supplied by the source of emf in maintaining the current in an electric
circuit for a given time
 Electric energy = electric power  time
= P t
 Expression for electric energy
V2
Electric energy = Pt  VIt  I Rt 
2
t
R
 SI unit of electric energy is joule
1 joule = 1 Watt  1 second
= 1 volt  1 ampere  1 sec ond

 Commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt-hour (kWh)
1 kWh = 1000 Watt  1 hour
= 1000J / s    3600s   3.6 10 J

6
 The electric energy consumed in kWh is given by
V  in volt   I  in ampere   t  in hour 

W (in kWh) =
1000
 Joules Heating - The amount of heat produced (H) in a conductor
of resistance R, carrying current U for time t is given by
H  I 2 Rt (in joules)
I2 Rt
or H  (in Calories)
J
Where J is Joule’s mechanical equivalent of heat (= 4.2 J/cal)
W VIt I2 Rt v2 t
H     cal
J 4.2 4.2 4.2R
 Maximum power theorem - States that the output power of a source
of emf is maximum, when external resistance in the circuit is equal
to the internal resistance of source i.e. R = r
60
Brain Pointer
E
 If E is the applied emf of the source, then I 
Rr
At the max. output power, R = r
E E
So, I  
r  r 2r
E2
and max. output power, Pmax  I r 
2
4r
output power P0 VI V
 Efficiency of a source of emf,     
input power Pi EI E
Where, V - potential drop across the external resistance R
E - emf of the source of current
 Long distance power transmission - When power is transmitted
through a power line of resistance R, power loss will be I 2 R
If the power is transmitted at voltage V then P  VI
P
ie I 
V
P2
So, power loss = 2  R
V
Now as for a given power and line P and R are constant so power
1
loss 
v2
Long distance power transmission is carried out high voltage
 Series combination of bulbs - Current through each bulb will be
same. Now because resistance of lowest wattage bulb is maximum,
 
hence heat produced  I Rt will be maximum in lowest wattage
2
bulb or lowest wattage bulbs glows with maximum brightness
61
1 1 1
 
Ptotal P1 P2
1
Pconsumed (Brightness) V R
Prated
 Parallel combination of bulbs - voltage across each bulb will be

same. Now, because resistance of highest wattage bulb is minimum
 
hence heat produced  V t / R (or brightness) will be maximum in
2
highest wattage bulb
Ttotal  P1  P2
1
Pconsumed (brightness)  PR  i 
R
 If one heater boils a certain mass of water in time t1 and another

heater boils the same mass of water in time t2, then connecting both
the heaters in series, the same water will boil in time  t1  t 2  ; When
connecting both the heaters in parallel the same water will boil in
t1  t 2
time t 
t1  t 2
 A fuse wire is generally prepared from tin-lead alloy (63% tin + 37%
lead). A fuse wire should have high resistance and low melting point
 The length of fuse wire is immaterial
 The safe current in a fuse wire is directly proportional to the (3/2)
power of radius of the wire i.e. I  r 3/2
Since area of cross-section A  r 2  I  A 3/4
62
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CHAPTER - 03
MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM
Biot Savart’s law
 

  0 I d  r
dB 

4 r3
Applications of Biot Savart’s law

1. Magnetic field due to a current carrying straight conductor
0 I
B sin 1  sin 2 
4r
 0 I sin 
 If 1  2  , B 
2r
 For a conductor of infinite length, 1  2  90o
0I
B
2r
63
2. Magnetic field due to a circular coil carrying current
 At any point on the axis of the coil
0 2nIr 2
Baxial 
4  x 2  r 2 3/ 2
n = number of turns, r = radius of coil, I = current

x = distance from the centre of the coil to the point
 0 nI
 At the centre of the coil B 
r
 Magnetic field due to a current carrying circular arc
0 I
B 
4r
where  = angle subtended by the arc at its centre
 
 Magnetic moment of a current loop, m  IA
I = current through the loop

A = area vector of the loop
 of a current carrying circular loop.
 Relation between Baxial and m
 
 2m
Baxial  0 3 for x > > > r
4 x
 Magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron
evr
m
m
e = charge of an electron
v = velocity of an electron
r = radius of circular path
e
Gyromagnetic ratio of electron =
2m
m = mass of electron
eh
Bohr magneton,  B   9.27 1024 Am 2
4m
64
Brain Pointer
Ampere’s circuital law

 
   0 I
B.d
I = net current crossing the area which is bounded by the amperean
loop
Magnetic field due to a solenoid
 For a long solenoid, B   0 nI
n = number of turns of the solenoid per unit length
I = current through the solenoid
 0 nI
 At the ends of a long solenoid, B 
2
 For a small solenoid of length L compare to its radius R
 0 nI
B cos 1  cos 2 
2
Magnetic field due to a toroid

N
B   0 nI where n 
2r
N = total number of turns
r = mean radius of toroid
Magnetic field due to infinite long current carrying conductor
0I
 Case I : Outside the conductor, B 
2r
65
 Case II : Inside the conductor
0I
B r
2R 2
Along the axis, r = 0

 Baxis  0
Lorentz force
  
Lorentz force, F  Felectric  Fmagnetic
   
F  qE  q v  B 
q = charge

E = electric field intensity

B = magnetic field intensity

v = velocity of the charge

 
Magnetic Lorentz force, Fmagnetic  q v  B
F  qvB sin 
 
 = angle between v and B
 Radius of the circular path of a charged particle entering perpendicular
to a uniform magnetic field
mv
r
qB
Angular speed of the charged particle
qB

m
66
Brain Pointer
Period of circular motion,

2m
T
qB
qB
Frequency,  
2m
 If a charged particle moves with a velocity v making an angle  with
the magnetic field.
Where   0o ,90o ,180o , it moves in helical path
mv sin 
radius of helical path, r 
qB
2mv cos 
pitch of the helix  
qB
Cyclotron
 Maximum kinetic energy of the charge as it emerges from the
B2 q 2 R 2
cyclotron, K max 
2m
qB
 Cyclotron frequency, f 
2m
Velocity Selector
Velocity of the charged particle to be undeflected
E
v
B
Magnetic force on a current carrying conductor,
 

F  I B  I = current
 = effective length of the conductor

F  IBsin  B = magnetic field intensity
 
 = angle between  and B
67
Magnetic force betw een two parallel current carrying
conductors.....
 0 I1I 2
Magnetic force per unit length of the conductor, F 
2 d
 If currents are in the same direction force is attractive

 If currents are in the opposite direction, force is repulsive
Torque acting on a current loop
  
  mB
  

  NI A  B 

  NIABsin 
N = Number of turns
A = Area enclosed by the current loop
B = Magnetic field intensity
I = Current through the coil
 
 = Angle between A and B
Moving coil galvanometer
Current flowing through the galvanometer,
C
I 
NAB
C = couple per unit twist
N = number of turns of the coils
A = area of the coil
B = magnetic field intensity
 = angle of deflection of the coil
68
Brain Pointer
 NBA
 Current sensitivity = 
I C
 NBA
 Voltage sensitivity = 
V CR
 Conversion of a galvanometer into an ammeter
IS
Full scale deflection current I g 
G S
Where I = maximum current to be measured
G = resistance of the galvanometer
S = shunt resistance
Ig G
S
I  Ig
 Conversion of a galvanometer into a voltmeter
High resistance to be connected in series to convert the galvanometer
into a voltmeter
V
R G
Ig
69
CHAPTER - 04
MAGNETISM AND MATTER
 A freely suspended magnet will come along north-south direction

 Poles exists in pairs
 Pole strength of north and south poles of a magnet is conventionally
represented by +m and –m respectively
 Pole strength is a scalar quantity
 Pole strength of a magnet depends on area of cross section

 Magnetic dipole moment M  
M  m  2
2  Magnetic length
 Directed from south to north
Inverse square law
The magnetic force between two isolated magnetic poles of strength
m1 and m 2 lying at a distance ‘r’ is given by:
0 m1m 2
F
4 r 2
Magnetic field due to a bar magnet
a) At an axial point
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Brain Pointer
 0 2Mr
Baxial 
4  r 2   2 2
when r   [short dipole]


 0 2M
B
4 r 3
b) At an equatorial point
0 M
Beq 
4  r 2   2 3/ 2
when r   [short dipole]


Beq 
0 M  
4 r 3
c) At any point
0 M
B 1  3cos 2 
4 r 3
1
tan   tan 
2

  angle between resultant field and direction of r .
71

 Torque on a dipole placed in a uniform magnetic field B is
  
  MB
  MBsin 

 Time period of oscillation of a dipole of dipole moment M placed in

a uniform magnetic field B is
I
T  2
MB
I  M.I. of the dipole

 Work done in rotating a dipole in a uniform magnetic field from angular
position 1 to 2 is
W  MB  cos 1  cos 2 

 Potential energy of a dipole of dipole moment M placed in a uniform

magnetic field B is
 
u  M.B
u  MB cos 
Earth’s Magnetism
 Declination is the angle between geographic meridian and magnetic
meridian at a point OR it is the angle between true north and north
shown by compass needle.
 Dip OR Inclination (I)
Angle between net magnetic field of earth and horizontal direction
BH  BE cos I
BV  BE sin I
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Brain Pointer
BE  B2H  BV2
and
BV
tan I 
BH
 Angle of dip in a vertical plane making an angle  with magnetic

meridian is
tan I
tan I1 
cos 
 If a given plane I1 and I 2 are angles of dip in two arbitrary vertical

planes which are perpendicular to each other, then true angle of dip
I is given by
cot 2 I  cot 2 I1  cot 2 I 2
 Angle of dip I at a plane is related to its magnetic latitude '  ' through
the relation
tan I  2 tan 
 Intensity of magnetisation (I)
M net V  volume
I
V M net  net dipole moment
 Magnetic susceptibility
I

H
H  intensity of magnetising field OR applied field

 Relate permeability
r  1  
73
 Diamagnetic Materials
1) when placed in an external magnetic field, weakly repelled by the
field
2) 1    0
3) If   1  perfect diamagnet
4)  is independent of temperature
 Paramagnetic materials
1) when placed in an external magnetic field, weakly attracted by the
field
C
2)  
T
 Ferromagnetic materials
1) strongly attracted by the field
2)  is very large and positive
3) above curie temperature ferromagnetic material behaves as a
paramagnet.
Magnetic Hysteresis
 Retentivity OR remanence
Magnetic field remaining in the specimen when the magnetising field
is removed
 Coercivity
Magnetic field required to destroy the remaining magnetism of the
specimen.
 Hysteresis - loss
The area of B–H curve is a measure of energy dissipated per cycle
per unit volume.
74
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CHAPTER - 05
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION & AC
Synopsis
 
01. Magnetic flux.   B.A  BAcos  , Where  is the angle between B

and A
d
02. Faraday’s law, magnitude of induced emf ,   . For ‘N’ turns
dt
d
N
dt
N d
Induced current , i  - where ‘R’ is the resistance of the coil.
R dt
Change in flux
Induced Charge, Q 
Re sis tan ce
03. Lenz’s law is the direct consequence of the law of conservation of
d
energy. It gives the direction of the iduced emf .   
dt
04. Motional e.m.f is,   Bv
1 2
05. Rotational e.m.f is,   B 
2
di
06. The induced e.m.f. due to self induction is given by    L
dt
0 N 2 A
07. Self inductance of a solenoid = L =  0 n A or L 
2

Where N is the total number of turns.
75
di
08. The induced e.m.f. due to mutual induction is given by    M
dt
0 N p Ns A
09. Mutual iductance between a pair of coils is M 

Where Np & Ns are the total number of turns in the primary and
secondary coils respectively.
10. Mutual inductance between a pair of coils is M  k L1L 2

Where L1 and L2 are the self inductance of the pair of coils and k is
the coefficient of coupling.
11. Applications of eddy currents :
Dead beat action in moving coil galvanometer. Speedometers,
Magnetic brakes, Energy measuring meters, Induction furnace,
Induction Cooker etc ... are based on eddy currents.
1 2
12. Energy stored in a solenoid carrying current ‘I’ ampere is W  LI
2
13. Mechanical and Electrical analogue
1) Velocity (v)  Current (I)
2) Mass (m)  Self inductance (L)
3) Displacement (s)  Charge (q)
4) Force (F)  Voltage (  )
1
5) Spring constant (k)  Reciprocal of capacitance  
C
6) Kinetic energy  Magnetic energy stored in inductor
7) Friction  Resistance
14. Magnetic energy density (energy stored per unit volume) in a solenoid
B2
=
2 0
15. If mutual induction between the coils is ignored, the effective self
inductance in series combination is, L
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Brain Pointer
16. If mutual induction between the coils is considered, the effective self
inductance in series combination is ,
L  L1  L 2  2M
L  L1  L 2  2M
17. i) If coefficient of coupling is ignored
1 1 1
 
L L1 L 2
ii) If coefficient of coupling is considered
1 1 1 M
  
L L1 L 2 L1L 2
18. The direction of induced current can be determined by using Fleming’s

Right Hand Rule. Stretch the forefinger, Central finger and the thumb
in the left hand in three mutually perpendicular directions. If the
forefinger represents the magnetic field and the thumb indicates the
motion of the conductor then the central finger will indicate the direction
of induced current in the conductor.
19. The force needed to move a conductor out from a uniform magnetic
field
B2  2 v
F  BI 
R
77
20. The power needed to move a conductor out from a uniform magnetic
field
B2  2 v 2
P
R
Alternating Current
21. Alternating voltage is    m sin t and Alternating current is

i  i m sin t
BAN
22. Peak emf ,  m  BAN and Peak current, i m 
R
23. RMS value of emf and current are respectively
m i
 rms   0.707 m and i rms  m  0.707i m
2 2
24. The average value of emf / current in a positive half cycle are
2 2i
respectively  av half   and i av half  
m m
 
1 2
25. The average value of power in a complete cycle = i m R  i 2rms R
2
26. AC voltage applied to an inductor is    m sin t
  m
Now current in the inductor is i  i m sin  t   where i m 
 2 L

Current lags behind the emf by
2
27. Inductive reactance X L  L  2f L
28. Phasor diagram of pure inductive circuit is shown below
78
Brain Pointer
29. AC voltage applied to a capacitor is    m sin t
  
Now current in the capacitor is i  i m sin  t   where i m  m
 2 I
C

Current leads the emf by
2
1
30. Capacitive reactance X C 
2f C
31. Phasor diagram of pure capacitive circuit is shown below.
32. AC voltage applied to a series LCR circuit is    m sin t
Now current in the circuit is i  i m sin  t    where
m
im 
2
 1 
R 2   L  
 C 
79
 1 
 L 
  tan 1  C 
Phase difference , 
 R 
 
2
 1 
Impedence Z  R   L 
2

 C 
33. Phasor diagram of series LCR circuit is shown below.
1
34. i) At very low frequency L  . Then tan    ve or    ve
C
The current in the LCR circuit is i  i m sin  t    . The circuit behaves

as a capacitive circuit.
1
ii) At very large frequency L  . Then tan    ve or    ve
C
The current in the LCR circuit is i  i m sin  t    . The circuit behaves

as an inductive circuit.
1
iii) At an intermediate frequency L  . Then tan   0 or   0
C
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Brain Pointer
The current in the LCR circuit is i  i m sin t . Now the circuit behaves
as a pure resistive circuit.
1 1
35. At resonance L  ,
C LC
1
Resonant frequency f 
2 LC
m
Current in the circuit at resonance is i m 
max
0 L0
36. Q - factor of the LCR circuit is Q   where 0 is the
2 R
resonant frequency.
L 1 1 L
Then Q   
R LC R C

37. Average power in AC circuit is P   rms  i rms  cos 
The term cos  is called power factor..
38. Power consumed by a pure resistive circuit is rms rms P  rms  i rms
39. Power consumed by pure capacitive or pure inductive circuit is zero

40. Current in the pure inductor or capacitor is called ‘idle current’ or
‘wattless a.c’.
81
CHAPTER - 06
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
 I  ic  id where, i c  conduction current

 ic  id i d  displacement current
d dE dV
 id  0  0 A C
dt dt dt
 Maxwell’s Equations
q
1)  E.ds  
S 0
 Gauss theorem in electrostatics
 
2)  B.ds  0  Gauss theorem in magnetism
S

dB   dB 
, E.d 
dt 
3) e A
dt
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
  dE
4)  B.d    i
c
0 c  i d    0i c   0 0 A
dt
 Maxwell-Ampere law
 Equation of plane progressive EM wave
 c
E  E 0 sin  t  x
B  B sin   t  x 
where,   2f
0 c
1 E
 Speed of EM wave, C   0
 0  0 B0
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Brain Pointer
Where,  0 = permeability of free space, 0 = permittivity of free

space, E 0 and B0 are maximum values of electric and magnetic
field vector

 Poynting vector S , the power transported by an EM wave per unit
 1  
area, S   E  B
0  
cB 2 EB
S   0 cE 2  
0 0
1 1 2 EB E B
= c 0 E 02  B 0 c = 0 0  rms rms
2 2 0 2 0 0
Energy u 0
 Momentum, P  
Velocity v
 Energy per unit volume,
1
= 0 E 02 (in electric field)
2
1 B20
= (in magnetic field)
2 0
1 1 B02
 Total energy =  E
0 0
2

2 2 0
 Electromagnetic spectrum
Range of wavelength (in m)
Radio waves  10 1  10 4
Micro waves  10 3  101
Infrared waves  7.5  10 7  103
83
Visible light  4  10 7  7.5  107

Ultraviolet light  10 8  4  107
X-rays  1011  10 8
Gamma rays  10 14  10 11
 When a wave passes from one material to another, frequency remains
constant but the wavelength changes
0
  where,  0 = wavelength in vacuum
n
n = refractive index
c
 n v = speed of light in the material
v
 Average energy density of electric field,
1
ue   0 E 02
4
 Average energy density of magnetic field,
1 B02 B2
uB  
4 0 2 0
 Average energy density of EM wave
1 1 2
u EM   0 E 02  B0
2 2 0
B2rms
u EM   0 E 2
rms 
0
 Intensity of EM waves,
power 1 1 2
I   0 E 02 c  B0 c
area 2 2 0
B2rms
I c   0 E 2rms c
0
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Brain Pointer
 Radiation pressure
I
Prad   for perfectly absorbing surface
C
2I
Prad   for perfectly radiating surface
C
I S
or, Prad    absorbing surface
C C
2I 2S
Prad    reflecting surface
C C
where, I = intensity
S = Poynting vector
C = speed of light
85
CHAPTER - 07
RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
Real and virtual images

If light rays, after reflection or refraction, actually meets at a point
then real image is formed and if they appears to meet virtual image
is formed.
(1) Deviation : Deviation produced by a plane mirror and by two
inclined plane mirrors
(2) Rotation : If a plane mirror is rotated in the plane of incidence

through angle  , by keeping the incident rat fixed, the reflected ray
turned through an angle 2 .
(3) Images by two inclined plane mirrors : When two plane mirrors
are inclined to each other at an angle  , then number of images (n)
formed of an object which is kept between them.
 360  60
(i) n    1 ; If = even integer
   
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60
(ii) If = odd integer then there are two possibilities

(i) When the object moves with speed u towards (or away) from the
plane mirror then image also moves toward (or away) with speed u.
But relative speed of image w.r.t. object is 2u.
(ii) When mirror moves towards the stationary object with speed u,
the image will move with speed 2u.
Curved Mirror
Relation between f and R :
R
f
2
 fconcave  ve, f convex   ve, f plane   
(i) All distances are measured from the pole

(ii) Distances measured in the direction of incident rays are taken as
positive while in the direction opposite of incident rays are taken
negative
(iii) Distances above the principle axis are taken positive and below
the principle axis are taken negative
Position, size and nature of image formed by the spherical mirror
87
1 1 1
Mirror formula :   ; (use sign convention while solving the
f v u
problems)
size of object
Magnification : m 
size of image
Snell’s law
The ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the angle of refraction (r)
is a constant called refractive index
sin i
i.e.   (a constant). For two media, Snell’s law can be written
sin r
 2 sin i
as 1  2  
1 sin r
88
Brain Pointer
Optical Path
It is defined as distance travelled by light in vacuum in the same time
in which it travels a given path length in a medium.
Real and Apparent Depth
If object and observer are situated in different medium then due to
refraction, object appears to be displaced from it’s real position. There
are two possible conditions
Total Internal Reflection
1
  cos ecC ; where  Rarer  Denser
sin C
(iv) Field of vision of fish (or swimmer) : A fish (diver) inside the water
can see the whole world through a cone with.
89
a) Apex angle = 2C = 98o
h
b) Radius of base r  h tan C 
2  1
h 2
c) Area of base A 
 2  1
Refraction from curved surface
u = Distance of object, v = Distance of image, R = Radius of curvature
 2  1  2 1
Refraction formula :   (use sign convention while
R v u
solving the problem)
Lens
90
Brain Pointer
Lens maker’s formula
The relation between f , , R 1 and R 2 is known as lens maker’s

’s
1  1 1 
formula and it is     1   
f  R1 R 2 
Lens in a liquid
Focal length of a lens in a liquid  f   can be determined by the

following formula
f   a g  1

f a    g  1 (Lens is supposed to be made of glass)
Lens formula and magnification of lens
1 1 1
(i) Lens formula :   ; (use sign convention)
f  u
(ii) Magnification : The ratio of the size of the image to the size of
object is called magnification.
I  f f 
(a) Transverse magnification : m     (use sign
O u f u f
convention while solving the problem)
(10) Cutting of lens
(i) A symmetric lens is cut along optical axis in two equal parts. Intensity
of image formed by each part will be same as that of complete lens
(ii) A symmetric lens is cut along principle axis in two equal parts.
Intensity of image formed by each part will be less compared as that
1
of complete lens. (aperture of each part is times that of complete
2
lens)
In case when two thin lens are in contact :Combination will behave
as a lens, which have more power or lesser focal length.
91
1 1 1 ff
   F  1 2 and P  P  P
F f1 f 2 f1  f 2 1 2
(iv) When two lenses are placed co-axially at a distance d from each
other then equivalent focal length (F)
1 1 1 d
  
F f1 f 2 f1f 2 and P  P1  P2  dP1P2
Silvering of lens
On silvering the surface of the lens it behaves as a mirror. The focal

1 2 1
 
length of the silvered lens is
F f  f m where f  = focal length of
lens from which refraction takes place (twice)
f m = focal length of mirror from which reflection takes place.
Spherical aberration : Inability of a lens to form the point image of a

point object on the axis is called spherical aberration.
Chromatic aberration : Image of a white object is coloured and

blurred because  (hence f) of lens is different for different colours.
This defect is called chromatic aberration.
Astigmatism : The spreading of image (of a point object placed away

from the principal axis) along the principal axis is called Astigmatism.
Refraction through a prism
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Brain Pointer
A  r1  r2 and i  e  A  
sin i
For surface AC  
sin r1
sin r2
For surface AB  
sin e
i - Angle of incidence, e - Angle of emergence,

A - Angle of prism or refracting angle of prism,
r1 and r2 - Angle of refraction,  - Angle of
Deviation through a prism
For thin prism      1 A . Also deviation is different for different
colour light eg.  R   V so R  V . And  Flint   Crown so F  C
93
Dispersion through a prism

The splitting of white light into it’s constituent colours is called
dispersion of light.
(i) Angular dispersion    : Angular separation between extreme
colours i.e.   V  R    V   R  A . it depends upon  and A
  
(ii) Dispersive power   :       1
V R
y y
 V  R 
where e  y  
 2 
 It depends only upon the material of the prism i.e.  and it doesn’t
depends upon angle of prism A
Scattering of Light
Molecules of a medium after absorbing incoming light radiations,
emits them in all direction. This phenomenon is called Scattering.
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1) According to scientist Rayleigh : Intensity of scattered light

1

4
2) Some phenomenon based on scattering : (i) Sky looks blue
due to scattering
(ii) At the time of sunrise or sunset it looks i reddish (iii) Danger signals
are made from red.
3) Elastic scattering : When the wavelength of radiation remains
unchanged, the scattering is called elastic.
4) Inelastic scattering (Raman’s effect) : Under specific condition,
light can also suffer inelastic scattering from molecules in which it’s
wavelength changes
Rainbow
Rainbow is formed due to the dispersion of light suffering
Refraction and TIR in the droplets present in the atmosphere
1) Primary rainbow : (i) Two refraction and one TIR (ii) Innermost
arc is violet and outermost is red (iii) Subtends an angle of 42o at the
eye of the observer. (iv) More bright
2) Secondary rainbow : (i) Two refraction and two TIR. (ii) Innermost
arc is red and outermost is violet (iii) Subtends an angle of 52.5o at
the eye. (iv) Comparatively less bright.
(1) Simple microscope
(i) It is a single convex lens of lesser focal length
95
(ii) Also called magnifying glass or reading lens
(iii) Magnification’s, when final image is formed at D and
  i.e. m D and m 
 D D
m D  1   and m    
 f max  f min
Note : m max  m min  1
Da
If lens is kept at a distance a from the eye then m D  1  and
f
Da
m 
f
(2) Compound microscope
(i) Consist of two converging lenses called objective and eye lens.
(ii) f eyelens  f objective and  diameter eyelens   diameter objective
(iii) Final image is magnified, virtual and inverted
(iv) u 0 = Distance of object from objective (0), v 0 = Distance of
image  A 'B'  formed by objective from objective, u e = Disgtance
of A 'B ' from eye lens, f 0 = Focal length of objective, f e = Focal length
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Brain Pointer
of eye lens.
Magnification :
mD  
0  D  f0  D   0  f 0  1  D 
1     1      
u 0  fe   u 0  f0   fe  f0  fe 
m  
0 D

f 0  D   0  f0  D
 
u 0 Fe  u 0  f 0   f e  f0 Fe
Length of the tube (i.e. distance between two lenses)
u 0f0 fD
When final image is formed at D; L D   0  u e   e
u 0  f0 fe  D
uf fD
When final images is formed at  ; L    0  f e   e
0 0
u 0  f0 fe  D
(Do not use sign convention while solving the problems)
(3) Resolving limit and resolving power : In reference to a
microscope, the minimum distance between two lines at which they
are just distinct is called Resolving limit (RL) and it’s reciprocal is
called Resolving power (RP)
 2 sin  1
R.L. = and R.P. = R.P.   R.P. 
2 sin   
 = Wavelength of light used to illuminate the object,

 = Refractive index of the medium between object and objective,
 = Half angle of the cone of light from the point object,  sin  =
Numerical aperture
97
Telescope
By telescope distant objects are seen

(1) Astronomical telescope
(i) Used to see heavenly bodies
(ii) f objective  f eyelens and d objective  d eyelens
(iii) Intermediate image is real, invered and small.

(iv) Final image is virtual, inverted and small
f0  fe  f0
(v) Magnification : m D   1   and m    f
fe  D  e
feD
(vi) Length : L D  f 0  u e  f 0 
f e  D and L   f 0  f e
(2) Terrestrial telescope
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(i) Used to see far off object on the earth

(ii) It consists of three converging lens : objective, eye lens and
erecting lens
(iii) It’s final image is virtual erect and smaller
f 0  fe  f0
(iv) Magnification : m D  1   and m   f
fe  D  e
feD
(v) Length : L D  f 0  4f  u e  f 0  4f 
f e  D and L   f 0  4f  f e
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CHAPTER - 08
WAVE OPTICS
Wave front
Locus of points of same vibration. The phase difference between
two adjacent points in a wave front is zero
Types of wave fronts
1. Wave front Intensity Amplitude

a. Spherical 1 1
1 A
r2 r
b. Cylindrical 1 1
I A
r r
c. Plane
I  ro A  ro
2
2. Relation between phase difference and path difference   L

Interferences - Superposition of waves
3. Amplitude of the resultant wave
A  A12  A 22  2A1A 2 cos 

IA 2

i.e. I A1  A 2  2A1A 2 cos 
2 2

Resultant Intensity
I  I1  I 2  2 I1I 2 cos 
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Brain Pointer
 
2
I1  I 2  A  A2 
2
I max
  1
4.
   A1  A 2 
2 2
Imin I1  I 2
Intensity at a given point

5. I  Imax cos2
2
Relation between slit width and intensity
W1 I1 A12
6.    W  slit width 
W2 I 2 A 22
Condition for maxima and minima
7. For constructive interference   2n (n = 0,1,2,3,...)
L  n  n  0,1, 2,3,...
8. For destructive interference    2n  1   n  1, 2,3,...

   2n  1  n  1, 2,3,...
2
9. In YDSE for constructive interference d sin   n  n  0,1, 2,3,...

and for destructive interference d sin    2n  1  n  0,1, 2,3,...
2
Distance to the nth bright fringe from central maximum
nD
y nb   n  0,1, 2,3,... and to the n th dark fringe
d
D
y nd   2n  1  n  1, 2,3,...
2d
D
Fringe width,  
d
101
 
Angular fringe width   
D d
Imax  I min 2 I1I2

10. Fringe visibility V  
I max  I min I1  I2
11. n = a constant n11  n 2  2
 
12. 
D d

If YDSE is performed in a medium  
1
13.


Angular width  
1

14. If transparent sheet is introduced in the path of one of the two waves,
shift produced is given by
D 
y0     1 t; y0     1 t
d 
y    1 t
no. of fringes shifted n  
 
15. Diffraction : Bending of light around the corners of opaque obstacles
and apertures
Position of the secondary minimum a sin   n  n  1, 2,3,...
Position of the secondary maximum

a sin    2n  1  n  1, 2,3,...
2
 x D
First sec. min    i.e. x 
a D a
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2
Angular width of the central maximum 2 
a
2D
Linear width of the central maximum 2x    2  D
a
The first minimum for the diffraction pattern of circular aperture of
1.22
diameter d is located by sin  
d
16. Doppler effect of light
v
  
c
17. Polarization : [Process of restriction of light vectors into a particular
plane]
I0
Malu’s law (cosine squared law) I 2  I1 cos  I1 
2
if   90 (i.e. polaroids are crossed) I2  0 if   0 I 2  I1

Brewsters law (Polarisation by Reflection)
nd 1
 tan B ; tan B 
nr sin C
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CHAPTER - 09
DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATION
 Work function  0 
The minimum energy require by an electron to liberate itself from

metal surface is called the work function of that metal. It is measured
in electron volt [eV]. 1eV  1.6  10 J 
19
It is maximum for platinum (5.65 eV)

minimum for cesium (2.14 eV)
 Quantum theory of light
Light consists of tiny packets of energy called photons. The energy
(E) of photon is proportional to its frequency   
hc
E  h 

c = velocity of light
 = wave length
h = 6.63  10 34 Js
 Rest mass of photon is zero
E h
 Effective mass of photon, m  c 2  c 2
h h
Photon momentum, P  mc  
c 
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If ‘P’ is the power of a source of light, the number of photons emitted
P P
per second, N  
h hc
 Photoelectric effect
When light of suitable frequency incident on metal, electrons are
emitted from its surface.
 Threshold frequency   0  : Minimum frequency of incident light

for photoelectric emission
 Threshold wavelength   0  : Maximum wavelength of incident light

for photoelectric emission.
hc
work function 0  h 0  
0
 Experimental observations of photoelectric emission

 Variation of photocurrent [ i ] with intensity [ I ] of light
 Variation of photo current [ i ] with collector potential [ V ] for different

intensities I1, I2, I3, .....
105
 Variation of photo current [ i ] with collector potential [ V ] for different

frequencies 1 ,  2 ,  3 ,....
 Variation of stopping potential  V0  with frequency    for different

cathode metals.
 Einstein’s photoelectric equation
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Energy of incident photon = work function + maximum kinetic energy

of photoelectron
i.e. E  0  K max ; K max  E  0

K max  h  0  h  h 0
K max  h     0 
1 1 1 
mv 2max  h     0   h   
2   0 
Where ‘Vmax’ is the velocity of the fastest photoelectron.
If V0 is the stopping potential, K max  eV0
eV0  h  0
h  0
V0   . This is of the form y = mx + c
e e
h
So V0 versus  graph is a straight line with slope = and
e
0
Y intercept =
e
BC h
slope  tan   
AB e
o
If  is in A, the energy of photon
12375
in eV is given by

107
De-Broglie wave equation
The wavelength  associated with a particle of mass ‘m’ moving
with velocity ‘v’ is given by
h h h
   (P - momentum, K - kinetic energy)
mv P 2mK
When an electron accelerated by a potential difference V,
h 12.27 o
  A This is verified by Davisson & Germer
2meV V
X-Rays
Electrons emitted from the hot filament are accelerated through

potential difference ‘V’ and the energetic electron strikes the tungston
target (T). The energy of the incident electron [eV] is converted to X-
ray photon, of energy h
eV  h
eV

h
hc
Cut-off wavelength,  0 
eV
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CHAPTER - 10
ATOMS & NUCLEI
ATOMS
Dalton’s atomic theory
 All elements are composed of invisible particles called atoms
 Compounds are formed of atoms of two or more elements
Thomson’s atomic model
 Atom consists of positively charged protons and negatively charged
electrons
 Atom is neutral
Rutherford’s atomic model
 Atoms contains a positively charged tiny particle at its centre known
as nucleus
 Inside the nucleus there are protons and neutrons
 Outside the nucleus there are the electrons
 Size of nucleus is about 1015 m to 1014 m

 Said the electrons orbit around the nucleus like the planets orbit around
the sun
 Could not explain why the electrons were not falling into the nucleus
Distance of closest approach
1 1  z1e  z 2e 
 mv 2  r-distance of closest approach
2 4 0 r
Impact parameter
    scattering angle
Ze2 cot  
 2 E K  kinetic energy
b
40 EK b  impact parameter
109
Rutherford’s scattering formula
Ni nt z 2 e4
N   

 8 0 
2
r 2 E K2 sin 2  
2
N    = Number of alpha particles per unit area that reach the screen
at a scattering angle 
Ni = Total number of alpha particles that reach the screen
n = Number of atoms per unit volume in the foil
Bohr’s atomic model
 The electrons in an atom are revolving in certain fixed orbits for which
the angular momentum of the electrons is an integral multiple of h or
h
2
L = nh
nh
L
2
 The electrons in the stationary orbits do not radiate energy
 If an electron jumps from initial state of energy En to a final state of
lower energy Em, energy of emitted photon is given by
h  E n  E m
Bohr’s formulae
4 0 n 2 h 2 0.529n 2 o
 Radius of nth orbit = rn  , rn  A
42 mZe 2 Z
1 2ze2
 Velocity of electron in the nth orbit v n 
4 0 nh
2
2.2  106  m / s
n
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 KE of electron in the nth orbit

2
1 ze 2  1  22 me4 z 2 13.6z 2
 KE n     eV
4 0 2rn  4 0  n 2h 2 n2
 PE of electron in nth orbit

2
1 ze 2  1  42 me 4 z 2 27.2z 2
 PE n  Un       eV
4 0 rn  4 0  n 2h 2 n2
 TE of electron in nth orbit

2
 1  22 me 4 z 2 13.6z 2
E n  U n   KE n     eV
 4 0  n 2h 2 n2
 2KE = –PE, PE = 2TE, KE = –TE

 Frequency of electron in nth orbit
2
 1  42 z 2 e 4 m 6.62  1015 z 2
fn    
 4 0  n 3h 3 n3
 Wavelength of radiation in the transition from n 2  n1
1 1 1
is given by  Rz 2  2  2 
  n n2 
R is called Rydberg’s constant
2
 1  22 me 4
R    1.097  107 m 1
 4  0  ch 3
13.6z 2
 Ionisation energy = eV
n2
13.6z 2
 Ionisation potential = volt
n2
111
 When an electron makes a transition from n 2 th orbit to n1th orbit
 n 2  n1  , If E2 and E1 are the energies in n2 and n1 respectively

1 z 2 me 4  1 1 
E 2  E1  h    
8 20 h 2  n12 n 22 
z 2 e4 m 1 1 2  1 1
  2  2     Rcz  2  2 
8 02 h 3  n1 n 2   n1 n 2 
Series n1 n2 Spectral region

Lyman 1 2,3,4,…. Ultra violet
Balmer 2 3,4,5,…. Visible
Paschen 3 4,5,6…. Near infra-red
Brackett 4 5,6,7,…. Mid infra-red
Pfund 5 6,7,8,…. For infra-red
 Maximum number of spectral lines obtained due to transition of

electrons present in nth orbit
n  n  1
N
2
 Time period of revolution of electron in nth orbit
n3
Tn 
22
 Angular momentum of electron in nth orbit
nh
Ln 
Z2
NUCLEI (SYNOPSIS)
1. Atomic mass uni (amu)
1 amu = 1.660565  10 27 kg
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mass of proton, mp = 1.0073 u
= 1.67262 10 27 kg
mass of neutron, mn = 1.0086 u
= 1.6749 10 27 kg
mass of electron, m e  0.00055u
9.1 1031 kg
2. Isotopes  Eg. 1H1 , 1H 2 ,1 H 3
Isobars  Eg. 6 C14 , 7 N14
Isotones  Eg. 80 Hg198 , 79 Au197
3. Nuclear size
1
R  R0A 3 R  Radius of nucleus
R 0  1.2 1015 m
A  mass number
Density of nucleus = 2.3  1017 kg / m3
Radius of nucleus  10 15 m
4. Electron volt (eV)
1 eV = 1.6  10 19 J
MeV = Million electron volt
1 MeV = 1.6  10 13 J
5. Einstein’s mass - energy relation

E = mc2 c = velocity of light in vacuum
Mass energy equivalent to 1 amu,
1 amu = 931.5 MeV
113
6. Mass defect  m 
m   Zm p   A  Z  m n   M
Z - atomic number
A - mass number
mp - mass of proton
mn - mass of neutron
M - actual mass of nucleus
Binding energy of a nucleus (Eb)
E b  m  931.5 MeV
Binding energy per nucleon (Ebn)
binding energy E b
E bn  
mass number A
Binding energy curve
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7. Radio activity
Law of radioactive decay
It states that “the rate of disintegration at any instant of time is directly
proportional to the number of radioactive atoms present in the sample
at that instant”
dN
N
dt
N = No. of radioactive atoms
N  N O e  t
N  no. of atoms at any instant

N 0  Initial no. of atoms
  decay constant
Activity (R)
dN
R or R  N
dt
Units of radio activity
SI unit of activity is Becquerel.
1 Becquerel (1 Bq) means one disintegration per second
Another unit of activity is curie (Ci)
1 curies = 3.7  1010 decays per second
= 3.7  1010 Bq
1 Ruther ford (Rd) = 106 dps
 
Half life Period T1
2
It is the time taken by any radioactive material to disintegrate half its

original amount
0.693
T1 
2 
115
Average life or mean life   
 1

T1  0.693
2
 No. of undecayed atoms after ‘n’ half lives
n t
1 1 T
N  N0   or N  N 0  
2  2
where t = nT
t
After ‘t’ seconds, N  N 0 e 
Variation of no. of undecayed atoms with time
8. Alpha decay
Z X A  Z  2 Y A  4  2 He 4  Q
Disintegration energy (Q value)
Q   m X   m Y  m He  C 2
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Note : When a nucleus emits  -particle the mass number

decreases by 4 and the atomic number decreases by 2. Thus the
element shifts two places to the left in the periodic table
9. Beta decay
  decay
Z X A  Z1 Y A  e 1    Q
 - antineutrino
n  P  e 1  
  decay
Z X A  Z1 Y A  e     Q
 - neutrino
P  n  e  
10. Gamma decay
Z X A*  Z X A  
11. Nuclear reaction
Nuclear fission
In nuclear fission a heavier nucleus when bombarded with neutron
splits into two or more lighter nuclei, with the emission of large amount
of energy.
Eg. 0 n1  92 U 235 92 U 236 56 Ba144  36 Kr 89  3 0 n1
Nuclear reactor  controlled chain reaction

Uncontrolled chain reaction  Atom bomb
Multiplication factor (K)
No. of neutrons in one generation

K
No. of neutrons in preceeding generation
Case 1 : K < 1, No. of neutrons is decreasing (subcritical state)
117
Case 2 : K = 1, self-sustaining chain reaction (critical state)
Case 3 : K > 1, Results explosion (super critical state)
Nuclear reactor
1. Fuel  Uranium 235, Plutonium 239
2. Neutron source  Berilium and polonium powder
3. Moderator  Grafite and heavy water
4. Control rod  Cadmium & boron
5. Coolant  Liquid sodium and heavy water
Nuclear fusion
In nuclear fusion, when two light nuclei fuse to form a larger nucleus,
energy is released.

Eg. 1 H 1 H 1 H  e    0.42 MeV
1 1 2
1 H 2 1 H 2 2 H3  n  3.27 MeV
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CHAPTER - 11
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
119
120
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121
122
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123
124
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CHAPTER - 12
TRANSISTORS
Transistor Regions
Name of Dopping
Size Purpose
Region Profile
Emitter Heavy Medium Emits majority charge carriers
Base Least Smallest Space for recombination
Collector Medium Largest Collect charge carriers
Type of Transistors
Type Schematic Representation Symbol
npn
pnp
125
 Arrow in circuit symbol shows direction of current flow
Regions of operation
Biasing given to Junction

Name of Region Application
E.B. C.B.
Forward Forward Saturation ON switch
Forward Reverse Active Amplifier
Reverse Forward Inverse Active Attenuator
Reverse Reverse Cut off OFF switch
Transistor configurations - A comparison
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127
Relation between ,  & 
I E  I B  IC
  
       1 
1  1  
Characteristics of a transistor (C.E. configuration)
Applications of a transistor
 Active Region - Amplifier
 Saturation Region - Closed switching
 Cut off Region - Open switch
Transfer characteristics
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(i)Vi  0.6V; IC  0; V0  VCC   VCE   cut off state

(ii)0.6V  Vi  1V; some collector current  active state
(iii)Vi  1V; IC  very l arg e  saturation state
(For a silicon transistor)
Applications of transistor
Voltage i/p (Vi)

IB IC Region Application
Si Ge
< 0.7V < 0.3 V 0 0 cut-off OFF switch
> VT > VT Large Max. Saturation ON switch
0.7 < Vi < VT 0.3 < Vi <VT Flucututes Fluctuates Active Amplitude
According i/p signal
Transistor parameters
I o/ p
 Current gain  A I  
Ii
p
129
 R out 
 Voltage gain  A V   A I   
 R in 
 R out 
Power gain  A P    A I   
2
  = Trans conductance  Rout
R
 in 
AI
 Trans conductance =
R in
Digital Electronics
 Deals with digital signals
 Digital signal :  Discretized in magnitude domain
 Continuous in time domain
Basic Laws of Boolean Algebra
General AND OR NOT

form of
primary
A.0 = 0 A+0=A

laws A A
A.1 = A A+1=1
Commutative Associative law Distributive
A+B=B+A A + (B + C) = (A + B)+C A.(B + C) = A.B + A.C
A.B = B.A A.(B.C) = (A.B).C A + (B.C) = (A + B).(A+C)
Idempotent law Basic Identities Absorption law


A+A=A A  A 1 A + AB = A

A.A=A A.A  0 A.(A + B) = A
130 AA
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Demorgan's law Consensu's law
 A.B  A  B AB  AC  BC  AB  AC
A  B  A.B
 A  B . A  C . B  C    A  B . A  C 
Logic gates : Electronic circuits for the realisation of Boolean Algebra
Comparison of Logic gates
131
Universal Gates : NAND & NOR
Implementation table (universal gates)
Gate used/
NAND NOR
Imple me nted
NOT 1 1
AND 2 3 Number of
universal
OR 3 2
gates required
NAND X 4 to implement
15 complementary
NOR 4 X universal gates
XOR 4 5 is 4
XNOR 5 4
I.C. Technology
 Analogue & Digital ICs
 Monolithic Fabrication - Batch process
Different I.C. Technologies
No. of components in
Name I.C. Technology
1mm x 1mm Area
Less than 10 Small scale Integration (SSI)
< 100 Medium scale Integration (MSI)
< 1000 Large scale Integration (LSI)
> 1000 Very large scale Integration (VLSI)
Moores Law : Number of components that can be packed in the

standard dimension will double in every one and half years
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CHEMISTRY
CHAPTER - 01
SOLID STATE
Solids are characterized by their high density, low compressibility,

definite shape, considerable mechanical strength and rigidity. Its
interparticle distances are short and interparticle attractions are strong.
Classification of solids
On the basis of arrangement of constituent particles, solids are
classified as
Crystalline solids Amorphous solids
1) Long range order of arrangements Short range order
2) Sharp melting point No sharp melting point
3) Anisotropic in nature Isotropic in nature

Cut with a knife, give regular
4) Give irregular cleavage
cleavage
5) Characteristic geometrical shape Irregular shape
Also called pseudo solids

Also called true solids or super cooled liquids
6)
eg : NaCl, KCl, Cu eg : Plastics, rubber,
amorphous silicon
Classification of crystalline solids

On the basis of inter molecular forces of attraction crystalline solids
are divided into four
133
Nature of
Nature of Physical &
interaction
Type of solid constituent electrical Examples
between
particles properties
particles
a) Soft
a) Dispersion or b) Low melting
Molecular : London forces points a) H2, CO2
a) Non-polar b) Dipole-dipole c) Non-
Molecules b) HCl, SO2
b) Polar force conductors of
c) Hydrogen bonded c) Hydrogen electricity in c) H2O
bonding both solid and
liquid states
a) Relatively
hard
b) Brittle
c) High melting
Ionic (Coulombic points
NaCl, MgO,
Ionic Ions or electrostatic) d) Non-
ZnS
bonding conductors of
electricity as
solids, but
conduct when
melted
a) Range from
very hard to
very soft
b) Melting
Positive points range
metal ions from high to
in a sea of low
Metallic Metallic bonding Fe, Mg, Cu
delocalized c) Conduct
free electricity in
electrons both solid and
liquid states
d) Have
characteristic
luster
a) Very hard
b) Very high
melting points C(diamond)
Atoms and
Covalent c) Non- SiO 2
Network chemical
bonding conductors of (quartz)
subunits
electricity C(graphite)
(graphite is an
exception)
Poly crystalline solids

Some solids which apparently appear amorphous but have micro
crystalline structure are called polycrystalline solids. (eg : metals) in
powdered form.
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Crystal lattice
The regular three dimensional arrangement of points in space is called
crystal lattice. There are 14 crystal lattice are collectively called
Bravais lattice.
Unit cell
The smallest repeating portion of crystal lattice is called unit cell.
These are 2 types
1) Primitive
2) Centred
a) Body centred
b) Face centred
c) End centred
Seven primitive unit cells and their possible variations as
centred unit cells
135
Axial
Crystal system Possible variations distance Axial angles Examples
or edge
Primitive, body-centred, 0 NaCl, Zinc
Cubic a =b =c       90
face-centred blende, Cu
White tin,
Tetragonal Primitive, Body- centred a  b  c       90 0 SnO 2, TiO 2,
CaSO 4
Primitive, Body-centred, Rhombic

a b c       90
0
Orthorhombic face-centred, End- sulphur, KNO3,

centred BaSO4
a  b  c     90 0 ,   120 0 Graphite, ZnO,

Hexagonal Primitive
CdS
Calcite
Rhombohedral or 0
Primitive a =b =c       90 (CaCO 3),
Trigonal
HgS(cinnabar)
Monoclinic
Monoclinic Primitive, End-centred a  b  c     900 ,   90 0 sulphur,
Na 2SO 4.10H2 O
a bc       90 0 K2Cr2O7,
Triclinic Primitive CuSO 4.5H2O,
H3 BO 3
No. of atoms in a cubic unit cell
Contribution of particles at
Total no.
System
Body Face of atoms
Corner
centre centre
1) Simple
8 × 1/8 = 1 0 0 1
cubic
2) bcc 8 × 1/8 = 1 1 0 2
3) fcc 8 × 1/8 = 1 0 6 × 1/2 = 3 4
Close packed structure
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Cubic close
packing
Simple cubic packing Hexagonal close Body-centred cubic
(ccp) or face-
(scp) packing (hcp) packing (bcc)
centred
cubic (fcc)
The spheres in square

Arrangement : Layers are close packing are
packed over one another ABCABC …. slightly opend up, in
ABABAB …. Types
so that the sphere of Type of second layer, the
of packing
second layer exactly lies packing spheres are at the top
arrangement is
over the sphere of first arrangement of hollows and third
present.
layer. AAA ….. Type of is present. layer is exactly over
arrangement. the first layer and so
on.
Space occupied : 52.4 % 74% 74% 68%
C.No. : 6 12 12 8
Metals like Li, Na, K,
Cu, Ag, Au, Rb, Cs, Ba, Cd, Fe,
Examples : Po Mg, Zn, Mo, V, Cd
Ni, Pt, etc. Mn, etc., crystallise in
bcc arrangement
Void : The empty space in crystal lattice is called void.

Types of voids
For tetrahedral void, rvoid = 0.225 rsphere

For octahedral void, rvoid = 0.414 rsphere
Packing efficiency
The percentage of total space filled by constituent particles is called
packing efficiency.
Characteristics of different types of unit cells
137
Density of unit cell
zM

a3NA
Structure of some ionic compounds

No. of
Nature of
System CN formula Examples
lattice
units
halides of
Cl- at ccp
Na+ = 6 alkali
NaCl (rock salt) Na+ - all 4
Cl- = 6 metals
octahedral voids except Cs
Cl- at corners of
a cube. CsCl,
Cs + = 8
CsCl Cs + at cubic 1 CsBr, CsI,
Cl- = 8 CsCN
void (or body
centre)
S2- - ccp
Zn2+ = 4 ZnS, CuCl,
ZnS (Zinc blende) Zn - alternate 2-
2+ 4
S =4 CuBr, CuI
tetrahedral voids
Ca2+ - ccp
Ca2+ = 8
CaF2 (Fluorite) F- - all the 4 CaF2, SrF2
F- = 4
tetrahedral voids
O 2- - ccp Na2O,
Na+ = 4
Na2O(antifluorite) Na2+ - all the 4 K2O, Na2S,
O2- = 8
tetrahedral voids K2S, Li2O
Radius ratio of ionic compounds
radius of cation r
radius ratio  
radius of anion r
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r + /r - CN G eometry
< 0.155 2 Linear

0.155 - 0.225 3 Plane triangular
0.225 - 0.414 4 Tetrahedral
0.414 - 0.732 6 Octahedral
0.732 - 1.000 8 Cubic (body centred)
Defects in solids
Electrical properties
139
CHAPTER - 02
SOLUTIONS
 Solutions - Homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.

Types of solution:
Types of solution Solute Solvent Common example
Gas Gas Mixture of N2 and O2

Liquid Gas CHCl3 mixed with N2 gas
Gaseous solution
Solid Gas Mixture of N2 and O2
Gas Liquid O2 dissolved in water

Liquid solution Liquid Liquid Ethanol dissolved in water
Solid Liquid Glucose dissolved in water
Gas Solid Solution of H2 in Pd
Solid solution
Liquid Solid Amalgum of Hg with sodium
Solid Solid Copper dissolved in gold
Expressing concentration of solution
Mass of component
1. Mass percentage (w/w) =  100
Total mass of solution
vol.of component
2. Volume percentage (v/v) =  100
Total vol.of solution
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Mass of component 100

3. Mass by volume percentage (w/v) =
Total volumeof solution in ml
No. of parts of component

4. Parts per million (ppm) = 106
Total no.of parts of solution
Mass of component
=  106
Total mass of solution
No.of moles of component

5. Mole fraction    =
Total no.of moles
B 1000
6. Molarity = 
M B vol(ml)
B 1000
7. Molality (m) = 
M B A (g)
1000
8. Normality (N) = No.of gram equivalent of solute  vol ml
 
No. of gram formula masses of solute
9. Formality (F) =
Volume of solution in litre
 Solubility - Amount of solute dissolved in given volume of solvent to

form saturated solution at a given temperature.
Solubility of solid in liquid - Amount of solid solute dissolved in a given
volume of solvent at a given temperature.
Factors affecting solubility
 Temperature
(a) If dissolution is exothermic, solubility decreases with increase in
temperature
(b) If dissolution is endothermic, solubility increases with increase in
temperature
 Pressure - No significant effect
141
Solubility of gas in liquid - Henry’s law
 Henry’s law state that partial pressure of a gas in vapour phase (P) is
proportional to the molefraction of a gas    in solution.
P = KHX
KH = Henry’s law constant

Higher the value of KH, lower is the solubility.
Effect of temperature:
 Solubility of gases in liquid decreases with rise in temperature.

Vapour pressure
 Vapour pressure of a liquid/solution is the pressure exerted by the

vapour in equilibrium with the liquid/solid solution at a particular
temperautre.
Raoult’s law
 It states that in a solution, the partial pressure of a component at a

given temperature is equal to the molefraciton of that component in
the solution multiplied by the vapour pressure of that component in
pure state.
PA   A
PA   A PA0
Vapour pressure of solution of two volatile liquids A and B
PA  A PA0 and PB0  B .PB0
PTotal  PA  PB
PTotal   A PA0   B PB0
PTotal   PB0  PA0   A  PA0

PTotal   PA0  PB0   A  PB0
142
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Raoults law valid only for ideal solution

 Ideal solution : Solutions which obeys Raoult’s law. Interaction
between A and B are of the same magnitude as in the pure
components.
H mixing  0 Smixing   ve
Vmixing  0 G mixing   ve
Non-ideal solution
 Solutions which do not obey Raoult’s law. A–A and B–B interactions
are different from A – B interaction.
Vmixing  0 Vmixing  0
Non-ideal solution showing positive deviation
A–A and B–B interactions are stronger than A–B interaction.
Vmixing   ve Smixing   ve
H mixing   ve G mixing   ve
Non-ideal solution showing negative deviation

 A – A and B–B interactions are weaker than A – B interaction.
Vmixing   ve Smixing   ve
H mixing   ve G mixing   ve
Composition of vapour phase:
 A PA0
 Mole fraction of A in vapour phase (YA) =
 A PA0  B PB0
 B PB0
 Mole fraction of B in vapour phase  YB  =
 A PA0  B PB0
Azeotropes
 Solutions which boil at constant temperature without changing their
composition
143
Minimum boiling azeotrope
 Solutions which boil at a temperature below the boiling point of both

the components.
Maximum boiling Azeotropes
 Solutions which boils at a temperature above the boiling point of

solution.
Colligative properties:
 Properties of solution which depends only on the number of solute

particles.
1. Relative lowering of vapour pressure
PA0  PA nB
 B 
PA0
nA  nB
If solution is very dilute, n A  n B  n A
PA0  PA n B w B M A
  
PA0 n A MB w A
2. Elevation in boiling point
Tb  Tb  Tb0
Tb  molality  m 
Tb  K b m
w B 1000
Tb  K b 
MB wA
K b  Molal elevation / ebullioscopic constant
2
RTb0 M A
Kb 
1000   vap H
144
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3. Depression in freezing point
Tf  Tf0  Tf
Tf  molality  m 
Tf  K f m
w B 1000
Tf  K f 
MB wA
K f  molal depression / Cryoscopic cons tan t
2
RTf0 M A
Kf 
1000   fus H
Osmosis
 It is the spontaneous movement of solvent molecules from a less
concentrated solution to a more concentrated solution through semi
permeable membrane.
Osmotic pressure   
It is the minimum external pressure applied on the solution in order to

prevent osmosis.
  CRT
n
  B RT
V
w RT
 B 
MB V
Isotonic solution
 Solutions having same osmotic pressure
Reverse osmosis
 If external pressure applied is greater than osmotic pressure, the flow
of solvent molecules can be made to proceed from solution towards
pure solvent.
145
Abnomal molecular weight
Abnormal molecular weights and colligative properties are observed
in some cases where the experimental and theoretical values differ
considerably.
Dissociation
i = >1
i = 1 + (n – 1) 
i 1

n 1
Association
i<1
1 
i=1+   1 
n 
i 1

1
1
n
Experimental colligative property

i
Normal colligative property
If i = 1, there is no association or dissociation.
146
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CHAPTER - 03
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Electrochemistry is the study of relationship between electrical energy

and chemical energy produced in a redox reaction.
Electrolyte
The chemical substances which conduct electricity in its aqueous
solution or molten solution.
wg : NaCl(aq), H2SO4(aq), NaOH(aq), etc.
Differences between electrochemical cell and electrolytic cell
Electrochemical cell (Galvanic or voltaic cell) Electrolytic cell
It is a device which converts chemical energy into It is a device which converts electrical
1
electrical energy energy into chemical energy
The redox reaction is non-spontaneous

It is based upon the redox reaction which is
2 and takes place only when electrical
spontaneous, i.e,  G   v e
energy is supplied. i.e,  G   ve
Both the electrodes are suspended in the
Two electrodes are usually set up in two separate
3 solution or melt of the electrolyte in the
beakers
same beaker
The electrolytes taken in the two beakers are
4 Only one electrolyte is taken
different
The electrodes taken may be of the
5 The electrodes taken are of different materials
same or different materials
The electrode which is connected to the -
The electrode on which oxidation takes place is ve terminal of the battery is called the
called the anode (or - ve pole) and the electrode cathode; the cations migrate to it which
6
on which reduction takes place is called the gain electrons and hence, a reduction
cathode (or +ve pole) takes place, the other electrode is called
the anode.
7 To set up this cell, a salt bridge/porous pot is used No salt bridge is used in this case.
Galvanic cell
  Zn2  2e
Anode : Zn 
Cathode :Cu2  2e 

 Cu
147
Characteristic features of galvanic cell
2 2
Cell representation : Zn Zn Cu Cu
Cell reaction : Zn  Cu2 

 Zn2  Cu
 Electrons flow from anode to cathode through external circuit.
 Current flow from cathode to anode through external circuit.
 Cations move towards cathode and anions move towards anode
through internal circuit (salt bridge)
Salt bridge
It is inverted glass U tube contain some salts like KCl, KNO3,
NH4NO3 etc are mixed with Agar-Agar gel.
Functions of salt bridge
1) To minimise liquid-liquid junction potential
2) To maintain the neutrality of half cells
3) To avoid the inter mixing of aqueous solution
4) To get the continuous current
Standard electrode potential (E0)
It is the tendency of an electrode to lose or gain electrons when it is
placed in a solution of its own ion at 298 K and 1 atm
Standard hydrogen electrode or normal hydrogen electrode (SHE/
NHE)
Cell reaction : 2H   2e   H 2
Cell representation : E0 , H / H2 , Pt
emf of SHE at 1 atm and 298 K is equal to zero
E0cell  Ecathode
0 0
 Eanode
 red red 
Electrochemical series
The elements are arranged in either increase or decrease order of
standard reduction potential
148
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Applications

1) To find E0cell  EC0  E0A 
2) Selection of reducing agent or oxidising agent
3) To predict the reactivity of metals and non metals
4) To construct galvanic cell
5) To predict the electrolysis product
Nernst Equation
For half cell
Mnn   ne  
M
E  E0 n 
RT
ln
Product 
M n
M
M
M nF Reactants
E  E0 n 
2.303RT
log
Product 
M n
M
M
M nF Reactants
E  E0 n  
0.0591
log
Product 
M n
M
M
M
n Reactant 
For cell
0 RT Products
Ecell  Ecell  ln
nF Reactants
Ecell  E0cell 
2.303RT
log
Products
nF Reactants
0
Ecell  Ecell 
0.0591
log
Products
n Reactants
Concentration cell
A galvanic cell constructed with same half cells
149
1) Electrode concentration cell
Pt, H2 H H2 , Pt
(P1 )atm (P2 )atm
0.0591 P2
Ecell   log P2  P1 
n P1
2) Electrolyte concentration cell
Zn Zn2 C1(M) Zn2 C2 (M) Zn
0.0591 C
Ecell   log 1  C1  C2 
n C2
 G0  nFEcell
0
 G0  nRT ln K C
 G0   2.303RT log K C
0.0591
E0cell   log K C
n
0.0591
Ecell  E0cell  log K C
n
For a spontaneous reaction
G0  0, Ecell
0
 0, K C  1
Electronic and electrolytic conductors
Electronic Conductors Electrolytic Conductors

Flow of electricity is due to flow of
Flow of electricity is due to flow of ions
electrons
Flow takes place without decomposition Flow is accompanied by decomposition of
of the substance the substance
Conduction decreases with increase in

Conduction increases with increase in
temperature because kernels start
temperature because dissociation
vibrating which interface in the flow of
increases
electrons
150
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Factors influencing the conductivity of electrolytic solution.

1) The nature of the electrolyte added
2) Size of the ions produced and their solvation
3) The nature of the solvent and its viscosity
4) Temperature
In metallic conductors
R
A
RA
Specific resistance  

Specific conductance   1R .  A
In electrolytic conductors
Specific conductance : Conductance offered by the ions present in a
unit volume of electrolytic solution
G*  
A
  C  G* cellconstant 
1 1 1
Unit of   Sm or  cm
Conductivity  decreases when dilution increases, this is due to
decrease in the number of ions present in unit volume of electrolytic
solution.
Molar conductance/equivalent conductance
  1000
m 
M
  1000
 eq 
N
m
x
 eq
x = either the total + ve charge or – ve charge on the salt
1Scm2mol1  104 Sm2 mol1

151
 m or  eq of electrolytic solution increases on dilution is due to inter

ionic attraction decreases
For strong electrolytes : Debye-Huckel Onsager equation
0
 m  m A c
y = c + mx
For weak electrolyte : Kohlrausch’s law
0
m 0
A pBq  p. m A q  q. m
0 p
B
Applications of Kohlrausch’s law
C
m
1)   
m
2
Cm
2) K a  0
m 0
m  m 
0   1000
3) m 
S
Faraday’s First Law
 Q
  ZQ Z  electrochemical equivalent
E
 Q E  equivalent weight
F
E
  It F  Faraday
F
Faraday’s second law
1 E1

2 E2
152
Brain Pointer
Products of Electrolysis
Products Reactions involved

Electrolyte
At cathode At anode At cathode At anode
Na 
 e  Na s 
 1
Molten NaCl Na metal Cl 2 gas aq  Cl aq   C l2 g   e 
2
1  1 
Aqueous NaCl H2 gas Cl 2 gas H2 O     e   H2 ( g )  OHaq  Cl  aq  2 Cl 2 g  e
2
1 2H2 O    O2 (g )  4Haq   4e 
Dil. H2SO 4 H2 gas O 2 gas H a q  e   H
2 2 g 
1
Conc. H2SO 4 H2 gas S 2 O82 H aq   e   H 2SO 24 aq  S 2O 82 aq   2e 
2 2 g
Batteries
Corrosion
Rust : Polyhydrated ferric oxide Fe2O3 . xH2O
Rusting of iron
Cathode : O2  4H aq  4e  

 2H2O
 2Fe 2  4e 
Anode : 2Fe 
153
Prevention of corrosion
 Surface coating with bisphenol
 Galvanisation : Fe is coated with Zn (Sacrificial protection)
 Electrochemical method : Cathodic protection is the metal to be
protected as cathode.
154
Brain Pointer
CHAPTER - 04
CHEMICAL KINETICS
 Average rate of reaction
  R    P 
rav  
t t
Concentration
Unit of rate of reaction   mol L1s 1
Time
 Instantaneous rate of reaction :
C dC
lim 
t 0 t dt
155
For any reaction aA  bB  cC  dD
1 d  A  1 d  B  1 d  C  1 d  D 
  
a dt b dt c dt d dt
Factors affecting rate of reaction
 Concentration : Temperature [Generally Temperature increases by

10°C will cause rate increase upto 2 times]
 Surface Area : When surface area increases, rate of reaction

increases.
 Catalyst : It increases the rate of reaction
 Rate law,
r   A  B
x y
r  K  A  B ; ‘K is rate constant/velocity constant/specific reaction

x y
rate
Note that ‘X’ and ‘Y’ are order of reaction with respect to ‘A’ and ‘B’
respectively. (x + y = n) n  overall order..
 Unit of rate constant = (conc)1–n time–1
 Difference between order and molecularity
Order M olecularity
Sum of stoichiom etric coefficient in balanced

Sum of powers in rate law
chem ical equation
Experim etal Theoretical
It can be positive, negative or

Values of molecularity should be 1, 2, 3
fractional
Mechanism of reaction can be

No connection with m echanism
predicted
156
Brain Pointer
Different order reactions and their integrated equations

1. Zero order reactions
For a Reaction
RP
 R 0   R 
K [R]0 - Initial concentration, [R] - Final concentration,
t
t - Time
 R 0
t1 
2 2K
3
 R 0 t 75%  t1
t100   2t 1 2 2
K 2
2. First order reaction
2.303  R 0
K log  R 0  Initial concentration;[R]  Final concentration
t R 
2.303 a
K log a  Initial concentration; x  decomposed amount of reactant
t ax
0.693
t 1 is independent of initial concentration : t 1 
2 2 K
t life time  1.4 t 1

2
 R 0
Amount left after ' n ' t 1 
2 2n
total time
'n '  no : of t1/2  
t1
2
157
Different relations with t 1

2
t 1  50%
2
2t 1  75%
2
3t 1  87.5%
2
3.3t 1  90%
2
4t 1  93.75%
2
5t 1  96.875%
2
6.6t 1  99%
2
10t 1  99.9%
2
t 64  2t 40%
t 99  2t 90%
t19  2t 10%
General equation for t½ of any order reaction
1  1 1 
K   
 n  1 t   R n 1  R 0n 1 
2n 1  1
t1 
2
n
 n  1 K n a n 1
Arrhenius equation (Temperature dependence of rate constant)
K  Ae  Ea /RT
or
K2 Ea 1 1
log    
K1 2.303 R  T1 T2 
158
Brain Pointer
Graphs for exothermic and endothermic reaction

Exothermic
Ea b  Ea f  Exothermic
H   ve
Ea f  Ea b  H
Endothermic
Ea f  Ea b  Endothermic
H   ve
Ea f  Ea b  H
Collision theory (Lewis and Troutz)

For a reaction to occur collision must be effective. For effective
collision.
 Threshold Energy
 Proper orientation
K  PZAB e Ea / RT
K  rate constant
P  Probability factor/steric factor
ZAB  Collision frequency
e  Ea / RT  Boltzmann factor
E a  Activation energy
159
T able of Formula
Type of re a ction Inte gra te d Equa tion for K Unit of ra te consta nt Ha lf life pe riod
K
 R 0  R   R 0  t1
Zero order
t m ol L 1 s  1 2K 2
2.303  R 0 0.693
K log t1 
First order t R s 1 2 K
1 1 1  1
Second order K     mol L 
1 1
s 1 t1 
t   R   R 0  2 K 2a
1  1 1  3
t1 
Third order K   
2t   R  2  R 2 
 mol L  1 2
s
1
2 2 K3 a
2
 0 
IMPORTANT GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
160
Brain Pointer
161
CHAPTER - 05
SURFACE CHEMISTRY
1. Surface chemistry:
 Study of surface phenomena
 Metal corrosion, Electrode processes, catalysis, etc
2. Surface
 Interface between two different phases
3. Adsorption:
 Surface phenomena
 Molecular species accumulate on the surface rather than in the
bulk of a substance
4. Adsorbent
 Substance providing a surface for adsorption
5. Adsorbate:
 Accumulating molecular species
6. Absorption
 Bulk phenomenon
 Accumulation of molecular species throughout the substance
7. Sorption
 Simultaneous adsorption and absorption
8. Mechanism of adsorption:
162
Brain Pointer
9. Types of adsorption
10. Extent of Adsorption:

 Amount of adsorbate adsorbed per unit mass of adsorbent
 Represented as x/m (x- Amount of adsorbate, m - mass of
adsorbent)
11. Factors affecting x/m
 Nature of gas (Easily liquifiable gases, more x/m)
 Surface area of adsorbent (larger the surface area, porous surface,
higher x/m)
 Pressure - Studies using adsorption isotherms
12. Freundlich adsorption isotherm:
 An empirical relation between x/m and P
1 1
 x / m  p or x / m  k p
n n
 k, n are constants 
• At very low P x/m = kp or x/m p
• At very high P x/m = kp0 or x/m = k, constant
• At moderate P x/m = kp1/n
163
Note : To find values of ‘k’ and ‘n’, take logarithm on both sides ie, log
x/m = log k + 1/n log p
Plotting log x/m against log p. We get a straight-line graph.
Slope of the graph = 1/n and y intercept = log k
Here, n = 1/slope, k = antilog (intercept)
Value of 1/n is always between 0 and 1
13. Adsorption isobars:
• x/m is plotted against T at constant pressure
14. Adsorption from solution phase:

• Some solids can adsorb solute from solutions
• Depends on temperature, nature of adsorbate, surface area of
adsorbent, concentration of solution, etc.
• Freundlich equaiton : x/m = KC1/n
15. Applications of adsorption:
• To produce high vaccum
• Gas masks
• Clarification of sugar
• Chromatography
• Softening of hard water
• Heterogeneous catalysis
• Dehumidification
• Adsorption indicators
164
Brain Pointer
16. Catalyst
• Substance that can alter the rate of a reaction without any chemical
change by itself
17. Catalysis
• Phenomenon of increasing or decreasing the rate of a reaction by
a catalyst
18. Types of catalysis
A. Homogeneous catalysis:
• Reactants, catalysts - in same physical state
• Catalyst mixes homogeneously with reactants
• Eg : Lead chamber process
B. Heterogeneous catalysis:
• Reactants, catalysis - different physical states
• Eg : Contact process
19. Features of solid catalysts:
A. Activity : Ability to accelerate the rate of the reaction
B. Selectivity : Ability to direct a reaction to yield a particular product
CO (g)  3H 2(g )  H 2 O (g )  Ni is used as catalyst
CO(g)  2H 2(g)  CH 3OH (  ) - Cu, ZnO - Cr2O3 used as catalyst
CO (g)  H 2(g )  HCHO (g ) - Cu as catalyst
20. Autocatalysis:
• Catalyst is not a pure substance
• One of the products catalyses the reaction
• At first, slow reaction
• Become faster towards the mean time
• Eg : In oxidation of solution of oxalic acid by acidified KMnO4
solution - Mn2+, one of the products act as catalyst.
165
21. Positive catalysis:
• A catalyst increases the reaction rate
• Eg : Pt for the decomposition of H2O2
22. Negative catalysis:
• A catalyst decreases the reaction rate
• H3PO4 for the decomposition of H2O2
23. Shape selective catalysis:
• Depends on the pore size of the catalyst and size and shape of
reactant and product molecules
• Eg: Zeolites (NaAlSiO4), ZSM-5
24. Promoters:
• Increases the activity of a catalyst.
Eg : Mo in Haber process
25. Poisons:
• Decreases the activity of a catalyst
Eg : CO in Haber process
26. Adsorption theory of heterogeneous catalysis
Steps involve
• Diffusion of reactants towards the surface of catalyst
• Adsorption of reactants on the surface of catalyst
• Reaction of reactants to give the product
• Desorption of products
• Diffusion of products away from the surface of catalyst.
166
Brain Pointer
27. Enzyme catalysis

• Enzymes are complex protenious substances
• Produced inside the living cells
• Catalyse biochemical reactions
• Non living
• Highly efficient (Lock and key relation)
Eg : Invertase, zymase, Diastase, Maltase, Urease, Pepsin, etc.
28. Mechanism of enzyme catalysis
167
29. Colloids:
• Two types substances - Crystalloids and colloids by Thomas
Graham
• Readily diffuse through semi permeable membrane - Crystalloids
(less than 1nm)
• Do not diffuse very slowly through semi permeable membranes -
Colloids (1nm to 1000 nm)
• Colloidal system is intermediate between crystalloids and
suspensions
• Colloidal system is heterogeneous
• Contains dispersed phase (solute) and dispersion medium
(solvent)
30. Classification of colloids:
A. Based on physical states of dispersed phase and dispersion
medium:
Dispersed phase Dispersion medium Type of colloid Examples
Solid Solid Coloured glasses, gem

Solid sol
stones, etc
Solid Liquid Sol Paints, cell fluids
Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, dust
Liquid Solid Gel Cheese, jellies
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, hair cream, butter
Fog, mist, cloud,
Liquid Gas Aerosol insecticide sprays
Gas Solid Solid sol Pumice stone, foam rubber
Gas Liquid Foam Foam, whipped cream,
soap lather
Note:
• Water as dispersion medium - Hydrosols or Aqua sols
• Alcohol as dispersion medium - Alco sols
• Benzene as dispersion medium - Benzo sols
• Gases as dispersion medium - Aerosols
168
Brain Pointer
B. Based on force of attraction between dispersed phase and

dispersion medium
Prope rty Lyophilic colloids Lyophobic colloids

Strong affinity between W eak affinity between
Nature of affinity
DP and DM DP and DM
By direct mixing of DP Special chemical
Preparation
and DM m ethods are em ployed
Stability Highly stable Easily coagulated
Reversibility Reversible Irreversible
Electrophoresis May or m ay not show Show
Gum , gelatin, starch, Sol of m etals, m etal

Exam ples
rubber sulphides, etc.
Note : DP a nd DM sta nds for Dispe rse d pha se a nd Dispe rsion m e dium
re spe ctive ly
C. Based on nature of particle of Dispersed phase:
Multimolecular Macromolecular Associated
Act as normal electrolytes at

low concentration, beyond
Large molecules having
Aggregate of critical micellization
colloidal dimension, held by
atoms/molecules, held by concentration and Kraft
strong forces.
weak van der Waal's forces. temeprature, form
Eg : Protein, Blood,
Eg : Sulphur sol, Au sol, etc aggregates. Have both
Enzymes, etc
lyophilic and lyophobic parts.
Eg : Soaps and detergents
Note : Critical micellization concentration means the minimum

concentration at which micellization takes place. For soaps.
CMC = 10–4 to 10–3 mol/L
169
31. Preparation of colloids:
A. Lyophilic colloids:
• Easy to prepare
• By simply shaking DP with DM
Eg : Gelatin, Starch solution, Egg albumin, etc
B. Lyophobic colloids:
• Special methods are employed
32. Purification of colloids:

i. Dialysis:
• Bag made of parchment sheet/cellophane is used
• Filled with colloid
• Suspended in water bath
• Impurities are washed away
ii. Electrodialysis
• Dialysis using electricity
• More fast than normal dialysis
iii. Ultrafiltration
• Filtration by specially prepared filter papers
• By dipping ordinary filter paper in collodion (cellulose nitrate in
ethyl alcohol and ether)
• Permeable to all, except colloidal particles.
170
Brain Pointer
33. Properties of colloids:
34. Methods of charging of colloids:

By preferential adsorption:
i. Adding AgNO3 solution to excess of KI solution
• The precipitated silver iodide adsorbs iodide ions from
dispersion medium
• Result in the formation of negatively charged colloid (AgI/I–)
ii. Adding KI solution to excess of AgNO3 solution

• The precipitated silver iodide adsorbs Ag+ ions from the
dispersion medium and result a positively charged colloid (AgI/
Ag+)
iii. If FeCl3 is added to excess of hot water:
• Positively charged sol is obtained by adsorption of Fe3+ in FeCl3
solution. Fe3+ (Fe2O3.xH2O/Fe3+)
171
Note : The combination of two layers of opposite charges around
the colloidal particle is called Helmholtz electrical double layer.
The first layer is called fixed layer and outer layer is called
diffused layer. The potential difference between fixed layer and
diffused layer is called zeta potential or electrokinetic potential.
35. Coagulation/Flocculation:
• Precipitation of colloidal particles
• Various methods are present - electrophoresis, mixing of opposite
charged colloids, boiling, persistent dialysis, addition of an
electrolyte, etc
36. Coagulation /flocculation value:
• It is the minimum concentration of an electrolyte, in “millimoles”,
required to coagulate 1L sol in 2 hours.
• Smaller the coagulation value, larger the coagulation power.
37. Hardy-Schulze rule
• Greater the valency of coagulating ion, greater will be the
coagulation power.
4
• For positive sols :  Fe  CN 6   PO34  SO 42   Cl
• For negative sols : Al3  Ba 2  Na 

38. Protective colloids:
• Used for stabilizing lyophobic colloids
• Usually, Lyophilic colloids are used
• Eg : Gelatin
39. Gold number
• Minimum amount of protective colloid in “milligrams”, required to
prevent the coagulation of 10 ml gold sol, when 1ml of 10% NaCl
solution is added to it.
• Smaller the gold number, higher the protecting power.
40. Emulsions:
• Both DP and DM are liquids
• Two type - oil in water type (O/W) and water in oil type (W/O)
172
Brain Pointer
Oil in water type - DP is oil and DM is water

Eg : Milk, vanishing cream, etc
Water in oil type - DP is water and DM is oil
Eg : Cold cream, butter, etc
41. Emulsifiers
• Substances added in small quantities to stabilize emulsions.
42. Oil in water (o/w) emulsifiers
• Proteins, natural and synthetic soaps, gums, water in oil (w/o)
emulsifiers. Heavy metal salt of fatty acid, long chain alochols,
lamp black.
43. Colloids in nature:
Blue sky, fog, mist, cloud, milk, butter, fruit pulp, blood, delta formation
by river, etc.
44. Applications of colloids
• Electrical smoke precipitator (in factories)
• Medicines
• Sewage treatment (coagulation)
• Purification of drinking water
• Photography
• Producing artificial rain
• Blood clotting by ferric chloride of alum
173
CHAPTER - 06
GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES OF
ISOLATION OF ELEMENTS
 The compound of metal found in nature is called a mineral
 The mineral from which metal can be extracted conveniently are called
ores
 Native ore  contain metal in free state  Ag, Au, Pt
 Oxide ore  consist of oxides or oxysalts,  carbonates,

phosphates, sulphates and silicates
 Halide ore  consist of halides of metal
 Metal Ore Composition

Bauxite
Aluminium Corundum Al 2O 3
Kaolinite [Al2(OH)4Si 2O5 ]
Hematite Fe2O 3
Magnetite Fe3O 4
Iron Siderite FeCO 3
Iron pyrite FeS2
Limonite Fe2O 3.3H2O
Copper pyrite CuFeS 2
Cuprite Cu2S
Copper
Malachite CuCO 3 .Cu(OH)2
Azurite 2CuCO 3 . Cu(OH)2
Zinc blend ZnS
Zinc Calamine ZnCO 3
Zincite ZnO
Galena PbS
Led Anglesite PbSO 4
Cerussite PbCO3
Tin Cassiterite SnO2
Silver glance Ag 2S
Silver
Horn silver AgCl
174
Brain Pointer
Concentration
1. Hydraulic washing or gravity separation or levigation
2. Magnetic separation
3. Froth flotation
4. Leaching
Extraction of crude metal from concentrated ore
Calcination (heating limitted

supply of air or absence of air)
1. Conversion to oxide
Roasting (heating in excess
supply of air or O2)
2. Reduction of metal oxide

 Chemical reduction method :
 Reduction with carbon :
PbO  C 
 Pb  CO
 Reduction with CO
Fe2O3  3CO 
 2Fe  3CO2
 Reduction by other metals :

Goldschmidt alumino thermic process
Cr2O3  Al 
 2Cr  Al2O3
 Self reduction method (Auto reduction)
Cu2S  3O2 
 3Cu2O  2SO2
2Cu2O  Cu2S 
 6Cu  SO2
 Electrolytic reduction
Cu & Zn are obtained by electrolysis of aqueous solution of their
sulphates
175
Metallurgy of some important metals
1. Extraction of iron from hematite
At 500 - 800 K (lower temperature in blast furnace)
3Fe2O3  CO 
 2Fe3 O 4  CO2
Fe3 O4  CO 
 3Fe  4CO2
Fe2O3  CO 
 2FeO  CO2
At 900 - 1500 K (high temperature range)
C  CO2 
 2CO; FeO  CO 
 Fe  CO2
Lime stone is also decomposed to CaO which removes the silicate
impurity of the ore as slag
CaCO3 
 CaO  CO2 ; CaO  SiO2 
 CaSiO3
2. Extraction of copper
From copper glance
2CuFeS2  4O2 
 Cu2S  2FeO  3SO2
Cu2S  FeO  SiO2 

 FeSiO3  Cu2S
2FeS  3O2 
 2FeO  2SO2 ; FeO  SiO2 
 FeSiO3
 6Cu  SO 2  self reduction 

2Cu2 O  Cu2S 
3. Extraction of Zn from zinc blende
2ZnS  3O2 
 2ZnO  2SO2
1673 K
ZnO  C  Zn  CO
4. Extraction of gold or silver (Mac Arther - Forrest cyanide
process)

 4  Au / Ag  CN2   4OH
4Au / Ag  8CN  2H2O  O2 
 2
2  Au / Ag  CN2   Zn 
 2Au / Ag   Zn  CN 4 
176
Brain Pointer
Purification or refining of metal

Physical method
1. Liquation process : It is used for the purification of Sn and Zn and
for removing Pb from Zn - Ag alloy
2. Fractional distillation - used for purifying Zn, Cd, Hg
3. Zone refining - this process is used for very high purity metals.
Eg: pure Si and Ge
Chemical method
1. Oxidative refining - The molten impure metal is subjected to
oxidation by various ways. This method is used for refining metals
such Pb, Ag, Cu and Fe
2. Poling process : This method is used for the purification of Cu & Sn
which contain their own oxide as impurities.
Green wood  Hydrocarbon  CH4
4CuO  CH4 
 4Cu  CO2  2H2O
3. Electrolytic refining  Metals such as Cu, Ni and Al are refined
electrolytically
4. Vapour phase refining
Mond’s process 
330 350K
Ni  4CO   Ni  CO 4
Ni  CO  4 
450  470K
 Ni  4CO
Van Arkel method  Zr  2I2 

 ZrI4
ZrI4 
 Zr  2I2
5. Chromatographic method
Different components are adsorbed on the surface of an adsorbent
at different rates.
177
CHAPTER - 07
P-BLOCK ELEMENT-II
 p-block elements : Elements belonging to groups 13 to 18 of the

periodic table are called p-block elements.
 General electronic configuration of p-block elements : ns2np1–6
 Representative elements : Elements belonging to the s and p-
blocks in the periodic table are called the representative elements or
main group elements.
 Inert pair effect : The tendency of ns2 electron pair to participate in
bond formation decrases with the increase in atomic size. Within a
group the higher oxidation state becomes less stable with respect to
the lower oxidation state as the atomic number increases. This trend
is called ‘inert pair effect’. In other words, the enegy required to unpair
the electrons is more than energy released in the formation of two
additional bonds.
GROUP 15 ELEMENTS
 Atomic and ionic radii : Covalent and ionic radii increase down the
group. There is appreciable increase in covalent radii from N to P.
There is small increase from As to Bi due to presence of completely
filled d or f orbitals in heavy elements.
 Ionisation energy : It goes on decreasing down the group due to
increase in atomic size. Group 15 elements have higher ionisation
energy than group 14 elements due to smaller size of group 15
elements. Group 15 elements have higher ionization energy than
group 16 elements because they have stable electronic configuration
i.e., half filled p-orbitals.
 Allotropy : All elements of group 15 except nitrogen show allotropy.
 Catenation : Nitrogen shows catenation to some extent due to triple
bond but phosphorus shows catenation to maximum extent. The
tendency to show catenation decreases down the group.
178
Brain Pointer
 Oxidation states : The common oxidation states are +3, +5, –3.
The tendency to show -3 oxidation state decreases down the group
due to decrease in electronegativity which is due to increase in atomic
size.
The stability of +5 oxidation state decreases whereas stability of +3
oxidation state increases due to inert pair effect.
Nitrogen shows oxidation states from -3 to +5
Nitrogen and phosphorus with oxidation states from +1 to +4 undego
oxidation as well as reduction in acidic medium. The process is called
disproportionation.
3HNO2  HNO3  H 2 O  2NO

 Reactivity towards hydrogen : All group 15 elements from
trihydrides, MH3. Hybridisation sp3
The stability of hydrides decrease down the group due to decrease
in bond dissociation enegy down the group.
NH 3  PH 3  AsH 3  SbH 3  BiH 3
Boiling point : PH 3  AsH 3  NH 3  SbH 3  BiH 3
Boiling point increases with increase in size due to increase in van

der waals forces. Boiling point of NH3 is more because of hydrogen
bonding.
Bond angle : NH3 (107.8°) > PH3 (99.5°) > AsH3 (91.8°)  SbH3 (91.3°)
> BiH3 (90°)
Electronegativity of N is highest. Therefore, the lone pairs will be
towards nitrogen and hence more repulsion between bond pairs.
Therefore bond angle is the highest. After nitrogen, the
electronegativity decreases down the group.
Basicity decreases as NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 < BiH3.
This is because the lone pair of electrons are concentrated more on
nitrogen and hence the basicity will be maximum in the case of NH3.
It will decrease down the group as the electronegativity decreases
down the group. The reducing power of hydrides increases down
the group due to decrease in bond dissociation energy down the
group.
179
 Reactivity towards oxygen : All group 15 elements from trioxides
(M2O3) and pentoxides (M2O5).
Acidic character of oxides decreases and basicity increases down
the group. This is because the size of nitrogen is very small. It has a
strong positive field in a very small area. Therefore, it attracts the
electrons of water’s O–H bond to itself and release H+ ions easily. As
we move down the group, the atomic size increases. Hence, the
acidic character of oxides decreases and basicity increases as we
move down the group.
 Reactivity towards halogen : Group 15 elements form trihalides
and pentahalides.
Trihalides - covalent compounds and become ionic down the group.
sp3 hybridisation, pyramidal shape
Pentahalides - sp3d hybridisation, TBP shape
They are Lewis acids because of the presence of vacant d-orbitals.
PCl5  Cl    PCl6 

PCl5 is ionic in solid state and exist as [PCl4]+ [PCl6]–

In PCl5, there are three equatorial bonds and two axial bonds. The
axial bonds are longer than equatorial bonds because of greater
repulsion from equatorial bonds.
Nitrogen does not form pentahlides due to absence of d-orbitals.
 Reactivity towards metals : All elements react with metals to form
binary compounds in -3 oxidation state.
 Anomalous behaviour of nitrogen : The behaviour of nitrogen differs
from rest of the elements.
Reason :
• It has a small size
• It does not have d-orbitals
• It has high electronegativity
• It has high ionization enthalpy
180
Brain Pointer
 Dinitrogen:
Preparation:
NH 4 Cl(aq)  NaNO 2 (aq) 

heat
N 2 (g)  2H 2 O    NaCl  aq 
(NH 4 ) 2 Cr2 O 7 

heat
N 2  4H 2 O  Cr2 O 3
Ba  N3 2 
heat
Ba  3N 2
Properties
It is a colourless, odourless, tasteless and non-toxic gas. It is
chemically un reactive at ordinary temperature due to triple bond in
N  N which has high bond dissociation energy..
 Ammonia : Ammonia molecule is trigonal pyramidal with nitrogen
atom at the apex. It has 3 bond pairs and 1 lone pair. N is sp3
hybridised.
Preparation: Haber’s process
 2NH3 (g);  f H 0  46.1 kJ mol 1

N 2  g   3H 2 (g) 
Pressure : 200 × 105 Pa
Temperature : 773 K
Catalyst is FeO with small amounts of K2O and Al2O3
 Nitric acid
a. Ostwald process:
4NH3  5O 2 
Pt /Rh gauge
500 K,9 bar
4NO  6H 2 O............  i 
 2NO 2 ........  ii 

2NO  O 2 
3NO 2 (g)  H 2 O     2HNO3  aq   NO  g  ......  iii 

NO thus formed is recycled and the aqueous HNO 3 can be
concentrated by distillation upto  68% by mass. Further
concentration to 98% can be achieved by dehydration with
concentrated H2SO 4. Nitric acid is strong oxidizing agent in the
concentrated as well as in the dilute state.
181
 Phosphorus:
a. It shows the property of catenation to maximum extent due to
most stable P–P bond.
b. It has many allotropes, the important ones are:
i. White phosphorus
ii. Red phosphorus
iii. Black phosphorus
Preparation
182
Brain Pointer
 Phosphine
Preparation:
i)
ii)
Phosphine is highly poisonous, colourless gas and has a smell of

rotten fish.
 Chlorides of phosphorous
183
 Oxoacids of phosphorous  H3PO2, H3PO3, H4P2O7 , H3PO4 etc.
GROUP 16 ELEMENTS
 Oxidation states : They show –2, +2, +4, +6 oxidation states. Oxygen
does not show +6 oxidation state due to absence of d-orbitals. Po
does not show +6 oxidation state due to inert pair effect.
The stability of –2 oxidation state decreases down the group due to
increase in atomic size and decrease in electronegativity.
Oxygen shows –2 oxidation state in general except in OF2 and O2F2.
The stability of +6 oxidation state decreases and +4 oxidation state
increases due to inert pair effect.
 Ionisation enthalpy : Ionisation enthalpy of elements of group 16 is
lower than group 15 due to half filled p-orbitals in group 15 which are
more stable. However, ionization enthalpy decreases down the group.
 Electron gain enthalpy : Oxygen has less negative electron gain
enthalpy than S because of small size of O.
From S to Po electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative to Po
because of increase in atomic size.
 Melting and boiling point : It increases with increase in atomic
number. Oxygen has much lower melting and boiling points than
sulphur because oxygen is diatomic (O2) and sulphur is octatomic
(S8).
 Reactivity with hydrogen:
All group 16 elements form hydrides
Bent shape
Bond angle : H2O > H2S < H2Se < H2Te

373 K 213 K 232 K 269 K
Intermolecular
H bonding Increase in van der Waals forces
Acidic nature : H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te

This is because the H-E bond length increases down the group.
Therefore, the bond dissociation enthalpy decreases down the group.
184
Brain Pointer
Thermal stability : H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te < H2Po
This is because the H-E bond length increases down the group.
Therefore, the bond dissociation enthalpy decreases down the group.
 Reactivity with oxygen : EO2 and EO3
Reducing character of dioxides decreases down the group because
oxygen has a strong positive field which attracts the hydroxyl group
and removal of H+ becomes easy.
Acidity also decreases down the group.
SO2 is a gas whereas SeO2 is solid. This is because SeO2 has a
chain polymeic structure whereas SO2 forms discrete units.
 Reactivity with halogens : EX2 EX4 and EX6
The stability of halides decreases in the order F– > Cl– > Br– > I–. This
is because E–X bond length increases with increase in size.
Among hexa halides, fluorides are the most stable because of steric
reasons.
Dihalides are sp3 hybridised, the tetrahedral in shape.
Hexafluorides are only stable halides which are gaseous and have
sp3d2 hybridisation and octahedral structure.
H2O is a liquid while H2S is a gas. This is because strong hydrogen
bonding is present in water. This is due to small size and high
electronegativity of O.
 Oxygen
Preparation:
2KClO3 
heat
MnO2
 2KCl  3O2
2H 2 O2(aq) 
Finely divided metals
2H 2O    O 2(g)
2Ag 2O s  

heat
4Ag  s   O 2(g)

2HgO s    2Hg     O 2(g)

2Pb3O 4 s    6PbO s   O2(g)
 Red lead 

2PbO2(s)   2PbO s   O 2(g)
185
 Oxides:
The compounds of oxygen and other elements are called oxides.
Types of oxides:
a. Acidic oxides : Non-metallic oxides are usually acidic in nature.
 H 2SO3  sulphurous acid 

SO2  H 2O 
b. Basic oxides : Metallic oxides are mostly basic in nature. Basic
oxides dissolve in water forming bases e.g.
Na 2 O  H 2 O 
 2NaOH
K 2O  H 2O 
 2KOH
 Ca  OH  2
CaO  H 2 O 
c. Amphoteric oxides : They show characteristics of both acidic as

well as basic oxides.
Al2O3  6HCl(aq) 
 2AlCl3(aq)  3H 2O
 2Na 3  Al  OH 6   aq 
Al2O3  6NaOH (aq)  3H 2 O   
d. Neutral oxides : These oxides are neither acidic or basic.

Example : CO, NO and N2O
 Ozone
Preparation:
i. It is prepared by passing silent electric discharge through pure and
dry oxygen 10 - 15% oxygen is conveted to ozone.
 2O3(g) ; H  142 kJ mol 1

3O 2(g) 
Structure of ozone : Ozone has angular structure. Both O=O bonds
are of equal bond length due to resonance.
 Sulphur:
Sulphur exhibits allotropy:
a) Yellow Rhombic (  -sulphur)
186
Brain Pointer

b) Monoclinic (  -sulphur) :   sulphur 
369 K

   sulphur
At 369 K both forms are stable. It is called transition temperature.
Both of them have S8 molecules. The ring is puckered and has a
crown shape.
Another allotrope of sulphur - cyclo S6 ring adopts a chair form.
S2 is formed at high temperature(–1000 K). It is paramagnetic because
of 2 unpaired electrons present in anti bonding   orbitals like O2.
 Sulphuric acid:
Preparation : By contact process
1
S8  O 2 
 SO 2
8
2SO 2(g)  O2(g) V2 O5

2bar  720 K
 2SO3(g) ; H 0  196.6 kJ mol1
Exothermic reaction and therefore low temprature and high pressure

are favourable
SO3(g)  H 2SO 4 
 H 2S2 O7 (Oleum)
H 2S2 O7  H 2O 
 2H 2SO 4
 96 98% 
It is dibasic acid or diprotic acid

It is strong dehydrating agent
It is a moderately strong oxidizing agent
 Oxoacids of sulphur : H2SO3, H2SO4, H2S2O7, H2S2O8 etc
GROUP 17 ELEMENTS
 Atomic and ionic radii : Halogens have the smallest atomic radii in
their respective periods because of maximum effective nuclear
charge.
 Ionisation enthalpy : They have very high ionization enthalpy
because of small size as compared to other groups.
 Electron gain enthalpy : Halogens have maximum negative electron
gain enthalpy because these elements have only one electron less
than stable noble gas configuration.
187
Electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative down the group
because atomic size increases down the group.
 Electronegativity : These elements are highly electronegative and
electronegativity decreases down the group. They have high effective
nuclear charge.
 Bond dissociation enthalpy:
Bond dissociation enthalpy follows the order Cl2 > Br2 > F2 > I2
This is because as the size increases bond length increases.
Bond dissociation enthalpy of Cl2 is more than F2 because there are
large electronic repulsions of lone pairs present in F2.
 Colour : All halogens are coloured because of absorption of radiations
in visible region which results in the excitation of outer electrons to
higher energy levels.
 Oxidising power : All halogens are strong oxidising agents because
they have a strong tendency to accept electrons.
Order of oxidising power is F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
 Reactivity with H2
Acidic strength : HF < HCl < HBr < HI
Stability : HF > HCl > HBr > HI
This is because of decrease in bond dissociation enthalpy.
Boiling point : HF > HI > HBr > HCl
HF has strong intermolecular H bonding
As the size increases van der waals forces increases and hence
boiling point increases.
% ionic character : HF > HCl > HBr > HI
Dipole moment : HF > HCl > HBr > HI
Electronegativity decreases down the group.
Reducing powr : HF < HCl < HBr < HI
 Reactivity with metals : Halogens react with metals to form halides.
Ionic character : MF > MCl > MBr > MI
Halides in higher oxidation state will be more covalent than the one in
the lower oxidation state.
188
Brain Pointer
 Interhalogens compounds : Reactivity of halogens towards other

halogens
Binary compounds of two different halogen atoms of general formula
XXn are called interhalogen compounds where n = 1, 3, 5 or 7

These are covalent compounds.
All these are covalent compounds.
Interhalogen compounds are more reactive than halogens because
X  X  is a more polar bond than X–X bond.
All are diamagnetic
Their melting point is little higher than halogens
XX  ClF, BrF, BrCl, ICl, IF  Linear shape 
XX3  ClF3 , BrF3 , IF3 , ICl3   Bent T  shape 
XX5  ClF5 , BrF5 , IF5   square pyramidal shape 

XX7  IF7   pentagonal bipyramidal shape 
Oxoacids of halogens:
Fluorine forms only one oxoacid HOF (Fluoric (I) acid or hypofluorous
acid) due to high electronegativity.
Acid strength : HOCl < HClO2 < HClO3 < HClO4
 
Reason : HClO 4  H  ClO 4
most stable
Acid strength : HOF > HOCl > HOBr > HOI

This is because fluorine is most electronegative.
GROUP 18 ELEMENTS
 Ionisation enthalpy : They have very high ionization enthalpy because
of completely filled orbitals
Ionisation enthalpy decreases down the group because of increase
in size
189
 Atomic radii : Increases down the group because number of shells
increases down the group
 Electron gain enthalpy : They have large positive electron gain
enthalpy because of stable electronic configuration.
 Melting and boiling point : Low melting and boiling point because
only weak dispersion forces are present.
 XeF2 is linear, XeF4 is square planar and XeF6 is distorted octahedral.
KrF2 is known but no true compound of He, Ne and Ar are known.
 Compounds of Xe and F:
Xe  F2 
673K, 1bar
 XeF2
Xe  2F2 
873K
7 bar
 XeF4
Xe  3F2 
573K
60  70 bar
 XeF6
XeF4  O 2 F2 
 XeF6  O 2
XeF2, XeF4 and XeF6 are powerful fluorinating agents.

 Compounds of Xe and O
6XeF4  12H 2 O 
 4Xe  2XeO3  24HF  3O 2
XeF6  3H 2 O 
 XeO3  6HF
XeF6  H 2 O 
 XeOF4  2HF
XeF6  2H 2 O 
 XeO 2 F2  4HF
190
Brain Pointer
CHAPTER -08
THE d and f BLOCK ELEMENTS
 Transition elements are the elements which lie between ‘s’ and ‘p’
block elements in the long form of periodic table. They are called
d-block elements as the last electron enters in d-orbital. The four series
of d-block elements are 3d, 4d, 5d and 6d.
Zn, Cd and Hg are not considered as transition element because of
its completly filled d-orbital.
 General Electronic Configuration (n – 1) d1–10 ns0–2
 Enthalpy of atomisation, melting point and boiling point of d-block
elements are high due to involvement of greater no.of valence electrons
in the interatomic metallic bonding [from (n –1)d and ns]. These
properties are maximum at the middle of the series.
 Atomic size and ionic size : Decrease in the series with increase in
atomic number because of increase in nuclear charge.
 Increases down the group. (except 4d & 5d series have most same
radii due to lanthanoid contraction)
 Ionisation enthalpy (IE) : It increases from left to right in a series.
• The IE1 of Zn, Cd and Hg are high due to stable d10 configuration.
• IE2 of Cr and Cu is high due to disruption of d5 and d10 configuration.
• IE3 of Mn is very high due to disruption of d5 configuration.
 Oxidation state : All transition elements show variable oxidation state
due to small energy difference between (n –1) d and ns orbital) except
first and last series. Highest oxidation state is equal to total number of
s and d electrons.
 E 0M2 /M  E 0M3 / M2 values do not show regular trend because of

irregularities in ionisation enthalpy and enthalpy of atomisation
191
 E 0M2 /M value of Zn, Mn and Ni are more negative due to stable d5(Mn)
and d10 (Zn) configuration and Ni (high ‘-ve’ hydration enthalpy).
 Cu has positive E0 value due to its hydration enthalpy.
 E 0M3 /M 2 : The values are high for Zn (d10) and Mn (d5) due to stable
configuration. Low value for V is due to stability of half filled t2g
configuration of V2+.
 Magnetic property : Transition metal ions and their compounds are
paramagnetic. Magnetic moment can calculated by
  n  n  2  BM . n - no.of unpaired electrons.
 Formation of coloured ions : Transition metal compounds are coloured

due to d-d transition (presence of unpaired electrons). Eg : Cr2+ and
Cu+ ions.
Charge Transfer Spectra (C.T)

Eg : MnO 4 Mn
7
  : (Absence of unpaired electrons)
 Catalytic property : Due to their ability to adopt multiple oxidation state
and to form complexes. Eg : Iron (III) catalyse the reaction between I–
and S2 O82  .
 Formation of complex compounds : Due to high nuclear charge, small

size and availability of empty d-orbital.
 Alloy formation due to their similar atomic size
 Stability of higher oxidation state
• Metallic oxides have higher oxidation state than metallic fluorides
due to the ability of oxides to form multiple bond with metal.
• CoF3 is stable due to lattice enthalpy and VF5 and CrF6 is stable
due to higher bond enthalpy.
• All Cu(II) halides are known except the iodide because Cu2+ oxidises
to I– to I2.
• In aqueous solution Cu2+ is more stable than Cu+ due to the much
more negative hydration. Hydration enthalpy of Cu which more
than compensate IE2 of Cu.
192
Brain Pointer
• As the oxidation number of metal increases covalent character

and acidic character of oxide increases.
Eg : Mn2O7(Mn+7) is covalent and acidic.
Important Compound of transition metal

KMnO 4 K 2 Cr2 O 7
a) Potassium permanganate a) Potassium dichromate

b) Pr eparation : From pyrolusite ore (MnO 2 ) b) Pr eparation : From chromite (FeCr2O 4 ) ore
Step  1: 4FeCr2 O4  8Na 2 O3  7O 2 
Step 1: 2MnO2  4KOH  2K2MnO4  2H2O
8Na 2CrO 4  Fe 2 O3  8O 2
K2MnO4 
KMnO4
Electrochemical method
or H
Step  2 :2Na 2 CrO 4  H 2SO 4 
Na 2Cr2O 7  Na 2SO 4  H 2 O
Step  3:Na 2Cr2O7  KCl 
K 2 Cr2O 7  NaCl
2-
O O O O
c) Structure : Cr2 O 72  Cr Cr
c) Structure Mn O O
O O
O O O-
d) act as oxidising agent d) act as oxidising agent

in acidic medium in acidic medium
MnO 4  8H   Fe  Mn 2  4H 2 O Cr2 O72  14H   6e   2Cr 3  7H 2 O
It oxidise I   I 2 It oxidise I   I 2

a) 10I  5I 2  10e  a) 6I   3I2  6e 
b)5C 2 O 24   10CO 2  10e b)3Sn 2  3Sn 4  6e 
c) 5SO32   5SO 24  10e  c)3H 2S  6H   3S  6e
d) 5NO 2  5NO3  10e  d) 6Fe2  6Fe3  6e 
It act as oxidising agent in

basic medium
MnO 4  2H 2O  3e   MnO 2  4OH 

It oxidise
I   IO3 , S2 O32   SO 42 
Mn 2   Mn 4 
Uses : used as oxidising agent and Uses : used as primary standard in
bleaching agent Analetical chemistry
193
Inner transition elements
The f-block elements are called inner transition elements. It consists
of two series .
Lanthanoid (Ln) Actinoid

a) Fourteen elem ent following a) fourteen elem ent following actinum
lanthanum [5 8 Ce to 71 Lu] [9 0 Th to 1 0 3 Lr)
b) Last electron enters in 4f subshell b) Last electron enters in 5f subshell
c) Electronic configuration c) Electronic configuration

[Xe] (n - 2) f1 -1 4 (n-1) d 0-1 ns 2 [Rn](n-2)f1 -14 (n-1)d0 -1 ns 2
[Xe]4f1 -1 4 5d 0-1 6s 2 [Rn] 5f0 -1 4 6d 0 -1 7s 2
d) Atom ic and ionic size

• gradual and steady decrease across
d) Atom ic and ionic size
the periods is called lanthanoid
• Gradual and steady decrase across
contraction.
the period is called actinoid contraction.
• Due to poor shielding of 4f electrons.
• Due to poor shielding of 5f electrons.
• Due to lanthanoid contrac tion second
• Actinoid contraction is greater due to
and third series (d) has alm ost identical
poor shielding of 5f electrons.
shape.
• Separation of lanthanoids all difficult
e) O xidation state:- e) O xidation state

Com m on is +3 Com m on is +3
other o.n. +2 and +4 O ther oxidation +4, +5, +6, +7. Due to
• Ln +4 act as oxidising agent changing to very sm all enegy gap between 5f, 6d
stable +3 state. and 7s orbital.
• Ln +2 act as reducing agent changing to Actinoids are only stronger reducing
stable +3 state. agent.
f) Silvery white soft m etal f) Silvery white radio active m etal
g) Colour of ions is due to f-f transition g) Colour of ion is due to f-f transition
h) E 0L n 3 / Ln   2.2 to  2.9 h) Strongly param agnetic
Uses of Lanthanoid & Actinoid

1. Alloy of lanthanoid is misch metal
2. Mixed oxides are used as catalyst in petroleum industry.
3. Ln oxides are used in phosphorous in Television screen.
194
Brain Pointer
CHAPTER - 09
CO-ORDINATION COMPOUNDS
 Double salts : Combination of two or more stable species in

stoichiometric amounts which retain their identity in solid state but
dissociate to ions in solution
Eg : Potash alum K2SO4Al2(SO4)3.24H2O
 These compounds do not posses coordinate bond.
 Coordination compounds : Compounds in which atoms or group s

are linked to the central atom through coordinate bonds which retain
their identity in solid stae as well as in solution.
Eg : K 4  Fe  CN 6 
 Ligands : Atoms or ions capable of forming coordinate bond by

donating an electron pair to the central metal atom or ion in a complex.
Classification of ligands
195
 Chelating ligand : A bidentate or polydentate ligand which can form
a stable cyclic, ring (5-6 members) like structure with the central
metal atom through co-ordinate bond. Eg: EDTA, ethylene diamine
etc. The exceptional stability of complex formed by chelating ligand
compared to monodentate ligand is known as chelate effect.
 Ambidentate ligands : Monodentate ligands that are capable of
ligating through two different atoms present in it. Eg : NO 2 , SCN 
 Coordination number : Total number of ligands attached to central
metal atom through co-ordinate bond.
 Effective Atomic Number (EAN) : It is the total number of electrons
present in the metal ion and the electrons contributed to metal by
ligands.
 EAN  Z  (Oxidation number)  2  Co  ordination number  
 Labile complex : A kinetically unstable complex in which the ligands

can be easily replaced by other ligands.
 Homoleptic and heteroleptic complexes : Complexes containing
only one type of ligand are called homoleptic and those containing
more than one type of ligands are called heteroleptic complexes.
 Primary valency : It is the ionisable valency of a central metal atom
which is satisfied by anions, and equal to the oxidation state of metal
ion.
 Secondary valency : It is the non ionisable valency of a central metal
atom satisfied by anionic, cationic or by neutral ligands. It is equal to
the coordination number and determines the geometry of the complex.
196
Brain Pointer
 Geometrical isomerism : It arises due to ligands occupying different

positions around the central metal atom.
 Tetrahedral complexes will not exhibit geometrical isomerism
because the relative position of atom with respect to each other will
be same.
 Square planar complexes with general formula [Ma2bc] and [Mabcd]
show geometrical isomerism.
 Octahedral complexes with general formula [Ma2b4], [Ma4bc],
[Ma3b3], [M(AA)2b2]. [M(AA)2bc], {Mabcdef] etc. Show geometrical
isomerism. Mabcdef have 15 geometrical isomers.
 Cis and trans isomers : Geometrical isomers in which similar groups
or atoms are in adjacent positions are known as cis and occupying
opposite positions are known as trans isomers.
 Facial and meridional isomers : Geometrical isomerism shown by
octahedral complexes having general formula [Ma3b3]
 Optical isomerism is exhibited by complexes like [M(AA)X2Y2],
[M(AA)2X2], [M(AA)2XY], [M(AA)3]
 Octahedral complexes whose mirror images are non-
superimposable exhibit optical isomerism.
 Werner theory of coordination compounds
• Primary or ionisable valency satisfied by negative ions
• Secondary or non-ionisable valency satisfied by neutral or negative
ions.
• Primary valency gives oxidation and secondary valency gives the
co-ordination number of the central metal atom/ion
• Valence Bond Theory of complexes : Pauling
Features of valence bond theory:
 Central atom loses requisite number of electrons to form ions.
 The unpaired electrons present in the metal orbital may get paired
 The vacant orbitals of metals undego hybridisation
 Filled ligand orbital overlap with hybridized metal orbital to form
coordinate bond.
 Shape of the complex is determined by hybridisation.
197
 Inner orbital complex : An octahedral complex in which the central
metal atom is in d2sp3 hybridised. These type complexes are generally
low spin.
 Outer orbital complex : An octahedral complex in which central
metal atom is sp3d2 hybridised. The are also known as high spin
complexes due to large number of unpaired electron.
Co-ordination Type of Geometry

number hybridisation Examples
 
2 sp Linear  Ag  NH 3 2  ,  Ag  CN 2 
3 sp2 Trigonal planar  HgI3 

sp3 Ni  CO 4 ,  NiX 4  ,  ZnCl 4  ,  CuX 4  , where X  Cl , Br  , I 
2 2 2
Tetrahedral
4
2 2 2
dsp2 Square planar  Ni  CN 4  ,  Cu  NH 3  4  ,  Ni  NH 3 4 
Fe  CO 5 ,  CuCl5 
3
dsp3 Trigonal bipyramidal
5
SbF5 
2
sp3d Square pyramidal
6 3
Octahedral (Inner orbital) Cr  NH 3   ,  Fe  CN  
3 3
2
d sp 3
 6  6
, Co  H 2 O 6 
2 2
 FeF6  ,  Fe  H 2 O 6  ,  Ni  NH 3 6 
3
sp3d2 Octahedral (Outer orbital)
Tetraheral complex
 Geometry possessed by complex having coordination number 4
 Central metal atom is sp3 hybridised.
 Do not exhibit geometrical isomerism  All positions are equivalent
 Exhibits optical isomerism.
Square planar complex:
 Geometry possessed by complex having coordination number 4.
 Central metal atom posses dsp2 hybridisation.
 Do not exhibit optical isomerism.  they posses plane of symmetry
Octahedral complex:
 Geometry possessed by complex having coordination number 6.
 Central metal atom possess sp3d2 or d2sp3 hybridisation.
 Exhibits geometrical isomerism
 Exhibits optical isomerism
198
Brain Pointer
 Stability constant : It is the measure of thermodnamic stability of a
 ML n 
b
complex. i.e.
K n
 M 3   Lx 
 Factors increasing stability of a complex.

i. High charge on the central metal ion
ii. High basicity of ligands
iii. Chelate effect i.e. stabilization of a complex by a ligand forming
5-6 membered cyclic ring.
 Irving - Williams order : It is the arrangement of first row transition
metal ions in the increasing order of their ability to form stable complex.
Mn 2  Fe 2   Co 2   Ni 2   Cu 2  Zn 2
Crystal field theory:
 Ligands are assumed as point charges.
 Interaction between ligand and metal electrons are electrostatic in
nature.
 Degeneracy of d orbital of metal is destroyed due to the unsymmetrical
field created by ligand.
 Splitting of degenerated orbital into higher and lower energy level is
known as crystal field splitting.
 Crystal field splitting energy : Difference in enegy between higher
energy orbital and lower energy orbital.
Factors affecting crystal field splitting energy:
 Oxidation state of the metal ion
 Nature of metal ion
 Geometry of coordination complex
 Nature of ligand
Difference in octahedral and tetrahedral splitting:
Octahedral Tetrahedral
Ligands are approaching along the axis Ligands are approaching in between the axis
eg orbitals have higher enegy than t2g t2g orbitals have higher energy than eg
Magnitude of splititng is 4 of octahedral splitting
Magnitude of splitting is more
9
Predominantly form low spin complex Predominantly form high spin complex
199
 Spectro chemical series : Arrangement of ligands in the increasing
order of their ability to cause crystal field splitting.
I   Br   S2  SCN   Cl  F  OH   C2 O 42  O 2  H 2 O  NCS  Py, NH 3  CN   CO
 High spin complex are formed if splitting energy is less than pairing
energy.
 Low spin complexes are formed if splitting enegy is greater than pairing
energy.
 Organometallic compounds contains a bond between metal and
carbon atom of an organic species.
 bonded complex; eg, R MgX, (C2H5)4Pb etc.

Organometallic
compounds  bonded complex; eg, Ziesse's salt, Ferrocene etc
 and  bonded complex; eg, Fe(CO)5, Ni(CO)4 etc
 Synergic effect : Stabilizing effect of the bond between metal and

carbonyl group through back bonding.

5

Ferrocene : Fe   C5 H5  2
biscyclopentadienyl ion
 Willkinson’s catalyst : [(Ph3P) 3 RhCl] Tris-chlorido triphenyl

phosphine rhodium (I) used as catalyst in hydrogenation of alkene.
 Zeigler-Natta Catalyst : R 3 Al + TiCl 4 used as catalyst in
polymerization of alkene.
 Cis platin : [Pt(NH3)2Cl2] anti cancer drug, cis diammine dichlorido
platinum (II).
 
Zeises salt : K  PtCl3   C 2 H 4 
2

 Vitamin B12 : (Cyanocobalamine) is a complex of Co3+
 Metal carbonyls : Synergic bonding
200
Brain Pointer
CHAPTER - 10
HALOALKANES AND HALOARENES
 Classification of halogen derivatives: On the basis of number of

halogen atoms present, halogen derivatives are classified as mono,
di, tri, tetra, etc.
 On the basis of the nature of the carbon to which halogen atom is
attached, halogen derivatives are classified as 1°, 2°, 3°, allylic,
benzylic, vinylic and aryl derivatives.
General methods of preparation of haloalkanes
1. From Alcohols
HCl + Anhy.ZnCl2
R Cl + H 2O (Groove's process)
(Lucas reagent)
NaBr + H 2SO 4
R Br + H 2O
Reflux
R OH PX 3
alcohol 3R X + H3PO 3
PCl5
R Cl + POCl3 + HCl
Pyridine R Cl + SO 2  + HCl  (Darzen process)

SOCl2
1. Finkelstein Reaction
R  X  NaI 
Acetone
R  I  NaX
 X  Cl, Br 
2. Swartz reaction
H 3C  Br  AgF  H3C  F  AgBr
201
Hg2F2 and SbF3 can also be used as a reagent for Swartz reaction.
Free radical halogenation
h
CH 4  Cl2   CH 3Cl  HCl
Reactivity of halogen
F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
Fluorination is an explosive reaction.
Iodination is slow and reversible.  Iodination is carried out in prsence
of oxidising agents such as HIO3, HNO3 etc
Physical properties of haloalkanes
1. Boiling point orders.
1) R–I > R–Br > R–Cl > R–F
2) CH3 – (CH2)2 – CH2Br > (CH3)2 CHCH2Br > (CH3)3CBr
3) CH3CH2CH2 > CH3CH2X > CH3X
2. Bond strength of haloalkanes decreases as the size of the halogen
atom increases. Thus, the order of bond strength is
CH3F > CH3Cl > CH3Br > CH3I
3. Haloalkanes though polar are insoluble in water as they do not form
hydrogen bonding with water.
4. Density order is
RI > RBr > RCl > RF (For the same alkyl group)
CH3I > C2H5I > C3H7I
CH3Cl < CH2Cl2 < CHCl3 < CCl4
5. Dipole moment
R–Cl > R–F > R–Br > R–I
Chemical reactions
a) Nucleophilic substitution reaction
 
Nu + C X C Nu + X
202
Brain Pointer
KOH (aq) C2H5OH + KBr
NH3
C2H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, (C2H5)3N
(C2H5)4N+ Br- (Hoffmann ammonolysis)
KCN
C2H5CN + KBr
AgCN
C2H5NC + AgBr
KNO2 ONO + KBr

C2H5 Br C2H5
Ethyl nitrite
AgNO2
C2H5NO2 + AgBr
nitroethane
R ONa, 
C 2H 5 O R + NaBr
(Williamson's synthesis)
Na C C H,  C CH + NaBr
C 2H 5
O
R COOAg, 
C 2H 5 O C R + AgBr
Nucleophilic substitution reactions are of two types

(a) SN1 type (unimolecular nucleophilic reactions proceed in two steps:
CH3
CH3
CH3 Step II
Step I CH3 C CH3 C Nu
CH3 C X
X- (slow) CH3 +Nu- (Fast)
CH3 CH3
Planar carbocation
Alkyl halide Substitution product
Rate, r = k[RX]. It is a first order reaction.

Reactivity order of alkyl halide towards SN1 mechanism
3° > 2° > 1°
203
Polar protic solvents, low concentration of nucleophiles and weak
nucleophiles favour SN1 mechanism.
In SN1 reactions, partial racemisation occurs due to the possibility of
frontal as well as backside attack on planar carbocation.
(b) SN2 type (Bimolecular nucleophilic substitution). These reactions
proceed in one step and is a second order reaction with r = k[RX]
[Nu]
During SN2 reaction 100% inversion of configuration occurs (Walden
inversion).
Reactivity of halides towards SN2 mechanisms is 1° > 2° > 3°
Rate of reaction in SN2 mechanism depends on the strength of the
attacking nucleophile.
Non-polar solvents, strong nucleophiles and high concentration of
nucleophiles favour SN2 mechanism.
2. Elimination reactions
Dehydrohalogenation is a  -elimination reaction in which halogen is

eliminated from  -carbon atom and the hydrogen from the  -carbon
according to Saytzeff rule, eg:
Br
CH 3 CH 2 CH Alc.KOH CH CH CH 3 + CH 3CH 2CH CH 2

CH 3 CH 3
KBr, H2O But-2-ene Buten-1-ene(minor)
(major)
Ease of dehydrohalogenation among halides 3° > 2° > 1°
ie  CH3 3 CCl   CH 3  2 CHCl  CH3CH 2 Cl
3. Reaction with Metals
1) Wurtz reaction : RX  2Na  XR 

Dry ether
 R  R  alkane   2NaX
2) Wurtz-Fittig reaction
Cl + 2Na + Cl CH3 Dry ether C6 H5 CH3 + 2NaCl

C6H5
204
Brain Pointer
3) Reaction with Mg
C 2 H 5 Br  Mg 
Dry ether
 C 2 H 5  Mg  Br
 Grignard 's reagent 
General methods of preparation of aryl halides

1. By halogenation of aromatic hydrocarbons
Cl
+ Cl2 
FeCl3 , dark
310  320 K
 + HCl
It is an electrophilic substitution reaction.

2. By side chain halogenation
CH2Cl
CH3 CHCl2 CCl3
+ Cl2  
383 K
Sunlight  HCl  Cl 2
Sunlight  HCl
  Cl2
Sunlight  HCl

Benzotrichloride
3. From benzene diazonium salt
CuCl/HCl
C6H5Cl + N2
Sandmeyer reaction
CuBr/HBr
C6H5Br + N2
N2Cl
Cu/HCl
C6H5Cl + N2
Gattermann reaction
Cu/HBr
C6H5Br + N2
HBF4
C6 H 5 N 2 BF4  
 N 2  BF3
 C6 H 5 F
(Balz Schiemann reaction)
KI, 
C6H5I + N2 + KCl
205
Chemical propeties of Aryl halides
1. Nucleophilic substitution reaction
Aryl halides are less reactive towards nucleophilic substitution
reaction. Their low reactivity is attributed due to the following reasons:
1. Due to resonance, C–X bond has partial double bond character.
2. Stabilisation of the molecule by delocalisation of electrons.
3. Instability of phenyl carbocation
4. Repulsion between electron rich nucleophile and electron rich
benzene ring.
However, aryl halides having electron withdrawing groups (like –NO2,
–SO3H, etc) at ortho and para positions undergo nucleophilic
substitution reaction easily.
Cl OH
I) NaOH, 623 K, 300 atm

II) H+
Presence of electron withdrawing group (–NO 2) increases the

reactivity.
Cl OH
I) NaOH, 443 K
II) H+
NO2 NO2
Cl OH
O2N NO2 O2N NO2
Warm
H2O
NO2 NO2
206
Brain Pointer
2. Electrophilic substitution reactions

Halogens are deactivating but o, p-directing. Thus, chlorination,
nitration, sulphonation and Friedel Craft’s reaction give a mixture of
o- and p- substituted derivatives.
3. Reaction with Metals
i) Wurtz Fittig reaction
X
R
Ether + NaX
+ 2Na + RX
ii) Fittig reaction
Ether
2 + 2Na + 2NaX
Biphenyl
iii) Ullmann reaction
+ Cu powder
Iodobenzene Biphenyl
DIHALOGEN DERIVATIVES
Dichloromethane (CH2Cl2) is widely used as a solvent, as a propellant
in aerosols.
207
Trihalogen derivatives
1. Chloroform [Trichloromethane, CHCl3]
i. CH 4  3Cl 2  Sunlight

Controlled chlorination
 CHCl3  3HCl
ii. Haloform reaction
O O
NaOH C ONa
CH3 C CH3 + X2 CHX3 + CH3
Properties
1. Oxidation of CHCl3 gives poisonous gas phosgene (carbonyl chloride)
2CHCl3  O 2 
Light
 2COCl2  2HCl
Phosgene
2. On nitration, it gives tear producing insecticide substance

chloropicrin.
CHCl3  HONO2  conc. 

 NO 2 .CCl3  H 2 O
Chloropicrin
3. On dehalogenation, it gives C2H2 (acetylene
CHCl3  6Ag  CHCl3 


 CH  CH  6AgCl
4. When subjected to hydrolysis, it gives formate.
OH
CHCl3 + 3NaOH CH OH HCOONa
H2O
OH
2. Iodoform (tri-iodomethane, CHI3)

Iodoform is prepared by iodoform reaction
CH 3COCH 3  3I 2  4NaOH 
 CHI3  3NaI  CH 3COONa  3H 2 O
Compounds containing either CH3CO– or CH3CH(OH) group form
yellow colour iodoform with I2 and NaOH.
208
Brain Pointer
Polyhalogen Derivatives
1. Tetrachloromethane (Carbon Tetrachloride, CCl4)
Preparation
i) CH4 + 4Cl2 

sunlight
 CCl4  4HCl
ii) CHCl3  Cl 2 
hv
 CCl 4  2HCl
CCl4 is a colourless, non-inflammable, poisonous liquid, soluble in
alcohol and ether.
USES.
Carbon tetrachloride is used
1. as a solvent for oils, fats, resins
2. in dry cleaning
3. as fire extinguisher under the name ‘pyrene’
2. Freons
The chlorofluorocarbon compounds of methane and ethane are
collectively known as freons. These are usually produced for aerosol
propellants, refrigeration and air conditioning purposes. Carbon tetra
chloride when reacts with antimony trifluoride in the presence of SbCl5
as catalyst, dichlorofluromethane (freon) is obtained.
3. DDT ( Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)
Cl
Cl
Cl Cl
Cl
H
DDT is the first chlorinated organic insecticide. Its stability and fat
solubility is a great problem. It is prepared from chloral and
chlorobenzene in the presence of conc.H2SO4.
209
CHAPTER - 11
ALCOHOL PHENOL AND ETHERS
 Alcohols
 OH
Hydroxyl derivatives of aliphatic hydrocarbon R  H 
H
 R  OH
 Phenols
Hydroxyl derivatives of aromatic hydrocarbon
 OH
Ar  H 
H
 Ar  OH
 Ethers
Alkoxy or aryloxy derivatives of hydrocarbon
 OR /OAr
R  H H
 R  O  R / Ar
 Classification
 Methanol Glycol Glycerol

CH2 OH CH2 OH
CH3 OH
Monohydric CH OH
CH2 OH
OH
Dihydric
OH CH2 OH
OH Trihydric
Phenol Catechol
OH
OH OH OH
Hydroxyquinol
Resorcinol OH Quinol OH
OH
210
Brain Pointer
CH3 CH3
CH3 CH OH CH3 C OH
 CH3 CH2 OH
2° alcohol
1° alcohol CH3
CH2 OH CH OH 3° alcohol
C OH
Allylic alcohol Benzylic alcohols Vinyl alcohol


CH2 CH CH2 OH CH2 OH CH2 CH OH
 Aryl alcohol
OH
Phenol
Nomenclature
 Alcohol R–OH
Common name : Alkyl alcohol
IUPAC name : Alkanol
OH
 Phenol
Common name : Phenol
IUPAC name : Phenol
211
 Ethers R–O–R
Common name : Dialkylether (in case of both alkyl groups are same)
IUPAC name : Alkoxyalkane
Structure of functional groups
m
2p
14 96 pm
H O: C O H bond angle less than tetrahedral angle due
C H to lp-lp repulsion in oxygen atom
108.9°
H
H
109° H
O C O bond length less than C O bond length in alcohols
due to partial double bond character of benzene
136 pm
141 pm
O
H
H
C 111.7° C C O C bond angle higher than tetrahedral angle
due to repulsion between two bulky alkyl group.
H H H H
Preparation of alcohols
1. Hydration of alkene

CH 2  CH 2 
H / H2O
 CH 3  CH 2  OH

CH 3  CH  CH 2 
H / H2O
 CH 3  CH  CH 3
(Unsymmetrical alkene)
OH
(Markovnikov addition product)
Based on stability of intermediate carbocation
3 step mechanism
• Protonation • Hydration • Deprotonation
212
Brain Pointer
2. Hydroboration - oxidation
CH 3  CH  CH 2 
BH 3
 (CH 3  CH 2  CH 2 )3 B
 
H 2 O2
H2O
 3CH 3  CH 2  CH 2  OH
Antimarkovnikov product
3. Reduction of aldehyde and ketone
H 2  Ni/ Pt / Pd or
R  CHO 
LiAlH 4 / NaBH 4
R  CH 2  OH
Aldehyde Pr imary alcohols
O OH
H 2  Ni/Pt / Pd or
R  C  R 
LiAlH 4 / NaBH 4

 R  CH  R
Ketones 2 alcohol
4. Reduction of carboxylic acid
RCOOH 
LiAlH 4
H 2O
 RCH 2 OH

R  COOH  R  OH 
H
 RCOOR H2
Catalyst
 RCH 2 OH  R  OH
5. From Grignard reagent
OH
1. Dry ether
C O+R MgX C
2. H3O+
R
HCHO  RMgX 

1. Dry ether
2. H O
 R  CH 2  OH 1 alcohol
Formaldehyde 3
OH
R  CHO RMgX 

1. Dry ether
2. H O 
 R  CH  R 2 alcohol
other aldehydes 3
213
O OH
R  C  R  RMgX 
1. Dry ether
2. H O 
 R  C  R 3 alcohol
3
Preparation of phenols
1. From haloarenes :
ONa OH
Cl H+
NaOH
623 K, 300 atm

2. From benzene sulphonic acid
SO3H ONa OH


H 2SO4
 
NaOH
 
H

SO3 
3. From diazonium salt
N2Cl
NH2 OH
NaNO 2  HCl
  
H2O


4. From cumene
CH 3 CH3
CH3 C O O H OH O
CH CH3


H3O

 + CH3 C CH 3
 fro
Om2
air
214
Brain Pointer
Physical properties
 Boiling point : Number of carbon atoms increases boiling point

increases. In isomeric alcohols branching increases boiling point
decreases. Higher boiling point of alcohols and phenols due to
intermolecular H-bonding.
 Solubility : Solubility is due to the formation of H-bonding with H2O

size or molecular mass  , solublity of alcohol  .
In isomeric alcohols, branching  , solubility  .
Chemical reactions
Alcohols act as both nucleophile and electrophiles
 The bond between O–H breaks  Nucleophile
 The bond between C–O breaks  Electrophile

Reactions involving cleavage of O–H bond
1. Acidity of a alcohols and phenols
Alcohols and phenols are acidic due to polar O–H bond
 Acidity of alcohols : CH3–OH > CH3 – CH2 – OH > (CH3)2CHOH >

(CH3)3COH
Water is more acidic than alcohol except methanol
Acidity of phenols : Phenols are more acidic than H2O and R–OH
 R  O  H
R  O  H 
OH O
+ H+
More stable due to resonance
 Presence of electron withdrawing group at ortho and para position of

phenols acidity increases.
215
 Presence of electron donating group at ortho and para position of
phenols acidity decreases.
OH OH OH
> >
NO2 CH3
Electron Electron donating group
withdrawing group
2. Esterification

Ar / R  OH  RCOOH 
H
 Ar / R  O  C  R  H 2 O

Ar / R  OH   RCO 2 O 
H
 Ar / R  O  C  R  RCOOH

Pyridine
Ar / R  OH  RCOCl  
 Ar / R  O  C  R  HCl
Reaction involving cleavage of C–O bond
1. Reaction with HX
R  OH  HX 
 R  X  H 2O
Order of reactivity of HX : HI > HBr > HCl
R–OH : 3° > 2° > 1°
 CH3CH2OH  HCl  anhyd.ZnCl2

CH3CH2Cl  H2O

Lucas Test  CH3 2 CHOH  HCl  CH3 2 CHCl  H2O
anhyd.ZnCl2
  CH3 3 COH  HCl   CH3 3 CCl  H2O


Lucas reagent : conc : HCl + anhyd : ZnCl2
216
Brain Pointer
2. Reactions with PX3/PX5
R  OH  PCl5 
 R  Cl  HCl  POCl3
3R  OH  PCl3 
 3RCl  H 3 PO3
3. Dehydration
 

C C 
H , Heat
C C + H2O
 H2SO4 / H3PO4 
H OH  - Elimination
Order of dehydration 3° > 2° > 1°

Stability of alkene determined by using Saytzeff rule.
4. Oxidation
H C O H 
Oxidation
 C O + H2
 
Aldehyde 
mild
oxidation
 Pr imary alcohol 
strong
oxidation
Carboxylic acid
(CrO3 anhyd.) KMnO 4 / H 
Secondary alcohol 

mild
oxidation
 ketone
(CrO3 anhyd)
Mild oxidising agents : Anhyd. CrO3, PCC

Strong oxidising agents : KMnO4/H+
• CH 3CH 2 OH 
Cu
573 K
 CH 3CHO  H 2
•  CH3 2 CHOH 
Cu
573 K
 CH3COCH3  H 2
CH3
•  CH3 3 COH 

Cu
573 K
 CH 3  C  CH 2  H 2 O
217
Reactions of phenols
Electrophilic substitution reaction
1. Nitration
OH
OH
NO2
dil. HNO3 +
OH more steam volatile NO2
OH
O2N NO2
conc.HNO3
NO2
Picric acid
2. Halogenation
OH
OH
Br
Br2 in CS2 +
273 K
OH
Br
OH
Br Br
3Br2 in H2O
Br
218
Brain Pointer
3. Reimer-Tiemann reaction
OH
ONa ONa
OH CHO
CHO
CHCl2 NaOH H+
CHCl3 + aq. NaOH
Salicylaldehyde
Electrophile  :CCl2 Dichlorocarbene
4. Kolbe’s reaction
ONa OH
OH
COOH

NaOH
 
1) CO2
2) H 

Electrophile  CO 2 Salicylic acid
OH
COOCH3
CH3OH/H+ Oil of winter green
Methyl salicylate
OH
OH COOC6H5
COOH C6H5OH/H+ Salol
Phenyl salicylate
O C CH3
(CH3CO)2O/H+ COOH Aspirin

Acetyl salicylic acid
219
5. Reaction with Zn dust
OH

Zn dust
 + ZnO
6. Oxidation
OH O


Na 2 Cr2 O7 /H

O
Benzoquinone
Commecially important alcohols

1. Methanol
CH3OH ; Wood spirit
ZnO  Cr2 O3
CO  2H 2 
200 300 atm
 CH 3OH
573 673 K
• Colourless liquid, poisonous in nature

• Ingestion in small quantity cause blindness, large quantity cause
death.
2. Ethanol
CH3CH2OH : Grain alcohol
Prepared by fermentation of carbohydrate
C12 H 22 O11  H 2 O  
Invertase
 C6 H12 O6  C6 H12O 6 
Zymase
 2CH3CH 2 OH  2CO2
Sucrose Glu cose Fructose
• Colourless liquid
• Denaturation - process for making unfit for drinking mix with
methanol, pyridine and CuSO4.
Ether
1. Preparation
1. By dehydration of alcohols
220
Brain Pointer
H2SO4 CH2 CH2 + H 2O

443 K
CH3CH2OH
H2SO4 CH 3 + H 2O
CH3CH2 O CH2
413 K
Bimolecular dehydration
2. Williamson’s synthesis
R  O  Na  R  X 
 R  O  R  NaX
Order of reactivity of R–X : CH3–X > CH3CH2X > (CH3)2CHX >
(CH3)3CX
CH3 CH3 CH3
 CH3 C ONa + CH3 Cl CH3 C O CH3 CH3 C Cl + CH3ONa
CH3 CH3 CH3
OH ONa
O R
 NaOH R X
+ NaX
Physical properties
• Boiling point : lower than corresponding alcohols
• Lower members are soluble in H2O
Chemical reactions
1. Reaction with HX
• R  O  R  HX 
 R  X  R  OH
• R  O  R  2HX 
 2R  X  H 2 O
OH
O R
• + HX +R X
• CH 3  O  CH 2 CH 3  HI 
 CH 3 I  CH 3CH 2 OH
221
CH3 CH3
• CH3 C O CH3 + HI CH3 C I + CH3OH
CH3 CH3
2. Electrophilic substitution reaction
OCH3 OCH3
Br
Br2 in +
CH3COOH
Br
OCH3 OCH3
NO2
H2SO4 + HNO3
+
OCH3
NO2
OCH3 OCH3
CH3
CH3Cl in anhy.AlCl3
+
CH3
OCH3 OCH
COCH3
CH3COCl in +
Anhyd.AlCl3
COCH3
All para products are major products
222
Brain Pointer
CHAPTER - 12
ALDEHYDES AND KETONES
O O O
C R C H R C R
Carbonyl Aldehyde Ketone
group
Preparation
 R CH2OH  O  
mild
 R  CHO R2  CHOH  O  
mild
 R2  CO
10 Alcohol Aldehyde 20 Alcohol Ketone
 Mild oxidising agent like PCC does not affect double bond
 Catalytic dehydrogenation (Cu/573 K)
10 Alcohol 
 Aldehyde 20 Alcohol 
 Ketone
 Ozonolysis
(1) O3
R CH CH R 2R CHO
(2) Zn/Acetic acid
R R R
(1) O3
R C C R 2R C O
(2) Zn/Acetic acid
 Hydroboration
CH CH 1) B2H6 / THF CH3 CHO

2) H2O2/OH
1) B2H6 / THF R
R C CH CO CH3
2) H2O2/OH
223
 Rosenmund Reduction
Pd
R  CO  Cl  H2 
BaSO
 R  CHO  HCl
4
Acid chloride to ketone
2R  CO  Cl  R2Cd 
 R  CO  R  CdCl2
 1) AlH(i-Bu)2
2) H2O
1) RMgX/ether
R C N R CHO
2) H3O+
1) SnCl2 + HCl
2) ether
3) H2O
1) Di BAlH/195K
R  COOR  2)H O
 R  CHO
2
Gattermann-Koch reaction
CO ,HCl
C6H6 
anhy. AlCl , CuCl
 C 6H5 CHO
3
Friedel craft reaction

ROCl
C6H6 
anhy . AlCl
 C6H5  CO  R
3
Etards reaction
1) CrO2Cl2 / CS2
C6H6  CH3    C6H5  CHO
2 ) H3O
Oxo process
2 Co  CO 
R  CH  CH2  CO  H2  8
 pressure
 R  CH2  CH2  CHO
Wacker’s process
CuCl2
CH2  CH2  PdCl2  H2O 
air or O
 CH3  CHO
2
224
Brain Pointer
Physical properties
CO group is polar.  B.P. is between hydrocarbon and alcohols
Chemical properties
 
 C O , planar, mainly undergo nucleophilic addition
sp2
SO3H H+ shift
 C O NaHSO3 C SO3Na
C
ONa
OH
Method of separation and purification water soluble
(degenerated by H+)
CN
 C O HCN C
OH
 Addition of grignard reagent
1) RMgX
Aldehyde   20 Alcohol Formaldehyde 
 10 Alcohol
2 ) H3O 
1) RMgX 0
Ketone    3 Alcohol
2 ) H3O
OR' OR'
Dry HCl R'OH
R CH H2O
 RCHO + R'OH R CH
OH OR'
Hemi acetal Acetal
R R O CH2
CH2 OH
 C O HCl C
CH2 OH O CH2
R R
Cyclic ketal
(pH  4) OH C N Z + H2O
 C O H2N Z C
NHZ
225
Z = H, Alkyl, aryl, OH, NH 2, C 6H 5 NH , H 2N CO NH
(Product  Imine, oxime, hydrazone phenyl hydrazone semicarbaside)
 2,4 DNP  orange red ppt. with carbonyl compounds

Reduction
   H   H
Aldehyde  10 alcohol Ketone  20 Alcohol
Reducing agent  Na/ethanol, H2/Pt, LiAlH4 etc
 Clemmensen reduction, Woff Kishner reduction used to

 ConcHCl, Zn /Hg N2H4 /KOH ( glycerol) 
Convert C O to CH2
  O
 Aldehyde / Ketone   Carboxylic acid
HNO3 or K 2Cr2O7 / H
mild oxidation
Aldehyde   carboxylic acid
Tollen’s reagent - Ammoniacal AgNO3
Fehling solution - CuSO4 + Sodium potassium tartarate
Test for aldehydes and ketone
Tollen’s reagent - Silver mirror
Fehling solution - Blue red
2,4, DNP (both aldehyde and ketone) - orange ppt
Schiff reagent - pink colour
Aldol condensation (Aldehyde with  H )
OH
dil. NaOH
2CH3 CHO   CH3  CH  CH2CHO 

 CH3  CH  CH  CHO
Crotonaldehyde
CH3 CHO  CH3CH2CHO 

 CH3  CH  CH  CHO  CH3  CH2  CH  C  CHO
CH3
226
Brain Pointer
CH3  CH  C  CHO  CH3  CH2  CH  CH  CHO
CH3
Cannizzaro reaction (Aldehyde with out  H )

50 % NaOH
2HCHO  HCOONa  CH3OH
50 % NaOH
2C6H5CHO   C6H5CH2OH  C6H5COONa
Electrophilic substitution
CO [– CHO or – CO] group is meta deactivating
 40 % formaldehyde solution is formalin, used to biological specimens

preservative.
 Formaldehyde is used in the manufacture of bakalite, urea-
formaldehyde resin and other polymers
 Paraaldehyde ((CH3CHO)3) is hypnotic drug
Notes
 LiAlH4 and NaBH4 do not reduce isolated double bond
 CH3  CH  CHO Cannizzaro reaction
CH3

 OH
CH3CHO  HCHO   C  CH2OH4  HCOO
CCl3 – CHO 
 does not undergo Cannizzaro reaction.
227
CHAPTER - 13
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
 Carbon compounds containing carboxyl functional group
O O
C OH C OH
Carbonyl Hydroxyl Carboxyl
 Aliphatic mono carboxylic acids are known as fatty acids

 General formula  saturated monocarboxylic acid CnH2n + 1 COOH
Classification and nomenclature
Monocarboxylic acids Common name IUPAC name
HCOOH Formic acid Methanoic acid
CH3COOH Acetic acid Ethanoic acid
CH3CH2COOH Propionic acid Propanoic acid
CH3(CH2)2COOH Butyric acid Butanoic acid
CH3(CH2)3COOH Valeric acid Pentanoic acid
Dicarboxylic acids
COOH
Oxalic acid Ethanedioic acid
COOH
COOH
CH2
Malonic acid Propanedioic acid
COOH
228
Brain Pointer
HOOC   CH2 2  COOH Succinic acid Butanedioic acid
HOOC   CH2 3  COOH Glutaric acid Pentanedioic acid
HOOC   CH2  4  COOH Adipic acid Hexanedioic acid
Aromatic carboxylic acid
COOH
Benzoic acid Benzoic acid
COOH
COOH
Phthalic acid Benzene-1,2-dicarboxylic acid
COOH
Isophthalic acid Benzene-1,3-dicarboxylic acid

COOH
Structure
O O
O
C C
C
O H O H
O H
229
Preparation of carboxylic acid
1. From 10 alcohols and aldehyde
1) Alk. KMnO4
R CH2 OH R COOH
2) H3O+
(strong oxidation)
CrO3 H2SO4 Jone's reagent
R COOH
Tollens
 R  CHO 
reagent
 R  COO
2. From alkylbenzene
CH3 COOH
[O]/
KMnO4/KOH/H3O+
CH2CH3 COOH
[O]/
KMnO4/KOH/H3O+ + CO2 + 2H2O
CH3
H3C C CH3
[O]
No reaction : due to absence of benzylic
hydrogen atom
230
Brain Pointer
3. From nitriles and amides
O
H / OH 
H / OH 
R  CN 
H2O
R  C  NH2 
 R  COOH  NH3
4. From grignard reagent
O O O
dry ether H3 O
R  Mg  X  C  O  R  C  O  MgX  R  C  OH  Mg(OH) X
(s)
5. From acyl and anhydrides
O O
 R  C  Cl 
H2O
 R  C  OH  Cl
1) OH/H2O
R COOH
+
2) H
 RCO 2 O 
H2O
 2RCOOH
6. From esters
H+
RCOOH + ROH
O H2O
R C O R
OH
RCOO + ROH
H2O
Physical properties
Carboxylic acids having higher boiling point than aldehyde, ketone
and even alcohols due to the formation of dimer.
231
O H O
C R
R C
O H O
Simple carboxylic acids having carbon atoms up to four are miscible

with water due to the formation of H-bonding
Chemical reactions
1. Reactions involving cleavage of O – H bond
Acidity
O O
R C OH H 2O R C O H 3O
O
R C Carboxylate ion resonance
stabilized
O
 Carboxylic acids are more acidic than phenols and alcohols
 Less acidic than mineral acids
 Presence of electron donating group decreases acidity and

presence of electron withdrawing group increases acidity
CF3  COOH  H  COOH  CH3  COOH
EWG EDG
 In case of aromatic acids ortho substituted acids are more acidic

than benzoic acid due to ortho effect
 The acidic strengthening effect of EWG and weakening effect of

EDG is more at para than meta position.
232
Brain Pointer
COOH COOH COOH COOH

OH
> > >
OH
ortho effect
-I>+R OH
+R>-R
2. Reactions involving cleavage of C – O bond
 Formation of anhydride
2RCOOH 

  RCO 2 O  H2 O
 Esterification
O
H

R  OH  RCOOH  R  O  C  R  H2O
 Reaction with PCl5, PCl3 and SOCl2
PCl5
RCOCl + HCl + POCl3
PCl3
RCOOH RCOCl + H3PO3
SOCl2
RCOCl + SO2 + HCl
 Reaction with ammonia
R  COOH  NH3  RCOONH4 


 RCONH2  H2O
O
O
C
COONH4 C NH2
COOH
NH
2NH

3
 

 Strong
heat C
COOH COONH4 C NH2
O
O
233
3. Reactions involving – COOH group
1) Reduction
O
LiAlH4 / B2H6
R  C  OH H O
 RCH2 OH
2
O
HI/Re d P
R  C  OH   RCH3
2) Decarboxylation
CaO 
RCOONa 
NaOH,
R  H  Na2CO3
4. Reactions involving alkyl group (HVZ reaction)
 
X2 in Re d P
R  CH2  COOH 
H O
 R  CH  COOH
2
X   halocarboxylic acid
5. Reactions involving aryl group
COOH COOH
Br2/FeBr3
Br
Conc : HNO3
Conc : H2SO4
COOH
NO2
234
Brain Pointer
CHAPTER -14
NITROGEN COMPOUNDS
 Amines are the derivative of NH3 molecule.
 Classification - 1°, 2° and 3°
 1°, 2° and 3° amines are functional isomers.
 General formula of aliphatic saturated amines is CnH2n+3N
 Structure
Hybridisation sp3
1° and 2° 107°
Bond angle
3° (CH3)3N 108°
Geometry  Pyramidal
NH2
Aliphatic
Amines Arylamine
Aromatic
CH2NH2
Aralkylamine
235
Preparation of amines
1. Reduction of nitro compounds
NH2
H2/Pd
NO2
NH2
Sn + HCl
or Zn + HCl
or Fe + HCl
NH2
SnCl2 + HCl
R  NO 2 
LiAlH 4
 R  NH 2
NO2
LiAlH4
Exception : N N
Azobenzene
Fe + HCl is preferred because FeCl2 formed is hydrolysed to release

HCl and therefore small amount of HCl is required.
Hoffmann ammonolysis (SN reaction)
R X R X
NH 3  R  X 
373 K
 HX
 R  NH 2   R 2 NH  
R X
R 3 N   R 4 N X
4 ammoniumsalt
 If excess of NH3 is used, 1° amine is the major product.

 Order of reactivity of halides with amines is R–I > R–Br > R–Cl
Reduction of nitriles
LiAlH4 CH2 NH2

R
H2/Ni
R CH2 NH2
R CN
Na/alcohol
R CH2 NH2 (Mendius reduction)
Na(Hg)/alcohol
R CH2 NH2
236
Brain Pointer
Reduction of isonitrile
H 2/Ni
R NH CH 3
R NC
LiAlH 4
R NH CH 3
ie, isonitrile on reduction always gives secondary amines.

Hydrolysis of isonitrile

R  NC 
H 3O
 R  NH 2  HCOOH
1 a min e formic acid
Reduction of amide
O
NH2   R  CH 2  NH 2
1) LiAlH
R C 2) H 2 O
4
Gabriel phthalimide synthesis
NH 
1) KOH
2) R  X
 R  NH 2
3) OH/ H  1 a min e
 This reaction always gives 1° amines.

 Aniline cannot be prepared by this method as nucleophilic substitution
reaction of aryl halides are difficult
Hoffmann bromamide degradation
 Conversion of primary amide to primary amine with one carbon less
than the amide.
O
R C NH2 + Br2 + 4 KOH/NaOH R NH2
2KBr  2H 2 O  K 2 CO3
237
O
NH2
C NH2

NaOBr
 + Na2CO3
Reduction of oximes
LiAlH 4 R CH 2 NH 2 + H 2O
R CH N OH
H 2/Raney Ni
R CH 2 NH 2 + H 2O
Reduction of imines
R  CH  NH 
LiAlH 4
or H 2 / Ni
 R  CH 2  NH 2
Physical properties
 Methylamine and ethylamine are gases with fishy smell
 Higher ones are liquids
 Still higher ones are solids
 Lower aliphatic amines are soluble in water.
 As the number of carbon atoms increases, solubility decreases.
 Alcohols are more soluble in H2O than corresponding amines as
O–H bond is more polar than N–H bond.
Boiling point
 Higher boiling point than corresponding hydrocarbons due to the
presence of intermolecular hydrogen bonding in amines.
 Among isomers, the order of boiling point is 1° > 2° > 3°.
Chemical properties
Basicity
 Amines are more basic than ammonia due to the presence of electron
donating alkyl groups.
 In pure state (gaseous phase), the basicity of amines follows the
order 3° > 2° > 1° > NH3
 In aqueous phase, the order of boiling point is
238
Brain Pointer
  CH3 2 NH  CH3 NH 2   CH3 3 N  NH3

2 1 3
  C2 H5 2 NH   C2H5 3 N  C2 H5 NH2  NH3
NH2
 R  NH 2 
CH2 NH2
-I
 R  NH 2 
NH2
O
 R C NH2 <
NH2
   
N N N
H
H
NH2 NH2 NH2
   
OCH3 NO2
239
Acylation
O O
Py
R NH2 + Cl C R R NH C R
HCl
NH C CH3
NH2 O O
+ CH3 C O C CH3
CH3COOH
Acetanilide
NH2 NH C Ph
O
+ Cl C Ph 
NaOH

Benzanilide
(Schotten-Baumann reaction)
 3° amine do not gives acylation reaction.
Carbylamine reaction
R  NH 2  CHCl3 
KOH
 R  NC + 3KCl + 3H O
1 a min e Carbyla min e 2
Reaction with HNO2

NaNO 2  HCl(HNO2 )
R  NH 2 0  5 C
R  OH  N 2  HCl
aliphatic 1
NH2 N2Cl
HNO2
0 - 5°C
(Diazotisation)
Aryl 1° Benzene diazonium
chloride
240
Brain Pointer
2° amine
R 2 NH  HNO2 
 R 2 N  NO
N  Nitroso a min e
( yellow oily liquid)
3° amine
 
R 3 N 
HNO 2
 R 3 N H O NO
Aliphatic 3 Nitrite salt
CH3
CH3 CH3
N CH3 N
HNO2
Aryl 3°
NO
Green liquid
REACTION WITH HINSBERG REAGENT
O
R NH2 NaOH
Ph S NH R Soluble
1°
SOCl2 SO2Cl O
O
R2NH NaOH Insoluble
Ph S NR2
2°
CH3 O
Hinsberg reagent
R3N
No reaction
3°
 This reaction is used to distinguish 1°, 2° and 3° amines

 Also used for separation of a mixture of 1°, 2° and 3° amines
241
Electrophilic substitution reaction
 Bromination
NH2
Br Br
Br2/H2O
+ 3HBr
NH2
Br O
NHCOCH3 NH2
NH C CH3
(CH3CO)2O  Br2


CH 3COOH 
H 3O

Py
Br Br
Major
 Nitration
NH2 NH2
NH2
Con.HNO3 + con.H2SO4 NO2

+ +
NH2 NO2
2% 47% NO2
51%
NHCOCH3 NHCOCH3 NH2
(CH3CO)2O 

H 3O


con.HNO3
con.H 2SO4

Py
NO2 NO2
Major
 Sulphonation
NH2 NH2 NH3

con.H 2SO 4

SO3H SO3
Sulphanilic acid Zwitter ion
Friedel-Craft’s reaction
 Aniline donot gives Friedel-Craft’s reaction due to the salt formation
reaction between aniline and AlCl3.
242
Brain Pointer
Diazonium salt
 Benzene diazonium salt is prepared by diazotisation
 It is stable than alkane diazonium salt due to resonance.
Reactions
Cl
Cu2Cl2/HCl
Br
Cu2Br2/HCl Sandmeyer's reaction
CN
CuCN/KCN
Cl
Cu/HCl
Gatterman reaction
N2Cl Br
Cu/HBr
KI

F
HBF4 Balz - Scheimann reaction


H3PO2 + H2O
C2H5OH
NO2
1) HBF4
2) NaNO2/Cu, 
243
Coupling reaction
N2Cl OH OH
+ H OH N N
p - hydroxyazobenzene
(orange dye)
N2Cl + H NH2 H+ N N NH2
p - aminoazobenzene
(yellow dye)
244
Brain Pointer
CHAPTER -15
BIOMOLECULES
 Carbohydrates : Optically active Polyhydroxy Aldehydes or

Polyhydroxy ketones or compounds which on hydrolysis give
carbohydrates.
 Classification of carbohydrates:
Monosaccharides
(a) Simplest carbohydrates
(b) It cannot be hydrolysed into simpler compounds
(c) Examples - Glucose, Mannose, Fructose, Galactose etc.
Oligosaccharides
(a) Carbohydrates which gives 2 to 10 monosaccharide units on
hydrolysis.
(b) Examples - Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose
Polysaccharides
(a) Carbohydrates which on hydrolysis give large numbe of
monosaccharide units.
(b) Examples - Cellulose, starch
Anomers
Pair of optical isomers which differ in configuraiton only around C1
atom are called anomers, Examples -   D  glycopyranose and
  D -glucopyranose.
Preparation of glucose (also called dextrose, grape sugar)

i) From cane sugar : C12 H 22 O11  H 2 O  C6 H12 O 6  C6 H12 O 6

H
Sucrose Glu cos e Fructose
ii) From starcth :  C6 H10 O5 n  H 2 O 


H /393K; 2  3 atm
 nC6 H12 O 6
Starch Glu cos e
245
Cyclic structure of glucose
 No.of chiral carbons in α-D(+)glucose or β-D  +  glucose = 5
 Hemi acetal link between C1 – C5

Haworth representation of glucose
Pyran
Cyclic structure of fructose
246
Brain Pointer
Haworth representation of fructose
Furan
 No. of chiral carbons in   D( )fructose   D( ) fructose  4

Glycosidic linkage : The oxide linkage formed by the loss of a water
molecule when two monosaccharides are joined together through
oxygen atom is called glycosidic linkage. It is an ether linkage.
Eg : Sucrose (invert sugar)
a. Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar because the two monosaccharide
units are held together by a glycosidic linkage between C1 of  -
glucose and C2 of  -fructose. Since the reducing groups of glucose
and fructose are involved in glycosidic bond formation, sucrose is a
non-reducing sugar.
b. Sucrose is dextrorotatory but on hydrolysis it gives dextrorotatory
glucose and laevorotatory fructose and the resulting mixture is
laevorotatory. This equimolar mixture is called invert sugar and the
process is called inversion of cane sugar.

C 12 H 22 O11  H 2 O 
H
 CH O6 12 6  CH O6 12 6
D  glu cos e   D  525 D  fructose   D 924
247
Maltose
1. Maltose is composed of two   D -glucose units in which Cl of one
glucose (I) is linked to C4 of another glucose unit (II).
2. The free aldehyde group can be produced at C1 of second glucose
in solution and it shows reducing properties so it is a reducing sugar.
Maltose 
H 2O
 Glu cos e Glu cos e
C1  C4 
Haworth projection of maltose:
Lactose (Milk sugar) : It is composed of  -D-galactose and  -D-

glucose. The linkage is between C1 of galactose and C4 of glucose.
Aldehyde group of  -D glucose is free. So it is a reducing sugar..
Lactose 
H 2O
 Glucose + Glucose
C4  C1 
Haworth projection of lactose:
248
Brain Pointer
Starch : It is a polymer of   D    glucose and consist of two

components-Amylose and Amylopectin.
Amylose
1. It is a water soluble component
2. It is a long unbranched chain polymer
3. It contains 200-1000   D    -glucose units held by  -glycosidic

linkages involving C1-C4 glycosidic linkage
4. It constitutes about 15-20% of starch.
Amylopectin
1. It is a water insoluble component
2. It is branched chain polymer
3. It forms chain by C1 - C4 glycosidic linkage whereas branching
occurs by C1-C6 glycosidic linkage
4. It constitutes about 80-85% of starch
Cellulose
1. It occurs exclusively in plants.
2. It is a straight chain polysaccharide composed only of  -D-glucose
units which are joined by glycosidic linkage between C1 of one
glucose unit and C4 of the next glucose unit.
Glycogen
1. Reserve carbohydrate of animals
2. It is also known as animal starch because its structure is similar to
Amylopectin.
3. It is present in liver, muscles and brain.
4. When the body needs glucose, enzymes break the glycogen down
to glucose.
Amino acids:
1. Amino acids contain amino (–NH2) and carboxyl (–COOH) functional
groups.
R CH COOH
NH2
249
Where R-Any side chain
Most naturally occurring amino acids have L-configuration.
COOH COOH
H NH2 [D] H2N H [L]
R R
 Glycine H2N–CH2–COOH. The only one optically inactive aminoacid.

TYPES OF AMINOACIDS:
a. Essential amino acids : The amino acids which cannot be
synthesised in the body and must be obtained through diet, are known
as essential amino acids. Examples: Valine, Leucine, Isoleucine,
Histidine, Tryptophan, Threonine, Phenyl alanine, Methionine Lysine,
Isoleucine.
b. Non-essential amino acids : The amino acids, which can be
synthesised in the body, are known as non-essential amino acids.
Examples : Glycine, Alanine
Proteins : Proteins are the polymer of  -amino acids and they are
connected to each othe by peptide bond or peptide linkage. A
polypeptide with more than hundred amino acid residues, having
molecular mass higher than 10,000 u is called a protein.
Peptide linkage : Peptide linkage is an amide linkage formed by
condensation reaction between –COOH group of one amino acid
and –NH2 group of another amino acid.
H2 N CH COOH + H2N CH COOH
R1 R2
O
H2 N CH C NH CH COOH
R2 R2
Peptide linkage
 Primary structure of proteins : The sequence of amino acids is
said to be the primary structure of a protein.
250
Brain Pointer
 Secondary structure of proteins : It refers to the shape in which

long polypeptide chain can exist. Two different types of structures:
 -Helix
1. It was given by Linus Pauling in 1951
2. It exists when R– group is large
3. Right handed screw with the NH group of each amino acid residue
H-bonded to –C = O of adjacent turn of the helix.
4. C=O and N-H group of the peptide bonds are trans to each other.
 -pleated sheet
1. It exists when R group is small
2. In this conformation, all peptide chains are stretched out to nearly
maximum extension and then laid side by which are held together by
intermolecular hydrogen bonds.
Tertiary structure of proteins : It represents the overall folding of
the polypeptide chain ie., further folding of the 2° structure.
Types of bonding which stabilize the 3° structure.
1. Disulphide bridge (–S–S–)
2. H-bonding –(C=O... H–N)
3. Hydrophobic interactions
4. Van der Waal’s forces
• Two shapes of proteins:
Fibrous proteins
a. When the polypeptide chains run parallel and are held together by
hydrogen and disulphide bonds, then fibre - like structure is formed.
b. These proteins are generally insoluble in water
c. Examples : Keratin (present in hair, wool, silk) and myosin (present
in muscles), etc
Globular proteins
a. This structure results when the chains of polypeptides coil around to
give a spherical shape.
b. These are usually soluble in water.
c. Examples : Insulin and albumins
251
• Quaternary structure of proteins:
1. Some of the proteins are composed of two or more polypeptide chains
referred to as sub-units.
2. The spatial arrangement of these subunits with respect to each other
is known as quarternary structure of proteins.
• Denaturation of proteins:
1. The loss of biological activity of proteins when a protein in its native
form, is subjected to physical change like change in temprature or
chemical change like change in pH. This is called denaturation of
protein.
Example : Coagulation of egg white on boiling, curdling of milk.
 Nucleoside:
1. Base + Sugar
5'
HO H2C O Base
4' 1'
HH HH
3' 2'
OH OH
 Nucleotide:
1. Base + Sugar + phosphate group
O
5'
O P O H2C O Base
O 4' 1'
HH HH
3' 2'
OH OH
252
Brain Pointer
 Nucleic acids (or polynucleotides):

1. Long chain polymers of nucleotides:
2. Nucleotides are joined by phosphodiester linkage between 5 and 3
C atoms of a pentose sugar.
 Two types of nucleic acids : DNA
1. It has a double stranded  -helix structure in which two strands are
coiled spirally in opposite directions.
2. Sugar present is  -D-2-deoxyribose
3. Bases:
i. Purine bases : Adenine (A) and Guanine (G)
ii) Pyrimidine bases : Thymine (T) and cytosine (C)
4. It occurs mainly in the nucleus of the cell
5. It is responsible for transmission of heredity character
RNA
1. It has a single stranded  -helix structure.
2. Sugar present is  -D-ribose
3. Bases
i. Purine bases : Adenine (A) and Guanine (G)
ii. Pyrimidine bases : Uracil (U) and Cytosine (C)
4. It occurs mainly in the cytoplasm of the cell
5. It helps in proten synthesis.
 Vitamins : Vitamins are organic compounds required in the diet in
small amounts to perform specific biological functions for normal
maintenance of optimum growth and health of the organism.
 Classification of vitamins : Vitamins are classified into two groups
depending upon their solubility in water or fat.
1. Water soluble vitamins
i. Water soluble vitamins must be supplied reguarly in diet because
they are readily excreted in urine and cannot be stored (except vitamin
B12) in our bod.
253
ii. Example : Vitamin C, B group vitamins.
2. Fat soluble vitamins
i) These vitamins are soluble in fat and oils but insoluble in water.
ii) They are stored in liver and adipose (fat storing) tissues.
iii) Example : Vitamin A, D, E and K
HORMONES
 A hormone is a secretion of ductless gland. They are a group of
biomolecules which are produced in the ductless (endocrine) glands
and are carried to the different parts of the physiological activity which
may be inhibitory or stimulatory. They are needed only in very small
quantities and are not stored in the body.
 Steroid hormones : Testosterone, dihydrotestosterone, endrogens,
estrogen.
 Peptide hormones : Oxytocin, Vasopressin, Insulin, Angiotensin.
 Amine hormone : Adrenaline, Thyroid hormones.
254
Brain Pointer
CHAPTER - 16
POLYMERS
Molecules having high molecular mass

(103 - 107 u), formed by the
Polymers combination of a number of small units
called monomers.
Poly-many mer-unit
The process of combination of
Polymerisation different monomers to form the
polymer.
Based on source
• Found in plants and animals.
i) Natural polymers Eg : Natural rubber, silk, proteins,
cellulose, starch, glycogen etc.
• Man made or artificial
ii) Synthetic Eg : Polythene, Polypropylene, Nylon,
Teflon, Bakelite, PVC, Polystyrene etc.
• Derivatives of natural polymers.
iii) Semisynthetic Eg : Vulcanised Rubber, Rayon,
Cellulose trinitrate
Based on structure
• High density, high melting point and
high tensile strength. Eg : Natural
i) Linear
rubber, Amylose, PVC, Nylon, PAN,
HDPE etc
• Various linear chains with branches.
ii) Branched
Eg : Amylopectin, Glycogen, LDPE etc
• Strong covalent bond between

iii) Cross linked or various linear chains. Rigid, hard brittle.
Network Eg : Vulcanised rubber, Bakelite,
Melmac, Urea-Formaldehyde resin.etc
255
Based on molecular forces

• Weak vander Waal's forces, elasticity. Eg :
i) Elastomers
Natural rubber, Neoprene, Buna-S, Buna-N
• Thread forming solids. Dipole-Dipole interaction
ii) Fibres or inter molecular H-bonding. High m.p. tensile
strength, modulus. Eg : Nylon, Rayon, Terylene
Linear or slightly branched. Becomes soft on

heating and hard on cooling. Recyclable.
iii) Thermoplastics
Eg :
• Highly branched or cross linked. Upon heating

iv) Thermosettingbecomes insoluble and infusible mass.
plastics Non recyclable. Eg : Bakelite, Melmac, Urea-
HCHO resin
Based on type of monomers
• Contains single type monomeric species.
i) Homopolymers Eg : Polythene, Polypropylene, Polystyrene,
Nylon-6 etc
• Contains more than one type monomeic
ii) Copolymer species. Eg : Buna-S, Buna-N, Bakelite, Terylene
etc
256
Brain Pointer
Base d o n m od e o f polym erisatio n

• F orm ed by sim ple add ition of
mo nom ers with d ouble or triple b ond. Eg :
i) A dditio n polym ers HD PE , LD PE, PP , PS, Buna-N,
(chain growth Neoprene, Natural rubber, PVC , Teflon,
polym ers) Poly A crylo Nitrile (P AN) etc.
• Main m echanism , free radical
polym erisation-initiator-Be nzo yl peroxide
• F orm ed by repeate d c ondensation o f
different bi or tri-functional m onom er
ii) C onde nsation
units. ie elim inatio n of sm all m olecules
polym ers (step
like water, HCl, NH 3 etc.
growth polym ers)
Eg : Nylon-6, Nylon-6 6, Terylene,
Bakelite, Melm ac, G lyptal etc
Num ber of average  n iM i
Mn 
m olecular m ass  ni
W e ig ht average  n i M i2
Mw 
m olecular m ass  n iM i
Mw
P DI 
Poly dispersity index Mn
PD I = 1 for natural polym ers
(PD I)
PD I > 1 for synthetic p olym ers
The process of heating rubber with

Vulcanisation sulphur at 373-415 K to im p rove the
pro perties o f natural rubber.
De xton (poly glycolic acid-po ly lactic
acid), PHBV (P olym er of 3-hydroxy
butano ic acid and 3-hydro xy pe ntanoic
Biodegradate
acid. Used for m aking outer covering of
polym ers
capsules.
Nylon-2-Nylon-6 (polym er of glycine and
am ino caproic ac id)
257
SOME IMPORTANT ADDITION POLYMERS
1. LDPE
Monomer : Ethene
Structure of polymer : CH2 CH2

n
Properties : Branched, Waxy solid, poor conductor of electricity,
flexible, transparent.
Uses : Making plastic carry bags. squeeze bottles, flexible pipes,
electrical insulators etc
2. HDPE
Mononer : Ethene

n
Properties : Linear, translucent solid, high density, high melting
point.
Uses : To make bottles, buckets, dustbin, toys etc
3. Polypropylene (PP)
Monomer : Propene

n
CH3
Properties : Linear, thermoplastic, Stronger and harder than
polythene
Uses : For packing textiles and food, and for making strong pipes,
bottles, seat covers, carpet fibres etc
4. Polystyrene (PS) or styron
Monomer : Styrene
Stucture of polymer : CH CH2

n
C 6H 5
Propeties : Linear, transparent, thermoplastic, floats over water,

soluble in organic solvents.
Uses : For making ceiling tiles and as lining material for electronic
items and for making soft drink bottle and baby feeding bottles.
258
Brain Pointer
5. Poly vinyl chloride (PVC) :

Monomer : Vinyl chloride
Structure : CH CH2
n
Cl
Properties : Linear, thermoplastic, can be easily moulded.
Uses : For making rain coats, hand bag, pipes, toys, electrical
insulators, vinyl flooring etc
6. Polytetrafluoro ethylene (PTFE or Teflon)
Monomer : Tetra fluoro Ethylene
Structure : CF2 CF2 n
Properties : Linear, chemically inert, stable up to 598 K, resistant

to attack by corrosive reagents
Uses : Making oil seals, gaskets and coating cookwares.
7. Poly Acrylo Nitrile (PAN)
Monomer : Acrylo nitrile
Structure : CH CH2
n
CN
Propeties : Linear, fibre, hard, high melting point
Uses : Substituent of wool. Used for making blankets and
synthetic carpets.
8. Poly Methyl Meta Acrylate (PMMA) or plexi glass or perspex or
leucite
Monomer : Methyl meta acrylate
CH3
Structure : CH2 C
COOCH3
n
Properties : More transparent than glass, hard and shows good

optical clarity.
259
Uses : For making lenses, air craft window, transparent domes etc.
9. Natural rubber
Monomer : 2-methyl-1,3-butadiene (isoprene)
CH2 CH2
C C
Structure :
CH3 H
Properties : Natural, linear, amorphous
10. Neoprene rubber
Monomer : 2-chloro-1,3-butadiene (chloroprene)
CH2 C CH CH2
Structure :
Cl
n
Properties : Vegetable oil and mineral oil resistant
Uses : For making conveyor belt, gaskets, stroppers, hoses, printer
rollers etc.
11. Buna-S (Styrene butadiene rubber -SBR)
Monomers :
(a) 1, 3-butadiene
(b) Styrene
(3 : 1 ratio in presence of sodium)
Structure : CH2 CH CH CH2 CH CH2
Properties : Rubber like polymer, resistant to gasoline or oil

Uses : To make automobile tyres, chewing gum, rubber sole, water
proof shoes etc.
12. Buna-N (Nitrile rubber)
Monomers:
(a) 1, 3-butadiene
(b) Acrylo nitrile
260
Brain Pointer
CH2 CH CH CH2 CH CH2

Structure :
CN n
Properties : Petrol and organic solvent resistant
Uses : Used for making oil seal, adhesives, tank lining etc.
SOME IMPORTANT CONDENSATION POLYMERS
1. Terylene or Dacron
Monomers : a) Ethylene glycol (b) Terephthalic acid
O O
Structure : O CH2 CH2 O C C

n
Propeties : Grease resistant and durable fibre
Uses : For making clothes by mixing with cotton and for making
safety belt. A form of it is used for making bottles ie Poly Ethylene
Terephthalate (PET)
2. Glyptal or alkyd resin
Monomers : a) Ethylene glycol b) Phthalic acid
O O
O CH2 CH2 O C C
Structure :
n
Properties : Thermoplastics, soluble in suitable solvents.

Uses : Making paints and lacquers
3. Nylon-6, 6
Monomers : a) Hexamethylene Diamine b) Adipic acid
O O
Structure : HN (CH2)6 NH C (CH2)4 C

n
Properties : Fibre, high tensile strength, high modulus
261
Uses : For making parachutes, bristles of brushes, sheets and in
textiles. It is blended with wool to make socks and sweaters.
4. Nylong-6, 10
Monomers : a) Hexamethylene Diamine (b) Sebacic acid
O O
Structure : HN (CH2)6 NH C (CH2)8 C

n
Properties : Fibre, High tensile strength, High modulus
Uses : For making carpets and parachute
5. Nylon-6 (Perlon)
Monomers : Caprolactum or amino caproic acid
Structure : C (CH2)5 NH
n
Properties : Fibre, high tensile strength, high modulus
Uses : For making fabrics, ropes and tyre cord.
6. Novolac
Monomers : a) Phenol b) Formaldehyde (Linear condensation
polymer)
OH OH OH
CH2 CH2 CH2
Structure :
Properties : Linear
Uses : Used in paints
7. Bakelite :
Monomers : (a) Phenol (b) formaldehyde (cross linked or network
polymer)
262
Brain Pointer
OH OH OH
CH2 CH2 CH2
Structure :
CH2 CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2 CH2
OH OH OH
Properties : Cross linked or network polymer, rigid,hard, brittle

Uses : Soft Bakelite used as a binding glue for wood. Hard bakelite
used for making electrical switches, handles of various utensils,
comb, barrels etc.
8. Melamine - formaldehyde resin (Melmac)
Monomers : a) Formaldehyde (b) Melamine (2, 4, 6-triamino-1, 3, 5-
triazine)
In a molecule of melamine, C : N = 1 : 2, 6 lone pairs, 3 sp3 N
HN N NHCH2
Structure :
N N
NH
Properties : Cross linked or network polymer, rigid, hard, brittle

Uses : Used for making unbreakable crockery and floor tiles.
Melamine have fire resisting propety.
9. Urea - Formaldehyde Resin
Monomers : (a) Urea (b) Formaldehyde
NH CO NH CH2
Structure :
n
Properties : Cross linked or network polymer, rigid, hard, brittle
Uses : For making unbreakable cups and laminated sheets.
263
CHAPTER - 17
CHEMISTRY IN EVERYDAY LIFE
Drugs:
 Analgesics
Relieve or decreases the pain without causing unconsciousness.
There are also known as “Pain Killers”.
Aspirin, Analgin, Seridon etc
 Tranquilizers/Antidepressants
These are used for treatment of mental diseases.
Equanil, Calmpose, Tofranil, Barbituric acid, Cocaine and iproniazids
etc.
 Antiseptics
There are applied on living tissues to kill or prevent the growth of
micro-organisms. Dettol, Savlon and Acriflavin etc.
 Disinfectants
These are applied on floor, instruments or wall etc, to kill
microorganisms but are not safe for application on living tissues.
 Phenol (0.2 % phenol act as antiseptic and 1% phenol act as
disinfectant).
 Antimicrobial
These are use to either kill (bactericidal) or stop the growth of diseases
causing microorganisms (bacteriostatic)
Salvarsan, Prontosil, Sulphanilamide.
Bacteriostatic Drugs : Erythromycin, Tetracycline, Chloramphenicol
Bacterial Drugs : Ofloxacin, Amnoglycosides
264
Brain Pointer
 Antipyretics
These drugs bring down the body temperature during fever.
Paracetamol, Analgin and Novalgin.
 Antifertility Drugs
Prevent pregnancy in women by controlling menstrual cycle and
ovulation.
 Norethindrone & Mestranol
 Antacids : Used for the treatment of acidity.
 Metal hydroxides are generally used as antacids.
Eno & Milk of magnesia [Mg(OH)2]
 Antibiotics
These are the chemical substances which are produced by micro-
organisms like bacteria and fungi and are able to kill or stop the growth
of pathogenic microorganisms.
Penicillin, Amoxicillin and Ampicillin
 Antihistamins : These drugs compete with histamine for finding sites
of receptors and thus interfere with the natural action of histamine.
Brompheniramine & Terfenadine
Artificial Sweetening Agents
 Sucrose and fructose are the most widely used natural sweeteners.
But their intake increases calories in the diet and excess of them
can cause tooth decay. Ortho-sulphobenzimide, also called
saccharin, is the first popular artificial sweetening agent. It is about
550 times as sweet as cane sugar. It appears to be entirely inert and
harmless when taken. Its used is of greater value of diabetic persons
and people who need to control intake of calories.
 Aspartame : Aspartame is the most successful and widely used
artificial sweetener, it is roughly 100 times as sweet as cane sugar.
It is methyl ester of dipeptide formed from aspartic acid and
phenylalanine. Use of aspartame is limited to cold foods and soft
drinks because it is unstable at cooking temperature. Sucralose is
trichloro derivative of sucrose. Its appearance and taste are like sugar.
It is stable at cooking temperature, it does not provide calories.
265
 Food preservatives:
These are the chemical substances which prevent undesirable
changes in flavor, colour, texture of the food during processing and
storage of food. Examples, Table salt, sugar, vegetable oils, sodium
benzoate (C6H5COONa) etc
 Cleansing Agents
Soaps : Sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids.
Soaps do not work with hard water as it forms insoluble salt with
calcium and magnesium ions present in hard water.
Detergents : Sodium or potassium salts of sulphonic acids. These
can work with hard water also.
Anionic Detergents : Sodium salts of sulphonated long chain
alcohols or hydrocarbons.
Cationic Detergents : Quaternary ammonium salts of ammines
with acetates, chlorates or bromates.
Non-ionic Detergents : They do not contain any ion in their
constitution.
One such detergent is formed when stearic acid reacts with
polyethylene glycol. Liquid dishwashing detergents are non-ionic type.
Mechanism of cleansing action of this type of detergents is the same
as that of soaps.
Advantages of synthetic detergents over soaps
 They can be used with hard water which soap cannot do
 They can be used in acidic medium unlike soaps
 They are more soluble in water so form better latte than soaps.
 They have stronger cleaning action than soaps.
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BOTANY
CHAPTER - 01
REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS
Reproduction - Biological process in which an organism gives rise

to young ones, which enables the continuity of the species, generation
after generation.
Life Span - Period from birth to natural death of an organism.
There is no relation between life span and size of

an organism.
 No individual is immortal, except single-celled

organisms.
It varies from few days to thousands of years.
Types of Reproduction
(Based on organisms habitat, its internal physiology etc.)
Asexual Vegetative Sexual
* Uniparental * Uniparental * Generally biparental
* With or without the * From any plant part * Involves gamete formation
involvement of other than seeds. and syngamy
gamete formation
267
Asexual Reproduction Binary fission.

Eg. Amoeba, Paramecium
* Cell division
Multiple fission. Eg. Amoeba

[encystation and sporulation]
Zoospores eg. Chlamydomonas
Conidia eg. Penicillium
Buds eg. Hydra
Gemmule eg. Sponge
Vegetative propagules
Runner eg. Oxalis
Rhizome eg. Ginger
Sucker eg. Chrysanthemum
Tuber eg. Potato
Offset eg. Water hyacinth
Leaf buds eg. Bryophyllum
Bulb eg. Onion
Bulbils eg. Agave
Clone - Morphologically and genetically similar individuals.

Water hyacinth - “Terror of Bengal”
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Brain Pointer
Sexual Reproduction
Involves fusion of male and female gametes.
Offsprings are not genetically identical to their parents.
3 Phases
Juvenile / Vegetative Reproductive Senescence

(in plants)
Inter-flowering period - Mature phase
Annuals and biennials show clear cut vegetative, reproductive

and senescence phases
Oestrus cycle - eg. cow, sheep, rat, deer, dogs, tiger etc.
Menstrual cycle - eg. Monkeys, Apes, Humans
Continuous breeders - eg. Humans
Seasonal breeders - eg. Wild animals
Events in Sexual Reproduction
Pre-fertilization Fertilization Post-fertilization
Syngamy Embryogenesis
Gametogenesis Gamete transfer
269
Pre-fertilization Events
1. Gametogenesis - formation of gametes
Homogametes / Isogametes. eg. Cladophora
Antherozoids / Sperm
Heterogametes
eg. Fucus
Human beings Egg / Ovum
Homothallic / Monoecious (Bisexual condition) Eg. Chara

Heterothallic / Dioecious (Unisexual condition) Eg. Marchantia
Bisexual flower. Eg. Sweet potato
Staminate
Unisexual flower
Pistillate
Unisexual
Animals eg. Cockroach
Bisexual / Hermaphrodites
eg. Earthworm, Sponge, Tape worm, Leech
Cell division during gamete formation
In diploid organism through meiosis

Eg. Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms, Angiosperms and most animals
In haploid organism through mitosis

Eg. Monera, Fungi, Algae and Bryophytes
 Meiocytes - The cells which undergoes meiosis.
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Brain Pointer
2) Gamete Transfer
 In majority organisms - male gametes are motile
 In some Fungi and Algae - both gametes are motile
 In Algae, Bryophytes and Pteridophytes - Water is the medium
for gamete transfer
 In Gymnosperms and Angiosperms (seed plants)
- Pollen grains are the carriers of male gametes, and transfer
through a mechanism called Pollination
II. Fertilization (Syngamy)
Exernal.
Eg. Majority of Algae, Fishes, Amphibians
Internal.
Eg. Fungus, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes,
Gymnosperms, Angiosperms, Higher animals
such as Reptiles, Birds and Mammals
 Parthenogenesis - Formation of an organism from unfertilized

egg.
Eg. Rotifers, Honey bees, some Lizards and Birds (Turkey)
III. Post - fertilization events
 Embryogenesis - formation of embryo from zygote through
mitosis and cell differentiation.
Oviparous. eg. Reptiles, Birds
 Animals
Viviparous. eg. Majority of mammals
 In plants after fertilization :- zygote  embryo

ovary  fruit
ovary wall  pericarp
ovule  seed
271
CHAPTER - 02
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
 All flowering plants show sexual reproduction.
Calyx - sepals
Non-essential whorls
Corolla - Petals
Flower
Androecium - Stamens
Essential whorls
Gynoecium - Carpels
I. PRE-FERTILIZATION : Structures and events
Anther
 Stamens
Filament
 Proximal end of the filament is attached to the thalamus or petal.
 Typical Angiosperm anther - Bilobed, dithecous and tetrasporangiate
 Microsporangia develop into pollen sac.
Epidermis
Protection and
Endothecium dehiscence of
 Anther walls
anther
Middle layers
Tapetum - Nourishment of pollen grains

(Posses more than
one nucleus)
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Brain Pointer
 Sporogenous tissue (2n) compactly arranged homogenous cells in

the centre of each microsporangium.
 Microsporogenesis - formation of microspores from PMC.
meiosis
Sporogenous Pollen mother cell Pollen tetrad
tissue (2n) (2n) (n)
Pollen grains
(n)
 Pollen grain/ Male gametophyte (n)
Pollen grains
Sporopollenin - Exine
(Not continuous due to germpore)
Cellulose and Pectin - Intine

(Continuous layer)
 Microgametogenesis - formation of male gametes from pollen grain.
Vegetative cell Produce pollen tube

(n)
Pollen grain Mitosis
(microspore)
(n) Mitosis
Generative cell 2 non motile male
(n) gametes (n)
 In 60% of angiosperms, pollen grains shed at 2-celled stage (vegetative

and generative cell)
 In 40% of angiosperms, pollen grains shed at 3-celled stage.
(Vegetative cell and 2 male gametes)
 Pollen grains may cause allergy eg: Parthenium or Carrot grass.
 Pollen grains are rich in nutrients.
273
Rice, Wheat
(lose viability within 30 minutes)
 Pollen Viability
Rosaceae, Leguminosae & Solanaceae

(maintain viability for months)
 Cryopreservation - Pollen grains can be stored in liquid nitrogen at

-1960C.
Stigma
 Pistil Style
Ovary
Gynoecium Composed of
Carpels
One Many
Monocarpellary Multicarpellary
Eg: Pea
Free United
Apocarpous Syncarpous
eg : Michelia eg : Hibiscus,
Papaver
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Brain Pointer
 Megasporangium / Ovule
• Funicle - stalk of ovule
• Hilum - Junction between ovule and funicle
• Chalaza - Basal part of ovule
• Integuments - Protective envelops
• Micropyle - Opening, where integument absent
• Nucellus - Main tissue in ovule, nutritive in function
 Megasporogenesis - formation of functional megaspore from MMC.
Nucellus Meiosis
Archesporial Megaspore 4 megaspores (n)
(2n) cell (2n) mother cell
(2n)
3 degenerates
One functional
megaspore
(n)
 Megagametogenesis - formation of embryosac from functional

megaspore.
1st 2nd
mitosis mitosis
Functional 2-nucleate 4 nucleate
megaspore embryosac embryosac
(n) 3rd
mitosis
8 nucleate and
7 celled embryosac
275
 Embryosac / Female gametophyte (3+2+3)
Embryosac
One egg (n)
Egg apparatus
(at micropylar end)
2 synergids (n)
2 polar nuclei (n) in central cell
3 antipodals (n) at chalazal end.
 Synergids are characterised by filiform apparatus.

POLLINATION
Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma.
Pollination
Autogamy Self pollination
Geitonogamy Functionally cross pollination but

gentically similar to self pollination.
Xenogamy Cross pollination/Allogamy
 Chasmogamous flowers - Open at maturity

 Cleistogamous flowers - Closed even at maturity. eg: Commelina,
Viola (common pansy), Oxalis
Agents of Pollination
Biotic Insects
agents
Wind
Abiotic
agents
Water
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Brain Pointer
 Characteristics of wind pollinated plants

• Pollen grains - light and non-sticky
• Stamens - well exposed
• Stigma - large often feathery
• Flower - single ovule, arranged as inflorescence,
• Not colourful and do not produce nector.
Eg: Grass, Corncob etc
 Characteristics of water pollinated plants
• Pollen grains - Protected from wetting by a mucilaginous covering.
• In sea grasses, pollen grains are long and ribbon-like
• Flower - not very colourful and do not produce nector
Eg: Vallisneria, Hydrilla, Zostera
• All hydrophytes are not pollinated by water.
Eg: Water hyacinth & Water lily (Pollinated by insects or wind)
 Characteristics of insect pollinated plants
• Pollen grains -Sticky
• Flower - Large, colourful, fragnant and rich in nectar.
• If the flowers are small, they form inflorescence.
• Flowers pollinated by flies and beetles secrete foul odours to
attract them.
• Floral rewards - Nectar and pollengrains
• In some plants, floral rewards are in providing safe places to lay
eggs.
Eg: Amorphophallus and Yucca
• Some animals acts as pollinating agents.
Eg:Bees, Butterflies, Beetles, Wasps, Ants, Moths, Birds,
Bats, Lemurs, Arboreal rodents and Reptiles.
Outbreeding devices
To promote cross pollination :
277
 Pollen release and stigma receptivity not synchronized.
 Anther and stigma are placed at different position
 Self-incompatibility
 Production of unisexual flowers (dioecy)
Pollen-pistil interaction
All the events from pollen deposition on to the stigma untill the pollen
tube enters the ovule.
Artificial Hybridisation
Selection Emasculation Bagging Pollen

of parents dusting
Rebagging
II DOUBLE FERTILIZATION
 Male gamete + Egg Zygote Syngamy

(n) (n) (2n)
Double
fertilization
Male gamete + 2 polar nuclei PEN Triple
(n) (n+n) (3n) fusion
 Total number of nuclei involved is -5 [Syngamy-2 and Triple fusion-3]

III. POST-FERTILIZATION : Structure and Events
Endosperm (3n)
 Develops from PEN
 It store reserve food for embryo
2 types:-
 Free nuclear type (common) Eg: Coconut
 Cellular type
Embryo (2n)
 Develops from zygote
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Brain Pointer
 Zygote Proembryo Globular Heart shaped

embryo embryo
Mature
embryo
 Mature dicotyledonous embryo- embryonal axis, 2 cotyledons,

epicotyl, hypocotyl, plumule, radicle.
 Mature Monocot embryo - Single cotyledon (Scutellum)
 Epiblast - Rudimentary second cotyledon
 Coleorrhiza - Protective covering of radicle
 Coleoptile - Protective covering of shoot apex (Plumule)
 Seed - Fertilised ovule.
outer testa
Seed coat
Embryo Inner tegmen
Seeds
Albuminous Non-albuminous/
(with endosperm) Ex-albuminous
(without endosperm)
Eg: Wheat, Maize,
Barley, Castor Eg: Pea, Groundnut,Gram
 Perisperm - Residual, persistent nucellus in seed.
Fruit
True fruit False fruit

eg: Mango, Banana eg: Apple, Strawberry
279
 Parthenocarpic fruits
Fruits develop without fertilisation.
 Oldest viable seeds
 Lupinus arcticus - 10,000 years of dormancy
 Phoenix dactylifera - 2000 years of dormancy
 Apomixis - Production of seeds without fertilization.
Eg: Some species of Asteraceae, Grasses
 Apomictic seeds does not show any segregation due to the absence
of meiosis.
 Polyembryony - Occurrence of more than one embryo in a seed.
Eg: Citrus, Orange, Mango
280
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CHAPTER - 03
STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCEMENT IN
FOOD PRODUCTION
PLANT BREEDING
¨ Purposeful manipulation of plant species to produce desired plant
types with ;
a) Increased yield and improved quality
b) Increased tolerance to environmental stresses
c) Resistance to pathogens and insect pests
Steps in plant breeding
1. Collection of variability (Germplasm collection)
¨ Entire collection of plants / seeds having all the diverse alleles for
all genes in a given crop.
2. Evaluation and selection of parents
¨ To identify plants with desirable combination of characters\
3. Cross hybridisation among the selected parents
¨ Steps ;
1. Emasculation
2. Bagging
3. Pollen dusting (artificial pollination)
4. Re-bagging
5. Tagging
4. Selection and testing of superior recombinants
¨ It yields plants that are superior to both of the parents
5. Testing, release and commercialisation of new cultivar
¨ The new hybrids are evaluated for their yield and other agronomic
traits before releasing.
281
Green revolution : Drastic increase in food production during
1960s due to the invention of new hybrid
varieties.
Some hybrid crops of high yielding varieties
1. Hybrid Rice
(i) IR-8  IRRI, Philippines
(ii) TN - I  Taiwan
(iii) Jaya and Ratna  developed in India
2. Hybrid wheat
(i) Sonalika
(ii) Kalyan Sona
3. Hybrid Sugarcane
Saccharum barberi × Saccharum officinarum
(Weak stem, low sugar content, (Thick stem,
grown in North India) high sugar content,
grown in South India)

Interspecific hybrid sugarcane
4. Hybrid Millets  hybrid maize, jowar and bajra

Plant breeding for Disease Resistance
¨ Plant disease may be due to fungal, bacterial or viral pathogens
¨ Methods :-
(i) Conventional hybridisation :- Eg. Parbhani kranti
ie, Abelmoschus esculentus × Wild variety
(present variety) (disease resistant)

Parbhani Kranti
(Resistant to Yellow Mosaic Virus;
It is not a mutant variety)
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Brain Pointer
(ii) Mutation breeding :- Induced mutations are given to seeds to

produce disease resistance.
eg. Mung bean resistant to yellow Mosaic Virus and

Powdery Mildew
¨ Best Mutagen for plants - Gamma rays.
(iii) Selection among somaclonal variants
(iv) Genetic Engineering
Plant Breeding for Developing Resistance to Insect Pests
¨ Insect resistance of plants may be due to morphological, bio-chemical

or physiological characteristics.
Eg. (i) Hairy leaves in cotton  jassids
(ii) Hairy leaves in wheat  cereal leaf beetle
(iii) Solid stem in wheat  Stem sawfly
(iv) Smooth leaved and nectorless cotton  boll worms
(v) High aspartic acid, low nitrogen and sugar in maize 

maize stem borer
283
Plant Breeding for Improved Food Quality (Bio-fortification)

¨ Breeding crops with higher levels of vitamins and minerals or higher
protein and healthier fats.
¨ Objectives :- To improve a) Protein content and quality
b) Oil content and quality
c) Vitamin content
d) Micronutrient and Mineral content
¨ It is a solution to ‘hidden hunger’.
¨ Eg. a) Bio-fortified Maize with twice the amount of
aminoacids, lysine and tryptophan.
(Protina, Shakthi, Rattan)
b) Atlas - 66 (High protein content)
c) Iron-fortified rice (with 5 times iron content)
d) Biofortified vegetables developed by IARI
SINGLE CELL PROTEIN (SCP)
¨ Alternate source of proteins for animal and human nutrition.
¨ Edible proteins are obtained on a large scale from the culture of
microbes
¨ Both unicellular and multicellular microbes can be used
¨ Example for microbes used as SCP
(i) Methylophilus methylotropus (bacteria)
(ii) Spirulina (Cyanobacteria)
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Brain Pointer
(iii) Mushrooms (fungi)

¨ SCP helps to reduce environmental pollution as it utilizes waste
materials as culture medium
TISSUE CULTURE
¨ Father of tissue culture  Haberlandt (1902)
¨ Culturing of cell, tissue or organ on a suitable culture medium in
aseptic conditions to produce an entire plant.
¨ The progenies produced will be ‘somaclones’.
¨ Explant  The plant part excised from the original plant, used for
tissue culture.
¨ Totipotency  Ability of a plant cell to develop into a whole plant.
Applications
¨ Micropropagation : Production of thousands of plants from explants
in short interval of time by culturing them in suitable nutrient medium,
under asceptic conditions.
Eg. Tomato, Banana, Apple
¨ Meristem culture : Culturing of meristems (both apical and axillary)
on a suitable medium to obtain virus free plants.
¨ Embryo culture : Embryo rescue
¨ Anther culture / Pollen culture : Production of haploid plants
Eg. Banana, Sugarcane, Potato
¨ Somatic Hybridisation : Fusion of two genetically distinct protoplasts
(somatic cells) to obtain a hybrid progeny.
¨ It can break species barrier.
¨ Steps : (i) Digestion of cell wall
(ii) Isolation of nacked protoplasts
(iii) Fusion of protoplasts
¨ The resultant hybrid is a somatic hybrid.
Eg. Pomato  Potato × Tomato
285
CHAPTER - 04
BIOTECHNOLOGY : PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES
 Technical application in life science for products and services, like

test tube babies, DNA vaccines, correction of defective genes etc.
 According to EFB (European Federation of Biotechnology ) it is an
integration of natural science and organisms, cells, parts there of,
and molecular analogues for product and services.
 Biotechnology
Old biotechnology
conventional method
based on inherent abilty
of microorganisms.
Eg: Making curd,
bread or wine
Modern biotechnology
manipulation of genome
for getting desirable
products
Biotechnology has two aspects.

1) Genetic engineering
• Direct manipulation of genome of an organism
• Father of genetic engineering  Paul Berg
2) Bioprocess engineering
Maintenance of sterile ambience for getting a desired product like,
vaccine, enzyme etc from transgenic organisms.
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Brain Pointer
Recombinant DNA technology/ Genetic Engineering technique
• Invented by Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer (1972)
• They isolated Kanamycin resistant gene from native plasmid of

Salmonella typhimurium and inserted into the plasmid (PSC101). This
rDNA was introduced in to E-coli where foreign gene was expressed.
Tools of recombinant DNA technology
1) DNA modifing enzymes
A) Endonuclease
Cuts anywhere within the DNA.
Restriction Endonucleases (REs)
• Molecular scissors / scalpels / knives
• Bacteria produce REs as defense against bacteriophage.
• They cut palindromes only (MALAYALAM)
• First isolated RE in Hind II from Haemophilus influenzae.
Naming
• First letter from genus, second two letters comes from species, fourth
letter indicates strain and Roman numerals indicate order in which
the enzymes were isolated.
Cutting pattern of EcoRI
287
B) Ligases
• Sticky ends can be joined by forming hydrogen bonds, which triggers
enzyme ligase.
• Ligase form phosphodiester bonds and joins DNA.
• Hence known as Molecular glues.
C) Exonuclease
They cut DNA at its extreme ends.
2) VECTOR
Vectors are DNA molecules that helps in carrying and integrating the
desired gene.
Two types;
 Cloning Vector
• Artificially constricted vectors.
• Used for multiplication of foreign gene.
• Eg: pBR322, pUC 8
Features of cloning vector
1) Origin of replication (ori) - The sequence from where replication
starts and any piece of DNA when linked to this sequence can be
made to replicate within the host cells.
2) Selectable marker - Help in identifying and eliminating non-
transformants and permitting the growth of transformants.
Eg: AmpR gene and TetR gene in pBR322
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Brain Pointer
3) Cloning sites
To link the foreign DNA
Several; cloning sites for different restriction enzymes.
 Expression Vector
• Natural vectors
• Used for inserting foreign DNA into host.
Eg: Ti plasmid of Agrobacterium tumifaciens.
4) HOST
Host is a cell/organism in which foreign DNA is expressed.
STEPS IN rDNA TECHNOLOGY
1) Identification of desirable genes
2) Isolation of foreign gene
3) Amplification of foreign gene
4) Insertion of foreign gene
5) Screening of transformed cells
6) Obtaining gene products
7) Down stream process
1) Isolation of foreign gene- DNA is isolated and purified by using
different enzymes based on the organisms used.
To digest the boundaries of different cell types :
 Bacterial cell - Lysozyme
 Fungal cell - Chitinase
 Plant cell - Cellulase, hemicellulase
To avoid RNA and proteins for getting purified DNA :
 RNA - RNAse / Ribonuclease
 Proteins - Protease
• Separated DNA can be precipitated by adding chilled ethanol.
• DNA that separated out can be removed by spooling.
• Cutting of DNA at specific locations by restriction endonucleases
289
Gel Electrophoresis
 Restriction digested fragments of DNA is separated by gel
electrophoresis.
 DNA fragments are separated according to their size through the
sieving effect provided by agarose gel. When electric current passes
‘-’vely charged DNA starts to move from -ve wells to +vely charged
electrode. Smaller fragments occupy near to +ve electrode and larger
fragments occupy near to -ve electrode Ethidium bromide stained
separated fragments can be visualised under UV light. The extraction
of DNA from gel is called Elution.
Southern Blotting
 Transferring of separated DNA from gel to nitrocellulose paper is called
blotting.
Hybridisation with radiolabelled probe
 ssDNA complementary to the gene of interest is used to identify it by
hybridisation.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
 Discovered by Karry Mullis
 Amplification of DNA
 Three steps,
Denaturation - Separating dsDNA into ssDNA by applying high
temperature.
Annealing - Primers complementary to 5’ and 3’ ends will come and
bind with DNA for initiating replication.
Extension/Elongation - DNA is elongated and forms new strands
by the action of enzyme Taq polymerase.
Requirements
• Template DNA  DNA to be amplified
• Primers  small chemically synthesized oligonucleotides.
• dNTPs (de-oxynucleotide triphosphates)  dATP, dGTP, dTTP
and dCTP
• Taq DNA polymerase  from thermophilic bacteria Thermus
aquaticus, which can withstand high temperature during
denaturation.
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Brain Pointer
• PCR machine /Thermocycler.
Insertion of recombinant DNA into host / Cell/ organism
 Direct gene transfer (Directly introduced into host)
 Indirect gene transfer
Direct Gene Transfer
 Chemical Treatment
By treating host cell and DNA with bivalent cation.
Particularly in bacteria
 Microinjection
Directly inject DNA in to cytoplasm, particularly in animals.
 Biolistic / Gene gun / Particle bombardment
DNA coated with high velocity particles like tungsten or gold is

bombarded in to the host cells.
Particularly in plants
Indirect Gene Transfer
DNA is introduced with the help of vectors
• Plant  Disarmed Agrobacterium tumefaciens
• Animals  Disarmed Retro viral vectors
• Microbes  Plasmids
Screening of transformed cells
• Antibiotic resistant genes in plasmid is used as selectable marker.
• Particular gene is inactivated by inserting foreign DNA in to it.
• Transformant which takes up foreign DNA can select by this

method.
291
Obtaining foreign gene product
• Bioreactors  Large vessels used for culturing recombinant cells.
• It must have nutrient providing system
• Optimum temperature providing system
• pH control system
• Aeration providing system / Agitator
• Product recovery system
• Sampling port
• Based on the agitator bioreactors are of two types,
a) Stirred tank bioreactor
b) Sparged tank bioreactor
Down Stream processing
Isolation and purification of desired recombinant product. It varies from

product to product.
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CHAPTER - 05
BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATION
Industrial production of Biopharmaceuticals and biologicals using

genetically modified plants, animals and microbes. It has 3 critical
research areas.
1. Providing best catalyst in the form of improved organism or pure
enzyme
2. Creating optimum condition
3. Downstream processing
Applications
I. Biotechnological Applications in Agriculture [Green Biotechnology]
 Food production can be increased by ;
a) Agro-chemical based agriculture
b) Organic agriculture
c) Genetically Modified crop based agriculture (GMO)
GMO
GMOs used for  creating abiotic stress resistant Crops
Reduce chemical dependance
Reduce Post harvest losses
Increased mineral usage
Enhanced Nutritional Value
Bt Crops
Some strains of Bacillus thuringiensis can produce an insecticidal
protein called cry protein coded by Cry genes. Specific Bt genes
were isolated and incorporated into several crops for natural insect
resistance.
293
Insects
Ingestion
Bt crops
Midgut
Inactive protoxin
Alkaline pH Midgut
Toxin
Binding of epithelial surface of midgut
Create pores
Death of insect
Cry I Ac & Cry II Ab  Controls Cotton boll worms.

Cry I Ab  Controls Corn bores
Pest Resistant Plants
 Pest resistance can be made possible with the help of RNA
interference [RNAi]
RNAi takes place in all Eukaryotes as cellular defense
Nematode specific genes   host plant  Both sense

Agrobacterium
Vectors
and antisense RNA  dsRNA  RNAi
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Brain Pointer
II. Biotechnological Application in Medicines [Red biotechnology]

Genetically engineered Insulin
 In humans insulin is produced as proinsulin with A, B and C
polypeptide chains.
 During maturation C peptide is removed and it became mature
insulin
Genes coding for A chain Genes coding for B chain of

of human Insulin human insulin
Genes introduced into E.Coli Genes introduced into E.Coli
A Chain B Chain
Joined by
disulphide linkage
Human Insulin
[Humulin]
It is produced by Eli. Lilly in 1983.

Gene therapy
Collection of methods for the correction of defective genes.
First clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 to 4 year old girl with
Adenosine Deaminase Deficiency.
Lymphocytes from patient A functional ADA cDNA
Retroviral vector
Lymphocytes with ADA genes
Grow in Culture Medium
Returned to Patient
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Molecular Diagnosis
used for early detection of diseases
It includes Recombinant DNA technology, PCR, ELISA, etc....
PCR  early detection of the presence of a pathogen by amplifying their
nucleic acids.
Autoradiography  A single stranded DNA or RNA tagged with a
radioactive probe is allowed to hybridise to its complementary DNA
and detect its presence by autoradiography.
ELISA - Based on the principle of antigen-antibody interaction.
TRANSGENIC ANIMALS
Animals with manipulated DNA for expressing an extra character.
 They are used for studying
Normal physiology and development
Study of disease
Biological products
Vaccine safety
Chemical safety testing
Ethical Issues
Genetic Engineering Approval Committee will make decisions regarding
the validity of GM research.
Biopiracy - Unauthorised use of bioresources by multinational companies.
Eg. An American Company, got patent for Indian Basmati rice
Biopatent - Laws to prevent unauthorised exploitation of Bioresources
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CHAPTER - 06
ORGANISM AND POPULATIONS
Ecology - It is the study of interactions among organisms and between

the organisms and its physical environment
Levels of Organisation
Organism  Population  Biological community  Ecosystem
 Biome  Biosphere
Organism and its environment
Environment - Sum total of all biotic and abiotic factors or conditions
that surrounds and potentially influence organisms.
Habitat : The place where an organism lives
Niche : Habitat together with function of a species
Climate : Average weather conditions in an area over a long period.
Determined mainly by temperature and precipitation.
Biome : A large ecological communities over a large geographical
area determined by specific climatic conditions.
Eg. Desert, Rain forest, Tundra etc.
Biome distribution with respect to annual temperature and precipitation
Biome Rainfall - cm Temperature - oC
1. Tropical rain forest 150 - 400 23 - 27
2. Temperate forest 100 - 220 6 - 20
3. Coniferous forest 50 - 250 -1 - 15
4. Grass land 25 - 75 2 - 25
5. Desert <25 5 - 25/45
6. Arctic and Alpine tundra < 100 <0
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Major biomes of India
A) Tropical rain forest B) Deciduous forest
C) Desert D) Sea coast
Major abiotic factors
1. Temperature
Affect enzyme kinetics
Control geographical distribution of organisms
A) Eurythermal - Organism tolerate wide temperature differences
B) Stenothermal - Organism tolerate narrow range of temperature
differences
2. Water
Control productivity and distribution of plants
Chemical composition, pH and Salinity are important for aquatic
organisms
A) Euryhaline - Organism overcome large salinity variations
B) Stenohaline - Organism tolerate narrow salinity differences
3. Light
 Quality, intensity and duration of light control daily rhythms in
organisms like photoperiodism, photosynthesis etc. in plants and
foraging, reproductive and migratory activities in animals.
4. Soil
 Soil composition, grain size and aggregation determines the
percolation and water holding capacity of soil. These characteristics
and pH, mineral composition and topography determines the
vegetation in the soil.
Responses to Abiotic factors
Homeostasis : Maintenance of constant internal environment
1. Regulate : Organisms able to maintain homeostasis, so they are
more successful to live in any conditions.
Eg. Birds and Mammals
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2. Conform : They cannot maintain a constant internal environment

and they change their internal conditions under varying
external environment.
Eg. 99% animals and nearly all plants
Partial regulators
 Some species can regulate upto certain environmental
conditions, beyond which they simply conform.
3. Migrate
Eg. Siberian crane to Keolado N.P., Bharatpur, Rajasthan
4. Suspend
Eg. Hibernation (winter sleep) - Polar bear
Aestivation (Summer sleep) - Some snails and fish
Diapause - Zooplankton
Spore formation - Fungi, Bacteria, lower plants etc.
Adaptations
Acclimatisation : Slowly adjustment to newly changing environment.
Plant adaptations
Xerophytes
Spines
Photosynthetic stem
Sunken stomata
Thick cuticle
CAM photosynthetic pathway
Eg. Opuntia
Halophytes
Pneumatophore
Hydrophytes
Aerenchyma
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Animal adaptations
To cold (Low temperature)
1. Allen’s rule - Mammals from colder climate generally have shorter
ears and limbs
2. Blubber - Thick fat deposition below skin in polar seal
To high temperature (Desert)
Eg. Kangaroo rat
Excrete concentrated urine
Internal fat oxidation for water requirement
Adaptation in Humans : In high altitude with low oxygen availability.
Increase RBC production
Decreasing binding affinity of haemoglobin
Increase breathing rate
Hot springs : Eg. Archaebacteria
Deep ocean with high pressure : Organism with special proteins and
enzyme
Behavioural adaptations
Desert lizard : Bask in sun
Move into shades / Burrowing in soil
Population : Group of individuals of same species in an area.
Population attributes
I. Population growth : Increase in size or number of individuals of a
population.
Number of new individuals

A) Natality / Birth rate /B : - B =
Population size
Number of dead individuals

B) Mortality / Death rate /D :- D =
Population size
C) Immigration / I :- Permanent inward movement of individuals
D) Emigration / E :- Permanent out ward movement of individuals
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II. Sex ratio : - Proportion of male and female
III. A) Age distribution :
Pre-reproductive
Reproductive
Post reproductive
B) Age pyramid : Graphical representation of age groups.
IV. Population size and density / N
Number of individuals per unit area
Factor determines population growth
A - Natality (B)
B - Mortality (D)
C - Immigration (I)
D - Emigration (E)
DE N B I
Decreases Increases
Population density after t + 1 time period is
Nt+1 = Nt + (B + I) - (D +E)
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V. Population growth models
Logistic growth
Exponential growth
Verhulst - Pearl logistic growth
* Presence of unlimited * Presence of limited resources upto

resources carrying capacity (K)
* J-shaped growth form * S-shaped / sigmoid growth curve
* Phases - Lag and * Lag, acceleration, deceleration,

log/exponential asymptote
dN
*  rN or Nt = N0ert * dN  rN  K  N 
dt dt  K 
Life History Variation - in terms of reproductive fitness (‘r’ value)

Breed only once - Pacific Salmon fish, Bambo
Breed many times - Birds, Mammals
Small -sized Large number - Oyster, Pelagic fishes
Large sized fewer - Birds, Mammals
Biological Community
Group of different populations in an area
Population Interactions
Intraspecific
Interspecific
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1. Predation
Predator (+) (Either herbivore or carnivore) Prey (-)
Role of predation
Transfer of energy across trophic level
Control prey populations. Eg. Prickly pear cactus and moth
Biological control of agricultural pest
Maintaining species diversity. Eg. Starfish Pisaster and Invertebrates
Defence to lessen the impact of predation
Animals
Camouflage - Insects and frog
Poisonous - Monarch butterfly
Plants
Thorns - Acacia, Cactus
Poisonous - Calotropis
Chemicals - Nicotine, Caffeine, Quinine, Opium, Strychnine
(Secondary metabolites with ecological importance)
2. Competition (– / –)
Intraspecific
Interspecific
 Occurs between closely related species when the resources are
limiting
A) Unrelated species also compete
Eg. Flamingoes & Fish - Zooplankton
B) Also occurs in presence of plenty of resources when efficiency
of one is more than other.
Eg. Abingdon tortoise and Goat
Gause’s competitive exclusion principle
Two closely related species competing for same resources cannot
co-exist and superior species will eventually eliminate the other
species.
Competitive release
A species whose distribution is restricted to a small geographical
area because of the presence of superior species.
303
Competitive co-existence
Two competing species avoid competition by resource partioning
such as changing feeding and foraging time and patterns.
Eg. Mac Arthurs observation in warblers
3. Parasitism
Parasite (+) Host (-)
Ectoparasite :- Lice on Humans
Ticks on dogs
Copepods on marine fishes
Cuscuta on hedge plants
Endoparasite :- Liverfluke, Plasmodium
Brood parasitism :- Cow and Cuckoo
Adaptation of parasite
 Loss of unnecessary sense organs
Loss of digestive system
Sucker or adhesive organs
High reproductive capacity
4. Commensalism (+ / 0)
Eg. Epiphyte(+) on a tree (0)
(Orchid (+) on a mango branch(0))
Barnacles (+) on the back of a whale (0)
Clown fish (+) and sea anemone (0)
Cattle egret (+) and grazing cattle (0)
5. Mutualism (+ / +)
Eg. Lichen - Algae and Fungi
Mycorrhiza - Fungi and roots of higher plants
Rhizobium - Root nodules of legumes
Plant - Pollinator mutualism
(Fig tree and Wasp bee)
Mediterranean Orchid Ophrys and bee - Sexual deceit
Orchid petals - Mimicry
Male bee - Psuedocopulation
6. Ammensalism (– / 0)
Eg. Penicillium - Streptococcus
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CHAPTER - 07
ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystem : Functional unit of nature, where living organisms interact

among themselves (Biotic) and also with their physical environment
(Abiotic).
Types of Ecosystem
Natural Man-made
Crop field
Aquarium etc
Terrestrial Aquatic
Forest Pond
Desert Lake
Grass land etc River
Estuaries
Wetland etc
Components of ecosystem
Producers Plants
Primary consumer
Biotic Consumers
Secondary consumer
Decomposers Bacteria, Fungi
Abiotic Light, Temp, Soil, Water etc
305
Structure of ecosystem
• Species composition
• Stratification - Vertical layering of organisms
• Trophic structure
Functions of ecosystem
• Productivity
• Decomposition
• Energy flow
• Nutrient cycling
Productivity
• Rate of biomass production in terms of weight or energy captured.
• Unit : gm-2yr-1 or (KCal m-2)yr -1
• Productivity
Primary Secondary
(Producer level) (Consumer level)
GPP NPP = (GPP-R)
• Annual NPP of whole biosphere is -170 billion tonnes.

Decomposition
• Complex organic  Simple inorganic
• Raw material is detritus
• It involves processes
 Fragmentation
Complex detritus 
Detritivores
 Small particles
 Leaching
Penetration of water soluble inorganic nutrients into soil
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 Catabolism
Fragmented detritus   Simpler inorganic substances

Bacteria , Fungi
Enzymes
 Humification
Some of the fragmented detritus accumulate into dark coloured
amorphous substances called Humus.
Humus :
• Dark coloured, amorphous
• Partially decomposed organic substance
• Highly resistant to microbial action, so slow rate of decomposition.
• Reservoir of nutrients
 Mineralisation
Humus  inorganic substances like CO2, H2O, nutrients etc.
Factors affecting decomposition
• Chemical composition of detritus
• Climatic factors like temperature, soil moisture, presence of oxygen
etc.
Energy flow
• Unidirectional
• Sun  Producers  Herbivores  Carnivores
• Energy goes on decreasing with each and every trophic level
Food chain
Types of food chain
 Grazing /Predator food chain/ (GFC)
• Starting from producers
• Source of energy sun light.
 Detritus food chain /(DFC)
• Starting from detritus
• Source of energy dead organic matter
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Food web - Interconnected food chains.
 Trophic structure / Level
A specific place of organism in food chain based on source of food.
 Standing crop
Mass of total living material in each trophic level at a particular time.
 Standing state
Amount of nutrients present in the soil at any given time.
Ecological Pyramids
Graphic representation of different trophic level in an ecosystem with
producer at base.
Types of ecological pyramid
 Pyramid of Number
Upright - Forest, Pond
Inverted - Tree as an ecosystem
Spindle - Tree as an ecosystem
 Pyramid of Biomass
Upright - Forest, Grass land
Inverted - Deep ocean
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 Pyramid of Energy
Always upright
Nutrient cycling/ Biogeochemical cycles
Gaseous Sedimentary
Reservoir is Reservoir is
atmosphere/ soil
water
Eg: C, N Eg: S, P
Carbon Cycle
Phosphrous Cycle
309
Ecological Succession
Gradual and fairly predictable changes in species composition of a
given area.
 Pioneer Community
Xerarch - Lichen
Hydrarch - Phytoplankton
 Seral Community
Intermediate communities
Eg: - Submerged plant stage
Moss, Herb stage etc.
 Climax community / Stable community
Forest (Mesic water condition)
 Primary Succession
Eg: Succession on bare rock, pond, newly cooled lava.
 Secondary Succession
Eg: After forest fire
• Xerarch - Succession on terrestrial area.
• Hydrarch - Succession on water body
Phytoplankton stage  Submerged plant stage  Submerged free
floating plant stage  Reed-swamp stage  Marsh meadow stage
 Scrub stage  Forest.
Ecosystem Services
• Soil formation (50%)
• Recreation (10%)
• Nutrient cycling (10%)
• Climate regulation (6%)
• Habitat for wildlife (6%) etc
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CHAPTER - 08
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Pollution
Undesirable change in physical, chemical / biological characteristics
of air, land, water / soil.
 Pollutants - Agents of pollution
Types of Pollution
I. Air pollution and its control
A) Agents - Thermal power plants, smelters and other industries.
B) Pollutants - gaseous and particulate matter (2.5 micrometers
or less in diameter)
C) Control of Air pollution
Control of particulate matter - use of electrostatic
precipitator
Control of gaseous pollutants - Scrubbers, catalytic
converters
D) Effects of air pollution
Breathing and respiratory symptoms
Irritation, Inflammations and damage to the lungs and
premature death.
II. Noise pollution
(Noise pollution include as an air pollution, came into force in 1981)
A) Agents - High sound level greater than 150 dB/more considered
as noise agents.
B) Control of noise pollution
Use of sound absorbent materials / by muffling noise
Stringent following of Laws.
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C) Effects of noise pollution
Sleeplessness, Increased heartbeat, altered breathing

pattern, damage eardrums.
Case Study of Delhi
 In Delhi, entire fleet of public transport was converted to

compressed natural gas (CNG) to reduce air pollution.
 Parallel step to reducing vehicular pollution

Phasing out of old vehicles
Use of unleaded petrol
Use of low sulphur petrol and diesel
Use of catalytic converts in vehicles
Application of stringent pollution - level norms for vehicle
 A new auto fuel policy laid in Indian cities.

Eg. Euro III norms.
Sulphur (350 ppm in diesel and 150 ppm in petrol)
Aromatic hydrocarbons (42% of the concerned fuel)
III. Water pollution and its control
Agents - Domestic sewage and industrial effluents. Domestic

sewage mainly contains biodegradable organic matter, which can
be easily decomposed by microbes like bacteria and fungi.
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 Measurement of water pollution.

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
 Algal bloom - Presence of large amount of nutrients in waters

causes excessive growth of planktonic (free floating) algae called
algal bloom.
313
 Causes of algal bloom
1. Changing water colour
2. Increase BOD
3. Decrease DO
4. Eutrophication - It is the natural aging of lake by nutrient

enrichment of water.
This phenomenon is called Cultural or

Accelerated Eutrophication.
 Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) - ‘Terror of Bengal’
(It lead to an imbalance in aquatic water body by its abundant growth)
 Other agents of pollutants - waste water from petroleum industries
- paper manufacturing industries
- Thermal power plants (Hot water)
- Metal extraction and processing
- Chemical manufacturing etc.
 These agents contains toxic substances like heavy metals and

variety of organic compounds.
(Mercury, Cadmium, Copper, Lead etc.)
 Biomagnification - Accumulation of non-degradable substances in

higher trophic level.
Eg. DDT
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 A case study of integrated waste water Treatment

 It is a combining artificial and natural processes
Eg. (FOAM  Friends of the Arcata Marsh)
 Eco San toilets  In Kerala and Srilanka
IV. Solid Waste
Agents  Biodegradable wastes, recyclable wastes, Non-
biodegradable wastes
315
e-waste  Electronic wastes
Effects  Accumulation of garbage in cities, polluting underground
water resources by land fills.
Controlling  Recycling
Sanitary landfills
Incineration (Hospital waste)
Reduction in use of plastics
Use of Eco friendly packaging
 Case study of Remedy for plastic waste  Bangalore
 Ahmed Khan recycled the plastic into a new form called poly
blend
 It is used to lay roads
V. Agro-chemical and their Effects
 Green revolution enhance use of inorganic fertilisers and pesticides.
 This leads to biomagnification in terrestrial ecosystem
 Case study of organic farming  [by Ramesh Chandra Dagar, a
farmer in Sonipat, Haryana]
 It is a cyclical, zero waste management
 Maximum utilisation of resources
VI. Radio Active Wastes
Nuclear energy has two serious problems.
Accidental leakage (Three mile Island & Chernobyl)
Safe disposal of radioactive waste
Controls
Proper storage of nuclear waste and Sufficient Pre-treatment
Effects
It causes mutations
Cancer
High doses may be lethal
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VII. Green House Effect and Global Warming

It is a natural heating of Earth surface and atmosphere
Effects
Global warming
Increase sea level (Melting of polar ice caps)
Odd climatic change (El-nino effect)
Controls
Cutting down use of fossil fuel
Improving efficiency of energy usage
Reducing deforestation
Planting tree
Slowing down growth of human population
Reduce green house gas emissions
Ozone depletion
Ozone found in stratosphere as a shield against UV
Unit of ozone layer thickness - Dobson units (DU)
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Ozone depleting substances - CFCs
Ozone Hole
Reduction in thickness of ozone layer
Reported in Antartica
After Effect
More UV radiation reaching to earth surface
Ageing of skin, skin cancer
Snow - blindness (Inflammation of cornea)
Cataract
UV-B damage DNA and cause mutation
Control
Reduce emission of ozone depleting substances
Montreal Protocol - 1987 (1989)
Montreal - Canada
Degradation by improper resource utilization and maintenance
Soil erosion and desertification
Water logging and soil salinity
Defforestation
Reason
Slash and burn agriculture (Jhum cultivation)
Industrialisation and urbanisation
Forest fire
After effect
Enhanced CO2 concentration
Loss of biodiversity
Disturbed hydrological cycle
Soil erosion
Desertification
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Control
Reforestation
Case study of People’s participation in conservation of Forest
Amrita Devi & Bishnoi communities

Chipko Movement - 1974
Environmental Acts
1. Environment (Protection) Act - 1986
2. Air (Prevention and control of pollution) Act
1981 & amended in 1987 (Noise)
3. Water (Prevention and control of Pollution) Act - 1974
Additional Informations
1. Montreal Protocol - 1987, effective 1989
2. National Forest Policy - 1988
3. Chipko Movement - 1974
4. Joint Forest Management - 1980
5. Kyoto Protocol - 1997
Abbreviations
CPCB - Central Pollution Control Board
PM - Particulate matter
CNG - Compressed Natural Gas
BOD - Biochemical Oxygen Demand
DO - Dissolved Oxygen
FOAM - Friends of Arcata Marsh
HK WC - Haryana Kisan Welfare Club
CFCs - Chloroflouro Carbons
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DU - Dobson units
JFM - Joint Forest Management
NFP - National Forest Policy
COP - Conference of Parties
Important Dates
Ozone day - September 16
Environmental Day - June 5
Biodiversity Day - May 22
Pollution Prevention Day (India) - December 2 (Bhopal Gas Tragedy)
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ZOOLOGY
CHAPTER - 01
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
 Humans are sexually reproducing organisms and are viviparous.

 The correct sequence of reproductive events in humans are
 Gametogenesis(formation of gametes)  Insemination (transfer
of semen into the female genital tract)  fertilization (fusion of sperm
& ovum, leading to the formation of zygote)  implantation (fixation
of the embryo in the form of blastocyst on the uterine
wall)  gestation (embryonic development-from fertilization to
parturition)  parturition (child birth)
 Gametogenesis in male is called spermatogenesis. It starts with
puberty and ends with death
 Gametogenesis in female is called oogenesis. It starts from embryonic
stage and ends with menopause.
Male Reproductive system:- It includes a pair of testes,
sex accessory ducts, accessory glands and external genitalia( penis)
1. Testes/testicles/primary male sex organ (one pair) L - 4-5cm;
W - 2-3 cm
 Testes are located outside the abdomen (pelvis region) within a pouch
called scrotum, because spermatogenesis requires low temperature
(2 to 2.50C lower than normal internal body temperature)
 Each testis has about 250 compartments called testicular lobules
 Each lobule contains 1 to 3 seminiferous tubules (functional units of
testis)
 Seminiferous tubules contain germinal epithelium, which contains
male germ cells/ spermatogonia and Sertoli cells (nurse cells).
 The space between the seminiferous tubules is called interstitial
space
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 Interstitial spaces contain Leydig cells (Interstitial cells) &
immunologically competent cells
 Leydig cells produce androgens (Testosterone is the major
androgen).
 Immunologically competent cells include macrophages, mast cells
and T-lymphocytes etc.
2. Male sex accessory ducts- It includes rete testis, vasa efferentia,
epididymis, vas deferens etc.
 The correct sequence of sperm movement in the male reproductive
tract is seminiferous tubule  rete testis  vasa
efferentia  epididymis  ejaculatory duct  urethra  penis.
 Epididymis locates along the posterior surface of each testis. The
function of the epididymis is maturation, motility and storage of
sperms.
 The distal end of vas deferens receives a duct from the seminal vesicle
to form ejaculatory duct, and it opens into the urethra
 In male urethra acts as urinogenital duct. The urethra originates from
the urinary bladder and extends through the penis and its external
opening is called urethral meatus.
3. Male sex accessory glands:-It includes a pair of seminal vesicles,
prostate gland(unpaired) and a pair of bulbourethral glands(Cowper’s
glands).
 The secretions of accessory sex glands constitute seminal plasma,
which is rich in fructose, calcium and certain enzymes
 Semen = sperms (about 10%) + seminal plasma ( about 90%)
 Seminal vesicles contribute about 60 to 70% of seminal plasma, while
prostate gland contributes about 20 to 30% of seminal plasma
 Secretion of bulbourethral glands lubricates penis.
4. Male external genitalia/Penis/male copulatory organ- It is made
up of special erectile tissue that helps in erection of the penis to
facilitate insemination
 The enlarged end of penis is called glans penis and is covered by a
loose fold of skin called foreskin (prepuce)
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Female Reproductive system:- It includes a pair of ovaries (primary

sex organ), a pair of oviducts (fallopian tubes), uterus (womb), cervix,
vagina/female copulatory organ, female external genitalia/vulva and
a pair of mammary glands.
1. Pair of ovaries:-L-2 - 4cm—Located inside the lower abdomen and
are attached to pelvic wall and uterus by ligaments.
 Each ovary is covered by a thin epithelium which encloses the
ovarian stroma.
 Stroma shows two zones—a peripheral cortex and an inner medulla
2. Female sex accessory ducts:- It includes a pair of fallopian tubes/
oviducts, uterus and vagina.
 Each fallopian tube is about 10 to 12 cm long and the part closer to
ovary is infundibulum. It possesses finger like projections called
fimbriae, used for the collection of ovum after ovulation.
 The wider portion of fallopian tube is called ampulla, and the last part
of it is called isthumus. Isthumus shows a narrow lumen.
 Fertilization takes place in the ampullary region of fallopian tube.
3. Uterus (Womb):-
 The uterus is single and opens into vagina through cervix
 The cavity of cervix is called cervical canal and along with vagina
forms the birth canal.
 The wall of uterus has three layers.
 Perimetrium (thin outer layer)
 Myometrium (middle thick layer made up of smooth muscles which
undergoes strong contraction during parturition).
 Endometrium (innermost glandular layer which undergoes cyclic
changes during menstrual cycles).
4. Female external genitalia /vulva :-It includes mons pubis, labia
majora, labia minora, hymen and clitoris.
 Mons pubis:-A cushion of fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair
 Labia majora:-Mons pubis extends downwards as paired thick fleshy
folds of tissue and surrounds the vaginal opening
323
 Labia minora:-The thin fleshy paired folds of tissue seen under the
labia majora.
 Clitoris:-An erectile tiny finger like structure which lies at the upper
junction of the two labia minora above the urethral opening.
Stimulation of clitoris helps in achieving orgasm (climax of sexual
excitement).
 Hymen:-The opening of the vagina is often partially covered by a thin

membrane called hymen. Presence or absence of hymen is not a
reliable indicator of virginity or sexual experience. Hymen is often
breaks during the first intercourse, however it can, also be broken
during the insertion of vaginal tampon and participation in vigorous
activities such as horseback riding, cycling, sudden fall etc.
5. Mammary glands/breasts-(modified sweat glands:-)
 Each mammary gland contains about 15 to 20 mammary lobes and

each lobe contains a cluster of cells called alveoli, which secretes
milk.
 The correct sequence of the movement of milk in mammary gland is
Mammary alveoli  mammary tubules 

mammary duct  ampulla  lactiferous duct  nipple
 Prolactin produces milk in mammary alveoli and oxytocin ejects

the milk
Gametogenesis
 Spermatogenesis:-
 The diploid spermatogonia present in the germinal epithelium of

seminiferous tubules multiply by mitotic division.
 Some of the spermatogonia (2n) grow in size and change into primary
spermatocytes (2n).
 Each primary spermatocyte undergoes first meiotic division to form,

two equal haploid secondary spermatocytes (n)
 These secondary spermatocytes undergo the second meiotic division

to produce four equal haploid spermatids (n) (from one haploid
secondary spermatocyte, two haploid spermatids will be formed),
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Brain Pointer
 Spermiogenesis:- The spermatids are transformed into

spermatozoa by the process called spermiogenesis.
 Spermiation:-After spermiogenesis, sperm heads become

embedded in the sertoli cells, and are finally released from the
seminiferous tubules by the process called spermiation
 Spermatogenesis begins during puberty due to the significant increase

in the secretion of GnRH from hypothalamus.
 The target organ of GnRH is anterior pituitary and stimulates the

secretion of two gonadotropins – luteinising hormone (LH/ICSH) and
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH).
 LH acts on Leydig cells and produce androgens (testosterone) which

stimulate spermatogenesis.
 FSH acts on Sertoli cells and stimulate the secretion of some factors
such as ABP (Androgen Binding Protein), and Inhibin etc, which help
in spermiogenesis
 Inhibin suppresses FSH synthesis (negative feedback)
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Structure of a Spermatozoa: -
 Human sperm shows a head, short neck, a middle piece and a tail.
 A plasma membrane covers the whole body of sperm
 The sperm head contains a haploid nucleus which contains the genetic
material - DNA
 A cap like structure called acrosome, is present at the anterior end of
sperm head and it is filled with enzymes that help in fertilisation of
ovum by dissolving the egg membranes
 Middle piece contains spirally arranged mitochondria (power station)
 The sperm moves by the lashing movement of its tail
 A human male releases about 200 to 300 million of sperms during a
single ejaculation.
 For normal fertility at least 60 % of sperms must have normal shape
and size and at least 40 % of them must show vigorous motility.
 The survival of sperms depend upon their motility.
 Normal viability of sperms in female genital tract is about 48 hours
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Brain Pointer
[Ejaculation means the discharge of semen from penis, whereas

insemination means transfer of semen into the female genital tract].
Oogenesis:-
 A Human female foetus shows about two million oogonia in each ovary.
(oogonia are formed through mitotic division. (oogonium - s).
( four million oogonia are formed in both ovaries)
 No more oogonia are added or formed after birth.
 Some of these diploid oogonia start meiotic division and enter into
prophase I and suspended at that stage. (Hereafter known as primary
oocytes)
 Each primary oocyte then gets surrounded by a layer of granulosa
cells (follicular cells) and is called the primary follicle (primary
ovarian follicle)
 A large number of primary follicles degenerate during the phase from
birth to puberty. (follicular atresia)
 Therefore, at puberty only about 60,000-80,000 primary follicles
are left in each ovary. (about 1.2 lakhs to 1.4 lakhs in both ovaries)
327
 During puberty, by the action of gonadotropins, the primary follicles
get surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells and a theca layer
there after known as secondary follicles.
 The secondary follicle changes into tertiary follicle by adding more
granulosa cells and it shows a fluid filled cavity called antrum.
(antrum first appears in tertiary follicle).
 Tertiary follicle shows an outer theca externa and an inner theca interna.
Theca interna produces oestrogen.
 Meiosis - I will be completed in tertiary follicle and it is an unequal
division which results in the formation of a large haploid secondary
oocyte and a small haploid first polar body.
 The secondary oocyte retains the bulk of the cytoplasm whereas the
first polar body gets only very negligible amount of cytoplasm.
 The tertiary follicle grows in size to form a mature follicle called
Graafian follicle.
 Zona pellucida:-The secondary oocyte secretes a new non cellular
protective membrane called zona pellucida. (It disappears only during
blastulation)
 Ovulation:- The release of an ovum, in the form of secondary oocyte
from the Graafian follicle, by the influence of LH
(LH surge) is called ovulation.
 After ovulation the ovum, which is in the secondary oocyte stage will
be received by the fimbriae and taken to the ampullary region of
fallopian tube for fertilisation
 Meiosis II will be started in the secondary oocyte soon after its
formation and it will be suspended at the metaphase II stage.
 The remaining part of meiosis II will be conducted only after the
entry of a sperm into the secondary oocyte before it loses its
viability (after ovulation the ovum which is in the secondary oocyte
stage remains viable for about 24 hours).
 When a sperm enters into a secondary oocyte, meiosis II will be
completed and as a result a haploid large ootid/female pro nucleus/
mature ovum and a small haploid second polar body will be formed.
 The ootid soon after the formation fuses with sperm and a zygote will
be formed, and embryonic development will be started.
 The second polar body perishes.
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Brain Pointer
[From one primary oocyte only one mature ovum (ootid) will be
formed, whereas from one primary spermatocyte four sperms
will be formed].
Menstrual Cycle/female monthly sexual cycle (mensum = month)
 The reproductive cyclic changes that occur in female primates

(humans, monkeys, apes etc.) is called menstrual cycle.
 In human females, menstruation is repeated at an average interval of

about 28/29 days
 Menarche - The first menstruation begins at puberty and is called

menarche.
 Menopause:- It is the termination of menstrual cycles, around the

age of 50.
 Ovulation : One ovum is released in the form of secondary oocyte

during the middle of each menstrual cycle.
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Menstrual cycle consists of following phases:-
 Menstrual phase/bleeding phase:- [Lasts for about 3 to 5 days]
 If the released ovum is not fertilised, it results in the breakdown of the
endometrial lining of the uterus and its blood vessels causing bleeding
(menses/ menstruation / menstrual flow).
 The menstrual fluid comes out through the vagina.
 Menstrual fluid does not clot due to the presence of plasmin - an
anticoagulant.
 The reason for the rupture of endometrial lining is due to rapid
decline in progesterone level
 The reason for the decline in the level of progesterone is degeneration
of corpus luteum
 In the absence of fertilization the corpus luteum degenerates due to
the decline in the level of LH
 During the menstrual phase estrogen & progesterone level is
very low (ovarian hormones)
 A human female can postpone her menstruation by increasing the
level of progesterone and estrogen
[Lack of menstruation may be indicative of pregnancy. However, it
may be due to some other causes like stress, poor health etc.]
 Follicular phase/Proliferative phase/pre ovulatory phase-
[lasts for about 8 to 10 days]
 Ovarian follicles grow by the stimulation of FSH
 The growing ovarian follicle secretes estrogen and stimulate the
proliferation of endometrium
 Ovulatory phase
 In a 28 days of long menstrual cycle, ovulation may occurs on the
14th day
 However ovulation may occurs two days earlier or two days later
 Both LH and FSH attain the peak level in the middle of cycle
(about 14th day).
 LH surge causes ovulation.
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Brain Pointer
 Luteal phase/secretory phase/progestational phase/post

ovulatory phae:-
 Average duration is about 10 to 13 days.
 During this phase the ruptured Graafian follicle transforms into an
yellow coloured corpus luteum (a temporary endocrine gland)
which secretes mainly progesterone and also estrogen
 Progesterone is essential for the maintenance of the endometrium
(pregnancy hormone).
[Prior to Ovulation——-the level of progesterone is very low but
estrogen level is high.
After ovulation——progesterone level is high, but the level of
estrogen declines in the initial days and after that, it again increases]
 Corpus luteum will be formed only after ovulation.
 If fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum will be retained till the
termination of pregnancy, however after the formation placenta,
the size of corpus luteum and its activities etc will be diminished.
 In the absence of fertilisation, the corpus leuteum degenerates and
menstruation occurs
Structure of ovum (secondary oocyte stage):-
331
Egg membranes: • Plasma membrane • Zona pellucida
• Corona radiata
 Periviteline space is the space seen between plasma membrane
and zona pellucida.
Fertilization:-
 During copulation (coitus) semen is transferred into the vagina from
penis.
 The motile sperms swim rapidly towards the ampullary region of
fallopian tube.
 The correct sequence of the sperm movement in the female genital
tract is
Vagina  cervix  uterus  isthmus of fallopian tube  ampullary
region of fallopian tube (site of fertilization)
 During fertilisation, a sperm comes in contact with the zona pellucida
layer of the ovum and induces changes in the membrane that block
the entry of additional sperms. Thus polyspermy will be prevented.
 The secretions of the acrosome help the sperm to enter into the
cytoplasm of the ovum through the zona pellucida and the plasma
membrane
 The entry of a sperm into the secondary oocyte induces the completion
of meiosis II and it results in the formation of a large haploid mature
ovum called ootid/female pro nucleus and a small haploid second
polar body.
Determination of sex of the baby:-
 The chromosome pattern in the human female is XX and that in the
male is XY
 Therefore female is homogametic and male is heterogametic.
 So sex of the baby is determined by the male and not by the female
Cleavage:-
 The division of zygote is called cleavge and the resulting cells are
called blastomeres
 The cleavage starts while the zygote is inside the fallopian tube
 Morula:-The embryo with 8 to 16 blastomeres is a solid sphere called
morula
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Brain Pointer
 Blastula:-The morula continues to divide as it moves further into the

uterus and the blastomeres are arranged into an outer layer called
trophoblast (trophoectoderm) leaving a central cavity called
blastocoel and an inner group of cells attached to trophoblast called
the inner cell mass.
 The mammalian blastula is called blastocyst (formation of blastula
is called blastulation)
 The trophoblast helps in the attachment of blastocyst to the uterine
wall (implantation) and it helps in drawing nourishment. It also
produces hormone hCG. (hCG stimulates the production of estrogen
and progesterone from corpus luteum)
 hCG is produced only during pregnancy, so its presence can be used
for the detection of pregnancy.
Inner cell mass:
 The cells of inner cell mass gets differentiated to form the embryo
(formation of primary germ layers - Ectoderm, Mesoderm, Endoderm
and formation of different organs)
Stem cell:-
 The inner cell mass contains certain cells which have the potency to
give rise to all the tissues and organs called stem cell
 Ectopic pregnancy :- Implantation in any place, other than the uterus
is called ectopic pregnancy.
Placenta:-
 The finger like projection seen on the trophoblast are called chorionic
villi.
 The chorionic villi and uterine tissue become interdigitated with each
other and jointly form a structural and functional unit between
developing embryo (foetus) and maternal body is called placenta.
 The average time taken for the formation of placenta is about 12 to
16 weeks.
 Placenta is the mechanical & physiological connection between
mother & foetus.
Function of placenta:-
 The placenta connects foetus to the mother whereas umbilical cord
connects foetus to the placenta.
333
 The placenta facilitates the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the
embryo and also the removal of carbon dioxide and excretory/waste
materials produced by the embryo .
 Placenta also acts as an endocrine tissue because it produces
many hormones to maintain pregnancy.
• Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) 2. Human Placental
Lactogen (hPL) – target organ is mammary glands 3.Estrogen
4.Progesterone
 Besides in the later phase of pregnancy, ovary(corpus luteum)
secretes a hormone called relaxin. Placenta also produces relaxin
 During pregnancy corpus luteum decreases its size and activities
after the formation of placenta. However, corpus luteum will be
retained till parturition.
 Hormones produced only during pregnancy are - hCG, hPL & relaxin
 The levels of estrogens, progestogens, cortisol, prolactin, thyroxin,
etc., are increased in the maternal blood for supporting the foetal
growth, metabolic changes in the mother and maintenance of
pregnancy.
The major features of embryonic development at various months
of pregnancy.
 After one month of pregnancy, the heart is formed.
 By the end of the second month of pregnancy, the foetus develops
limbs and digits.
 By the end of 12 weeks (first trimester – first three months), most of
the major organ systems are formed, the limbs and external genital
organs are well-developed.
 The first movements of the foetus and appearance of hair on
the head are usually observed during the fifth month.
 By the end of about 24 weeks (end of second trimester), the body is
covered with fine hair, eye-lids separate, and eyelashes are formed.
 The average duration of human pregnancy is about 9 months
(gestation period)
 By the end of nine months of pregnancy, the foetus is fully developed
and is ready for delivery.
Parturition/Child birth/Delivery:-
 The process of childbirth is called parturition which is induced by a
complex neuroendocrine mechanism involving cortisol, estrogens
and oxytocin.
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Brain Pointer
 The signals for parturition originate from the fully developed foetus
and the placenta which induce mild uterine contractions called foetal
ejection reflex.
 This triggers release of oxytocin (birth hormone) from the maternal
posterior pituitary.
 Oxytocin acts on the uterine smooth muscles and causes stronger
contractions, which in turn stimulates further secretion of oxytocin.
Simultaneously relaxin hormone relaxes the ligaments in the pelvis,
softens and widens the cervix, and helps the expulsion of foetus
through birth canal.
 In order to enhance child birth, synthetic form of oxytocin (Pitocin)
can be administered.
 Parturition is followed by the expulsion of placenta and the remains
of umbilical cord is called after birth
Lactation:-
 The mammary glands of the female undergo differentiation during
pregnancy under the influence of hormones.
 Mammary glands starts producing milk towards the end of pregnancy
by the process called lactation with the help of prolactin.
 The ejection of milk is induced by oxytocin, helps the mother in feeding
the new-born.
Colostrum:-
 The milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called
colostrum (slightly yellow in colour) which contains antibody such as
IgA & rich in nutrients. It provides natural passive immunity to the
infant.
 Lactational amenorrhoea:-Menstrual cycle does not occur during the
period of intense lactation following parturition. Prolactin suppresses
gonadotropin secretion.
Identical twins /monozygotic twins:- develop from a single zygote by
the separation of two blastomeres after the first cleavage.
 The offsprings are either two males or two females.
Non-identical twins/dizygotic twins/fraternal twins:-The twins, born from
two different zygotes are called non-identical twins.
 The offsprings are either one male and one female, or two males/
two females
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CHAPTER - 02
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
 According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), reproductive

health means a total well-being in all aspects of reproduction, such
as physical, emotional, behavioural and social aspects.
Reproductive Health – Problems & Strategies:-
 India was the first country to initiate action plans and programmes at
a national level to attain total reproductive health as a social goal.
 India started this programmes in 1951, under the name
‘family planning’.
 Currently these programmes are called ‘Reproductive and Child
Health Care (RCH) programmes’.
The major tasks of these programmes are
 Creating awareness among people about various reproduction re-
lated aspects.
 Providing facilities and support for building up a reproductively healthy
society
 Introduction of sex education in schools should be encouraged to
give right information and to avoid myths and misconcepts about sex-
related aspects.
 In order to makeup socially conscious healthy family of desired size,
we must educate fertile couples and those in marriageable age
group about
(i)available birth control options. (ii) care of pregnant mothers.
(iii) post-natal care of the mother & child. (iv) importance of
breast feeding. (v) equal opportunities for the male and the female
child.
Aminocentesis:-
 Amniocentesis is a pre natal technique to detect chromosomal ab-
normalities of foetus
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Brain Pointer
 The skin cells (somatic cells) of the foetus present in amniotic fluid
is tested in amniocentesis
 Through amniocentesis the sex of the foetus is also can be deter-
mined.
 The presence of Barr body in somatic cells is an indication of female
foetus.
 (Barr body is an inactive X chromosome present in the somatic cell
of human female)
 In India, there is a statutory ban on amniocentesis for sex-determina-
tion to legally check increasing female foeticides.
 Amniocentesis is safe, between 14 – 16 weeks of pregnancy.
Population stabilization:-
 Increased health facilities, better living conditions are the cause
of the growth of population.
 The world population was around 2 billion (2000 million) in 1900,
6 billion by 2000 and 7.2 billion in 2011
 Population in India
• 350 million at the time of our independence (1947)
• One billion in 2000 and 1.2 billion in May 2011.
 The probable reasons for population explosion in India are
 Decline in death rate(mortality)
 Decline in maternal mortality rate (MMR)
 Decline in infant mortality rate (IMR)
 Increase in number of people in reproducible age.
 According to the 2011 census report, the population growth rate was
less than 2 per cent, [20/1000/year].
Birth control:-
 Motivate smaller families by using various contraceptive methods,
and give incentives to couples with small families
 In India the legal minimum age at the time of marriage is 18 for fe-
males and 21 for males.
337
Characteristics of Ideal contraceptives:- They must be
• User-friendly • Easily available • Effective
• Reversible • No or least side-effects.
• Noway interfere with the sexual drive, desire and/or the sexual act
of the user.
Contraceptive methods
A. Natural/Traditional methods (mechanism of action -avoiding
chances of ovum and sperms meeting).
 Periodic abstinence:-
 Couples avoid or abstain from coitus from day 10 to 17(fertile pe-
riod) of the menstrual cycle when ovulation could be expected [chance
of fertilization is very high in fertile period]
 Withdrawal method/coitus interruptus:-
 Male partner withdraws his penis from the vagina just before ejacula-
tion so as to avoid insemination.
 Lactational amenorrhea – (amenorrhea means absence of men-
struation)
 No menstrual cycle occurs during the period of intense lactation, fol-
lowing parturition. ( Excess presence of prolactin inhibits gonadotro-
pin release)
 So as long as the mother breast-feeds the child fully, chances of
conception are almost nil.
 Lactational amenorrhea is effective only up to a maximum period of
six months following parturition.
B. Barrier methods:-prevent physical meeting of the sperm and ovum
with the help of barriers.
 These methods are available for both males and females.
 Condoms:- Are made of thin rubber/latex sheath that are used to
cover the penis in the male or vagina and cervix in the female, just
before coitus so that the ejaculated semen would not enter into the
female reproductive tract.
 Female condom is called Femidom
 Condoms give privacy to the user because both male and female
condoms are disposable & can be self-inserted.
338
Brain Pointer
 It protects the user from AIDS & other STIs to a certain extent.
 Other barriers only for females are
 Diaphragms, Cervical caps, Vaults
 Made of rubber that are inserted into the female reproductive tract to
cover the cervix during coitus.
 Prevents conception by blocking the entry of sperms through the
cervix.
 They are reusable.
 Spermicidal creams, jellies and foams are usually used along with
these barriers to increase their contraceptive efficiency.
C. Intra-Uterine Devices (IUD) /Intra-Uterine Contraceptive Device
[IUCD]:-
 Most widely accepted contraceptive methods in India.
 These devices cannot be self inserted. So the service of doctors/
expert nurses is required. (It is not user-friendly)
 IUDs are ideal contraceptives for the females who want to delay preg-
nancy and/or space children.
 Major IUDs are
1. Non-medicated IUDs. Eg:- Lippes loop
2. Copper-releasing IUDs. Eg:- Cu T. Cu 7, Multiload 375
3. Hormone-releasing IUDs. Eg:-Progestasert, LNG 20
Principle of working:-
 IUDs increase phagocytosis of sperms within the uterus
 Cu ions released suppress sperm motility and the fertilising capacity
of sperms
 The hormone releasing IUDs, in addition make the uterus unsuitable
for implantation and the cervix hostile to the sperms
D. Oral contraceptives (pills)
 Oral contraceptives are hormonal preparations in the form of pills
 Pills contain progestogens or progestogen–estrogen
combinations[steroid pills]
339
 Pills have to be taken daily for a period of 21 days starting within the
first five days of menstruation.
 Pills inhibit ovulation and implantation, by inhibiting the release of
FSH & LH
 It alters the quality of cervical mucus to prevent / retard the entry of
sperms
 Saheli – is a non-steroidal oral contraceptive pills for females.
 It is a ‘once a week’ pill with very few side effects and high contra-
ceptive value.
 Saheli blocks the estrogen receptors present on endometrium and
prevents the proliferation of endometrium, and thus implantation will
be prevented
 Saheli developed in CDRI-Central Drug Research Institute Lucknow
E. Injections or Implants:-
 Progestogens alone or in combination with estrogen used as injec-
tions or implants under the skin of females.
 Mode of action is similar to that of pills but its effective period is much
longer.
F. Emergency contraceptives
 Administration of progestogens or progestogen-estrogen combina-
tions or IUDs within 72 hours of coitus, rape or casual unprotected
intercourse, have been found to be effective as emergency contra-
ceptive. (It prevents implantation)
G. Surgical method/Terminal method/Sterilization method
 This method is used to prevent any more pregnancies.
 Its main demerit is reversibility is very poor.
Mode of action:-
 Blocks gamete transport and prevents conception
Vasectomy:-
 Sterilisation procedure in male is called vasectomy.
 In vasectomy, a small part of the vas deferens is removed or tied up
through a small incision on the scrotum (vasa deferentia-pl.)
 After vasectomy semen shows no sperm.(even after vasectomy
sperm production continues and stored in epididymis)
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Brain Pointer
Tubectomy:-
 Sterilisation procedure in female is called tubectomy
 In tubectomy a small part of the fallopian tube is removed or tied up
through a small incision in the abdomen or through vagina.
 The widespread use of contraceptive methods have a significant role
in checking uncontrolled growth of population
 The wide spread use of contraceptives may create ill-effects like nau-
sea, abdominal pain, breakthrough bleeding, irregular menstrual bleed-
ing or even breast cancer, though not very significant, should not be
totally ignored.
Medical Termination of Pregnancy [MTP]:-
 Intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term is
called MTP / induced abortion.
 Government of India legalised MTP in 1971 with some strict condi-
tions to avoid its misuse to prevent indiscriminate and illegal female
foeticides.
MTPs are relatively safe during the first trimester (period of first 3
months / 12 weeks of pregnancy).[The MTP - Amendment Act 2017
was enacted by the government of India to prevent illegal abor-
tion consequent maternal mortality and morbidity.]
 According to this Act, a pregnancy may be terminated on certain con-
sidered grounds within the first 12 weeks of pregnancy on the opin-
ion of one registered medical practitioner.
 If the pregnancy has lasted more than 12 weeks (fewer than 24
weeks), MTP shall be done by the advice of two registered medical
practitioners.
 The legal grounds for the termination of pregnancies are:
1) The continuation of the pregnancy would involve a risk to the life of
the pregnant woman or of grave injury physical or mental health.
2) There is a substantial risk that of the child were born, it would suffer
from such physical or mental abnormalities as to be seriously handi-
capped
Sexually Transmitted Infections [STIs] / Venereal Diseases [VD]
/ Reproductive Tract Infections [RTI]:-
 Infections or diseases which are transmitted through sexual inter-
course.
341
(STIs) Ca usa tive a ge nt
1.Syphilis - Cura ble Treponema pallidum bacteria
2.Gonorrhoea - Cura ble Neisseria gonorrhoeae acteria
3.Chlamydiasis - Cura ble Chlamydia trachomatis bacteria
4.Genital warts - Cura ble Human papilloma virus
5.Genital Herpes - Non-cura ble Herpes simplex virus
6.AIDS - Non-cura ble HIV (Human Immuno Deficiency Virus
7.Hepatitis – B - Non-cura ble Hepatitis virus (HBV)
8.Trichomoniasis - Cura ble Trichomonas vaginalis ( protozoa n)
 Hepatitis–B and HIV are transmitted through sexual intercourse, by

sharing of injection needles, surgical instruments, etc. with infected
persons, transfusion of blood, or from an infected mother to the foetus.
Early symptoms of most of the STIs are
 Itching, fluid discharge, slight pain, swellings, in the genital region.
 In the later stage it may leads to pelvic inflammatory diseases (PID),
abortions, still births, ectopic pregnancy (implantation outside
uterus) infertility or even cancer of the reproductive tract (RT)
 The STIs are reported to be high among the individuals of age group
of 15 – 24 years
Prevention:-
 Avoid sex with unknown partners / multiple partners
 Always use condoms during coitus.
 In case of doubt, consult with qualified doctor for early detection
 Get complete treatment if diagnosed with infection
Infertility:-
 Inability to conceive or produce children even after 2 years of unpro-
tected sexual co-habitation is called infertility.
 The reasons for infertility may be physical, congenital disorders, drugs,
immunological and psychological.
342
Brain Pointer
 If the infertility treatment can’t correct the problems of infertility, spe-

cial techniques are used to help the couple to produce children are
known as Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART).
Various ARTs are
A) In Vitro Fertilisation (IVF):-
 In this method, ova from the wife / donor female and sperms from the
husband / donor male are collected and are induced to form zygote
under simulated conditions in the laboratory and followed by embryo
transfer. This method is popularly known as test tube baby
programme
 Fertilization occurs outside the body but development occurs inside
the uterus
 After the in vitro fertilization the zygote or early embryos is then trans-
ferred into the fallopian tube or into the uterus for further development
is called Embryo Transfer (ET).
 Embryo transfer may be of two types 1. ZIFT(Zygote Intra Fallo-
pian Transfer) 2. IUT (Intra Uterine Transfer):-
 ZIFT:-The zygote or early embryos, upto 8 blastomeres is trans-
ferred into the fallopian tube for its further development is called
ZIFT
 IUT:-Embryos with more than 8 blastomeres (Morula stage) is
transferred into the uterus to complete its further development is
called IUT
B) Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer (GIFT):-
 Transfer of an ovum collected from a donor into the fallopian tube of
another female who cannot produce ova. Here fertilization oc-
curs inside the body (in-vivo fertilization)
C) Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI):-
 The sperm is directly injected into the ovum, to form an embryo in lab
(in vitro fertilization).
 After IVF either ZIFT / ET technique is followed.
D) Artificial Insemination (AI):-
 This method is used in case where infertility is due to inability of the
male partner to inseminate the female or due to very low sperm
counts in the ejaculates
 In this technique, the semen collected either from the husband or a
healthy donor is artificially introduced either into the vagina or into the
uterus (IUI – intra-uterine insemination) of the female.
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CHAPTER - 03
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
 Domesticated animals especially farm animals kept for use or profit

are collectively called livestock.
 Animal husbandry is the agricultural practice of breeding and raising

livestock.
 Animal husbandry deals with the breeding and raising of livestock

like buffaloes, cows, pigs, horses, cattle, sheep, camels, goats, etc.
 It includes poultry farming and fisheries too.
 Fisheries include rearing, catching, selling, etc., of fish, molluscs

(shell-fish) and crustaceans (prawns, crabs, etc.).
Dairy farm management -
 Dairying is the management of animals for milk and its products for
human consumption.
 Milk yield is primarily dependent on the quality of breeds in the farm.
 White revolution is concerned with milk production
Strategies
 Selection of disease free/resistant good breeds suitable for the

climatic conditions of the area is very important.
 Scientific feeding of cattle, which maintains quality and quantity of

fodder is essential
 Strict cleanliness and hygiene are important while milking, storage

and transport of the milk and its products
 Regular visits by a veterinary doctor would be mandatory.
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Brain Pointer
Poultry farm management

 Poultry includes chicken, ducks, turkey and geese.
 Poultry is the class of domesticated fowl (birds) used for food or for
their eggs.
 The word poultry is often used to refer to the meat.
 Silver revolution is to increase egg production.

Strategies
 Selection of disease free and suitable breeds
 Proper and safe farm conditions.
 Proper feed and water.
 Hygiene and health care
 Bird flu/avian flu/H5N1 is a highly pathogenic viral disease of poultry.
Animal breeding
 Animal breeding aims at increasing the yield of animals and improving

the desirable qualities of the products.
 Breed:- It is a group of animals related by descent and similar in
most characters like general appearance, features, size, configuration,
etc
Inbreeding:-Breeding between animals of the same breed or mating

of more closely related individuals within the same breed for 4-6
generations, is called inbreeding.
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Strategies:-
 Superior males and superior females of the same breed are identified
and mated in pairs
 The progeny obtained from such matings are evaluated and superior
males and females among them are identified for further mating.
Superior female cow/buffalo - means that produces more milk per
lactation.
Superior male is the bull that gives rise to superior progeny
 Inbreeding increases homozygosity
 Inbreeding is necessary to create pure line in animals
 Inbreeding exposes harmful recessive genes that are eliminated by

selection.
 Inbreeding helps in the accumulation of superior genes and elimination
of less desirable genes.
 Continued inbreeding/close inbreeding, reduces fertility and
productivity. This is called inbreeding depression
 Selected animals of the breeding population should be mated with
unrelated superior animals of the same breed can help to restore
fertility and yield.
Out breeding:-
 Out-breeding is the breeding of the unrelated animals, which may be
between individuals of the same breed but having no common
ancestors for 4-6 generations (out-crossing) or between different
breeds (cross-breeding) or different species (inter-specific
hybridisation).
 Out crossing:-Mating of animals within the same breed but having
no common ancestors on either side of their pedigree up to 4-6
generations. The offspring is known as an out-cross.
 A single outcross often helps to overcome inbreeding
depression.
 Cross breeding:- In this method, superior males of one breed are
mated with superior females of another breed.
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Brain Pointer
 It allows the desirable qualities of two different breeds to be combined

(hybrid).
 The superiority of the hybrid over either of its parents in or more traits,
is called hybrid vigour/heterosis.
Eg:- Hisardale (new breed sheep developed in Punjab by crossing
between Bikaneri ewe(female sheep) and Marino ram (male sheep]
 Hisardale produces high quality wool
 Inter specific hybridization:- In this method, male and female
animals of two different related species are mated
 In some cases the progeny may combine desirable features of both
the parents, and may be of considerable economic value.
Eg:- Mule is obtained by mating between male donkey/Jack and
female horse/mare
But the hybrid Hinny, obtained by mating between male horse and
female donkey, shows poor hybrid vigour
Controlled breeding experiments:- Carried out by artificial insemination
 The semen is collected from the male and injected into the
reproductive tract of the selected female by the breeder.
 The semen may be used immediately or can be frozen (in liquid
nitrogen at -1960C) and used at a later date. It can also be transported
in a frozen form to where the female is housed.
Multiple Ovulation Embryo Transfer Technology (MOET)
 This method is used for herd improvement
 This technology has been demonstrated for cattle, sheep, rabbits,
buffaloes, mares, etc.
 High milk-yielding breeds of females and high quality (lean meat with
less lipid) meat-yielding bulls have been bred successfully to increase
herd size in a short time.
MOET - procedure in cattle
 Give gonadotropin injection such as FSH to selected cow (genetic
mother)
 It induces follicle maturation and super ovulation.
 As a result 6 – 8 eggs may be produced per cycle, instead of one
 The selected cow is mated with an elite/superior bull or artificially
inseminated.
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 The fertilized eggs at 8 – 32 cells stages are recovered non surgically
and are transferred to surrogate mothers. A surrogate mother is a
future mother with embryo implanted from another.
 The genetic mother is available for another round of super ovulation.
 MOET can be used in cattles sheeps, rabbits, buffaloes, mares etc.
Bee – keeping/Apiculture: - is the maintenance of hives of honeybees
for the production of honey.
 Honey is a food of high nutritive value and also used as medicine.
 Honey bee also produces bee wax (the real product of honey bee),
which is used in many industries, such as in the preparation of
cosmetics and polishes of various kinds.
 Bee-keeping can be practiced in any area where there are sufficient
bee pastures of some wild shrubs, fruit orchards and cultivated crops.
 Apis indica is the most common Indian species
 Important steps in successful bee keeping.
1.Knowledge of the nature and habits of bees, 2.Selection of suitable
location for keeping the beehives 3. Catching and hiving of swarms
(group of bees) 4. Management of beehives during different seasons.
5. Handling and collection of honey and of beeswax. 6. Keeping
beehives in crop fields during flowering period increases pollination
efficiency and improves the yield.
 Bees are the pollinators of sunflower, Brassica, apple and pear.
Fisheries:- It deals with the catching, processing or selling of fish, shellfish
or other aquatic animals.
Common fresh water fishes:- Catla, Rohu, Common carp etc.
Common marine fishes:- Hilsa, Sardines, Mackerel and Pomfrets
Pisciculture:-It is a process of growing fish/selling/using its products for
domestic/commercial use.
 Fish can be grown in sea water or fresh water or estuary . An estruary
is where river meets the sea. Here salt water mixes with fresh water.
 Blue revolution is for increasing fish production.
Aquaculture:-It is the process of growing/selling of aquatic plants/animals
for commercial purposes.
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CHAPTER - 04
PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATION
Genetics
• Genetics deals with the inheritance, as well as the variation of
characters from parents to offspring.
• Inheritance is the process by which characters are passed on from
parent to progeny; it is the basis of heredity.
• Variation is the degree by which progeny differ from their parents.
• Humans knew from as early as 8000-1000 B.C that one of the causes
of variation was hidden in sexual reproduction.
• It was during the mid-nineteeth century that headway was made in
the understanding of inheritance.
• Gregor Mendel, conducted hybridisation experiments on garden peas
(Pisum sativum) for seven years (1856-1863) and proposed the laws
of inheritance in living organisms.
• During Mendel’s investigations into inheritance patterns it was for the
first time that statistical analysis and mathematical logic were applied
to problems in biology.
• His experiments had a large sampling size, which gave greater
credibility to the data that he collected.
• The conformation of his inferences from experiments on successive
generations of his test plants, proved that his results pointed to general
rules of inheritance rather than being unsubstantiated ideas.
• Mendel investigated characters in the garden pea plant that were
manifested as two opposing traits eg., tall or dwarf plants, yellow or
green seeds. This allowed him to set up a basic framework of rules
governing inheritance, which was expanded on by later scientists to
account for all the diverse natural observations and the complexity
inherent in them.
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• Mendel conducted such artificial pollination/cross pollination
experiments using several true-breeding pea lines.
• A true breeding line is one that, having undergone continuous self-

pollination, shows the stable trait inheritance and expression for
several generations.
• Mendel selected 14 true-breeding pea plant varieties, as pairs which

were similar except for one character with contrasting traits.
Contrasting Traits Studied by Mendel in Pea
• He crossed tall and dwarf pea plants to study the inheritance of one
gene [Refer. page 71 : Fig 5.2 NCERT]
• He collected the seeds produced as a result of this cross and grew

them to generate plants of the first hybrid generation. This generation
is also called the Filial 1 or first filial progeny or the F1.
• Mendel observed that all the F1 progeny plants were tall, like one of its
parents; none were dwarf. [Refer. page 72 : Fig 5.3 NCERT]
• He made similar observations for the other pairs of traits - he found

that the F1 always resembled either one of the parents, and that the
trait of the other parent was not seen in them.
• Mendel then self-pollinated the tall F1 plants and to his surprise found
that in the Filial 2 or Second filial generation some of the offspring
were dwarf. The character that was not seen in the F1 generation was
now expressed. [Refer. page 73 : Fig 5.4 NCERT]
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Brain Pointer
• Based on these observations, Mendel proposed that something was

being stably passed down, unchanged, from parent to offspring through
the gametes, over successive generations. He called these things as
‘factors’. Now we call them as genes.
• Genes, are the units of inheritance. They contain the information that
is required to express a particular trait in an organism.
• Genes which code for a pair of contrasting traits are known as alleles.
• Alleles are slightly different (or alternate) forms of the same gene.
• If we use alphabetical symbols for each gene, then the capital letter is
used for the trait expressed at the F1 (dominant) stage and the small
alphabet for the other trait (recessive).
• Allelic pair of genes for height are identical or homozygous, TT and tt,
respectively. TT and tt are called the genotype of the plant while the
descriptive terms tall and dwarf are the phenotype.
• NCERT Question (page 72) : What then would be the phenotype of a

plant that had a genotype Tt? Ans - Tall.
• As Mendel found the phenotype of the F1 heterozygote Tt to be exactly

like the TT parent in appearance, he proposed that in a pair of dissimilar
factors, one dominates the other (as in the F1 ) and hence is called
the dominant factor while the other factor is recessive .
• Alleles can be similar as in the case of homozygotes TT and tt or can

be dissimilar as in the case of the heterozygote Tt.
• The Tt plant is heterozygous for genes controlling one character

(height), it is a monohybrid and the cross between TT and tt is a
monohybrid cross.
• Recessive parental trait is expressed without any blending in the F2

generation.
• When the tall and dwarf plant produce gametes, by the process of
meiosis, the alleles of the parental pair separate or segregate from
each other and only one allele is transmitted to a gamete and F1 hybrids
have Tt (heterozygous).
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• The F1 and F2 plants can be understood from a diagram called
Punnett Square.
• It was developed by a British geneticist, Reginald C. Punnett. It is a

graphical representation to calculate the probability of all possible
genotypes of offspring in a genetic cross.
• Due to the dominance of one character over the other that all the F1
are tall (though the genotype is Tt) and in the F2 3/4th of the plants are
tall (though genotypically 1/2 are Tt and only 1/4th are TT). This leads
to a phenotypic ratio of 3/4th tall : (1/4 TT + 1/2 Tt) and 1/4th tt, i.e., a
3:1 ratio, but a genotypic ratio of 1:2:1.
• The 1/4 : 1/2 : 1/4 ratio of TT: Tt: tt is mathematically condensable to

the form of the binomial expression (ax +by)2 , that has the gametes
bearing genes T or t in equal frequency of ½. The expression is
expanded as given below :
(1/2T + 1/2 t) 2 = (1/2T + 1/2t) X (1/2T + 1/2t) = 1/4 TT + 1/2Tt + 1/4 tt.
• What do you think he would have got had he self-pollinated a tall F2

plant?
ANS : In F2 generation there are two types of genotypes that show tall
trait which are Tt and TT. If he would have crossed plants with TT and
TT genotypes, he would got all tall plants but he would have crossed
plants with Tt and Tt genotype, he would got 3 tall plants and 1 dwarf
plant.
• To determine the genotype of a tall plant at F2 , Mendel crossed the tall

plant from F2 with a dwarf plant. This he called a test cross. In a typical
test cross an organism (pea plants here) showing a dominant
phenotype (and whose genotype is to be determined) is crossed with
the recessive parent instead of self-crossing. The progenies of such
a cross can easily be analysed to predict the genotype of the test
organism.
• Using Punnett square, try to find out the nature of offspring of a test
cross. What ratio did you get? Using the genotypes of this cross, can
you give a general definition for a test cross?
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Brain Pointer
[Double heterozygous [Double homozygous

F1 dihybrid] recessive parent]
Test cross Yellow Round Green Wrinkled
Genotypes YyRr yyrr
yr
Types of
Gametes YR Yr yR yr
YR Yr yR yr
Test cross YyRr Yyrr yyRr yyrr
Progeny yr Yellow Yellow Green Green
Round Wrinkled Round Wrinkled
Tall Dwarf
Tt tt
t t
T Tt Tt
Tall Tall
t tt tt
Dwarf Dwarf
Tall(Tt)- 50% dominant
Dwarf (tt) - 50% recessive
• Based on his observations on monohybrid crosses Mendel proposed

two general rules to consolidate his understanding of inheritance in
monohybrid crosses. Today these rules are called the Principles or
Laws of Inheritance: the First Law or Law of Dominance and the
Second Law or Law of Segregation.
Law of Dominance
 Characters are controlled by discrete units called factors.
 Factors occur in pairs.
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 In a dissimilar pair of factors one member of the pair dominates
(dominant) the other (recessive).
 The law of dominance is used to explain the expression of only one of
the parental characters in a monohybrid cross in the F1 and the
expression of both in the F2 .
 It also explains the proportion of 3:1 obtained at the F2 .
Law of Segregation
Alleles separate during gamete formation and once again they reunite
after random fusion of gametes.
Deviations from Mendelism
 Incomplete Dominance: When experiments on peas were repeated
using other traits in other plants, it was found that sometimes the F1
had a phenotype that did not resemble either of the two parents and
was in between the two.
• The inheritance of flower colour in the dog flower (snapdragon or
Antirrhinum sp.) is a good example to understand incomplete
dominance [Refer. page 76 : Fig 5.6 NCERT].
• What happened was that R was not completely dominant over r and
this made it possible to distinguish Rr as pink from RR (red) and rr
(white) .
Explanation of the concept of dominance:
• Assume of a gene that contains the information for producing an
enzyme (i.e., protein). Now there are two copies of this gene, the two
allelic forms. Let us further assume that the normal allele produces
the normal enzyme that is needed for the transformation of a substrate
(S).
• Theoretically, the modified allele (generally recessive allele) could be
responsible for production of -
(i) The normal/less efficient enzyme, or
(ii) A non-functional enzyme, or
(iii) No enzyme at all
• In the first case, the modified allele is equivalent to the unmodified
allele (dominant allele), i.e., it will produce the same phenotype/trait,
i.e., result in the transformation of substrate S. Such equivalent allele
pairs are very common.
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Brain Pointer
• But, if the allele produces a non-functional enzyme or no enzyme, the

phenotype may be effected. The phenotype/trait will only be dependent
on the functioning of the unmodified allele. The unmodified (functioning)
allele, which represents the original phenotype is the dominant allele
and the modified allele is generally the recessive allele.
• Hence, in the example above the recessive trait is seen due to non-
functional enzyme or because no enzyme is produced.
 Co-dominance : In the case of co-dominance the F1 generation
resembles both parents.
• In the case of co-dominance the F1 generation resembles both
parents. A good example is different types of red blood cells that
determine ABO blood grouping in human beings.
• ABO blood groups are controlled by the gene "I". e.g., AB blood group.
• But when I A and I B are present together they both express their own
types of sugars: this is because of co-dominance.
• Since there are three different alleles, there are six different
combinations of these three alleles that are possible, and therefore, a
total of six different genotypes of the human ABO blood types (refer
fig 5.2 of NCERT)
 Multiple alleles : Shows that there are more than two, i.e., three
alleles, governing the same character. Since in an individual only two
alleles can be present, in case of ABO blood grouping multiple alleles
can be found only when population studies are made.
 Pleiotropy : A single gene product may produce more than one effect
or where a gene controls more than one character/trait.
Examples of pleiotropy
A. Starch synthesis in pea seeds is controlled by one gene (influence
more than one character/trait).
• It has two alleles (B and b).
• Starch is synthesised effectively by BB homozygotes and seeds are
round (shape of the seed).
• bb homozygotes have lesser efficiency in starch synthesis and
produce smaller starch grains and seeds are wrinkled in shape.
• Bb heterozygotes produce round seeds, intermediate size in Bb seeds
(incomplete dominance)
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Note: Dominance is not an autonomous feature of a gene or the
product that it has information for.
B. Phenylketonuria in humans
 Polygenic inheritance
• When traits are generally controlled by three or more genes and are
thus called as polygenic traits. For example, skin colour in humans
etc.,
• The genotype with all the dominant alleles (AABBCC) will have the
darkest skin colour and that with all the recessive alleles (aabbcc) will
have the lightest skin colour.
• As expected the genotype with three dominant alleles and three
recessive alleles will have an intermediate skin colour.
Dihybrid cross (Inheritance of two genes)
• Mendel's third law of independent assortment (inheritance of
two genes) states that,
Inheritance of one character is always independent of inheritance of
another character.
• Can you, using the Punnett square data work out the genotypic ratio
at the F2 stage and fill in the format given? Is the genotypic ratio also
9:3:3:1? [Refer. page 79 : Fig 5.7 NCERT]
Phenotypic ratio : 9 : 3 : 3 : 1
Genotypic ratio : 1 : 2 : 1 : 2 : 4 : 2 : 1 : 2 : 1
1  RRYY,RRyy,rrYY,rryy
2  RRYy,rrYy,RyYY,Rryy
4  RrYy
Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance
 Mendel published his work on inheritance of characters in 1865. For
several reasons it remained unrecognised till 1900.
 In 1900, three scientists (de Vries, Correns and Von Tshermak)
independently rediscovered Mendels results on the inheritance of
characters.
 By 1902, the chromosome movement during meiosis had been
worked out.
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Brain Pointer
 Walter Sutton and Theodore Boveri noted that behaviour of

chromosomes was parallel to the behaviour of genes and used
chromosome movement to explain Mendel’s laws.
 Chromosome as well as genes occur in pairs. The two alleles of a
gene pair are located on homologous sites of homologous
chromosomes.
A B
Occur in pairs Occur in pairs
Segregate at the time of Segregate at gamete
gamete formation such formation and only one of
that only one of each pair each pair is transmitted to
is transmitted to a a gamete
gamete
Independent pairs One pair segregates
segregate independently independently of another
of each other pair
Column A represents Genes and column B represents chromosomes.

Figure [Refer. page 82: Fig 5.9 NCERT] it can be concluded that :
 The genetic constitution of gametes is decided in Anaphase I of meiosis.
 The genotype of gametes is finally decided in Anaphase II of meiosis.
 Sutton united the knowledge of chromosomal segregation with
Mendelian principles.
 Sutton and Boveri argued that the pairing and separation of a pair of
chromosomes would lead to the segregation of a pair of factors they
carried.
 Sutton and Boveri proposed the chromosomal theory of inheritance.
 Experimental verification of the chromosomal theory of inheritance
was done by Thomas Hunt Morgan and his colleagues. This led to
discovering the basis for the variation that sexual reproduction
produced.
 Morgan worked with Drosophila melanogaster [6 Autosomes + 2
allosomes] XX/XY
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Linkage and Recombination
 Morgan carried out several dihybrid crosses in Drosophila to study
genes that were sex-linked. These crosses were similar to the dihybrid
crosses carried out by Mendel in Peas.
 Morgan and his group identified that when the two genes in a dihybrid
cross were situated on the same chromosome, the proportion of
parental gene combinations were much higher than the non-parental
type [Refer. page 84: Fig 5.11 NCERT].
 Morgan coined the term linkage to describe the physical association
of genes on a chromosomes.
 He used the term recombination to describe the generation of non-
parental gene combinations.
 Morgan and his group found that some genes on the same
chromosome were very tightly linked (showed very low recombination)
while others were loosely linked (showed higher recombination)
 Morgan’s student Alfred Sturtevant used the frequency of recombination
between genes and mapped their position on the chromosome.
Sex Determination
 On 1891, Henking traced a specific nuclear structure all through
spermatogenesis in a few insects. He also observed that 50 percent
of the sperm received this structure after spermatogenesis, whereas
the other 50 percent sperm did not receive it.
 Henking called the structure as X-body. Later X-body was identified
as a chromosome and named it as X-chromosome.
 Due to the involvement of the X-chromosome in the determination of
sex, it was designated to be the sex chromosome, and the rest of the
chromosomes were named as autosomes.
 Grasshopper is an example of XX-XO type of sex determination.
 In a number of other insects and mammals including man, XX-XY
type of sex determination is seen where both male and female have
same number of chromosomes.
 In both XO type and XY type, male show heterogamety.
 ZZ-ZW method of sex-determination is seen in birds. Here females
show heterogamety.
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Brain Pointer
 In humans, the genetic makeup of the sperm determines the sex of

the child.
 It is evident that in each pregnancy there is always 50 percent
probability of either a male or a female child.
 The sex determination in honey bee is based on the number of sets of
chromosomes an individual receives.
 Fertilized egg develops into a female (queen or worker).
 Unfertilized egg develops as a male (drone) by means of
parthenogenesis.
 Males have half the number of chromosomes (16) than that of a female
(32).
 This is called as haplodiploid sex determination system. Males produce
sperms by mitosis.
 Male honeybees do not have father and thus cannot have sons, but
have a grandfather and can have grandsons.
MUTATION
 Mutation is a phenomenon which results in alternation of DNA
sequences and consequently results in changes in the genotype and
the phenotype of an organisms.
 In addition to recombination, mutation is another phenomenon that
leads to variation in DNA.
 Loss (deletions) or gain (insertion/duplication) of a segment of DNA,
result in alternation in chromosomes.
 Genes are located on chromosomes, so alternation in chromosomes
results in abnormalities or aberrations.
 Chromosomal aberrations are commonly observed in cancer cells.
 Mutation also arise due to change in a single base pair of DNA. This is
known as point mutation.
Eg: Sickle cell anemia.
 Deletions and insertions of base pairs of DNA, causes frame -shift
mutations.
 Point mutations and Frame-shift mutations are gene mutations.
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 In numerical aberrations, number of chromosomes get altered. In
Euploidy, there is an increase in a whole set of chromosomes in an
organism. This is known as polyploidy. This is due to failure of
cytokinesis after telophase stage of cell division.
 In Aneuploidy, gain or loss of a chromosome(s) due to the failure of

segregation of chromatids during anaphase II or non-disjunction of
homologous chromosomes during anaphase I.
 The chemical and physical factors that induce mutations are called
Mutagens
Eg: Colchicine, UV radiations etc.
Mutations
Gene mutations Chromosomal

mutations
Point mutation Frame-shift

mutation Structural Numerical
Transition aberrations aberrations
Insertion
Transversion Deletion Euploidy
Deletion
Aneuploidy
Duplication
Inversion
Translocation
Pedigree analysis
 An analysis of traits in a several of generations of a family is called the

pedigree analysis.
 In the pedigree analysis the inheritance of a particular trait is

represented in the family tree over generations.
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Brain Pointer
 Pedigree study provides a strong tool, which is utilised to trace the

inheritance of a specific trait, abnormality or disease.
 Symbols used in the human pedigree analysis.
 A number of disorders in human beings have been found to be

associated with the inheritance of changed or altered genes or
chromosomes [Refer. page 88 : Fig 5.13 NCERT].
GENETIC DISORDERS
Two types,
• Mendelian disorders
• Chromosomal disorders
Mendelian Disorders
 Mendelia disorders are mainly determined by alternation or mutation

in the single gene.
 These disorders are transmitted to the offspring on the same lines as

that in the principle of inheritance.
 The pattern of inheritance of such Mendelian disorders can be traced

in a family by the pedigree analysis.
Examples :
a) Haemophilia
Sex linked recessive disease which shows transmission from

unaffected carrier female to some of the male progeny. The possibility
of a female becoming a haemophilic is extremely rare because mother
of such a female has to be at least carrier and the father should be
haemophilic (unviable in the later stage of life).
361
b) Colourblindness
 It is a sex-linked recessive disorder due to defect in either red or green
cone of eye resulting in failure to discriminate between red and green
colour.
 It is due to mutation in certain genes present in the X-chromosome.
 It occurs in about 8% of males and only about 0.4% of females.
 The son of a woman who carries the gene has a 50% chance of
being colourblind.
 A daughter will not normally be colourblind, unless her mother is a
carrier and her father is colour blind.
c) Sickle cell anaemia
an autosome linked recessive trait in which mutant haemoglobin
molecules undergo polymerisation under low oxygen tension causing
change in shape of the RBC from biconvex disc to elongated sickle
like structure. The defect is caused by the substitution of Glutamic
acid (Glu) by Valine (Val) at the sixth position of the beta globin chain
of the haemoglobin molecule. The substitution of amino acid in the
globin protein results due to the single base substitution at the sixth
codon of the beta globin gene from GAG to GUG.
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Brain Pointer
d) Phenylketonuria
Inborn error of metabolism inherited as autosomal recessive trait. The
affected individual lacks an enzyme that converts the amino acids
phenylalanine to tyrosine. As a result of this phenylalanine is
accumulated and converted into phenylpyruvic acid and other
derivatives that results into mental retardation.
e) Thalassemia
 This is an autosome -linked recessive blood disease.
 The defect could be due to either mutation or deletion which ultimately
results in reduced rate of synthesis of one of the globin chains
(  and  chains) that make up haemoglobin.
 Thalassemia is two types :  -thalassemia and  -thalassemia.
 Thalassemia differs from sickle-cell anaemia in that the former is a

quantitative problem of synthesizing too few globin molecules while
the latter is a qualitative problem of synthesizing an incorrectly
functioning globin.
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Chromosomal Disorders
Failure of segregation of chromatids during cell division results in loss
or gain of chromosome called aneuploidy. The failure of cytokinesis
leads to two sets of chromosome called polyploidy.
 Down’s Syndrome (Trisomy of 21st pair) - is due to presence of
additional copy of the chromosome number 21. The affected individual
is short statured with small rounded head, furrowed tongue and
partially opened mouth. Mental development is retarded.
 Klinefelter’s Syndrome (Trisomy of X-chromosome) - due to
presence of an additional copy of X-chromosome (XXY). Such persons
have overall masculine development however, the feminine
development (development of breast, i.e., Gynaecomastia) is also
expressed. They are sterile.
 Turner’s Syndrome (Monosomy of X-chromosome) - caused due
to the absence of one of the X-chromosome. 45 with XO, such females
are sterile as ovaries are rudimentary. They lack secondary sexual
characters.
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Brain Pointer
CHAPTER - 05
MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE
• 1869, F. Meischer extracted the pus and treated them with alkali
studied the chemical composition of the extract.
Observation: The extract was acidic and rich in N, P etc.,
Conclusion: He named the extract as Nuclein. Thus, credit for the
discovery of DNA is given to F. Meischer.
Experiments to prove DNA is the genetic material
• 1928, F. Griffith bacterial transformation experiment. Virulent S form
injected to mice, mice died. Avirulent R form injected to mice, mice
survived, heat killed S form injected to mice, mice survived and when
a mixture of heat killed S form and R form was injected to mice, mice
died.Griffiths Conclusion: Some transforming principle of heat killed
Smooth form transformed Rough or R strain to S form.
• 1933-44 - Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty (popularly
Avery, Macleod and McCarty), using Protease, DNase and RNase
respectively. They found no transformation of R form to S form in the
test tube with DNase.
• 1952, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase conducted T2 bacteriophage
experiment or Blenders experiment. In experiment 3 (A) with radioactive
S35 labelled in protein capsule or capsid was found at the supernatant
and in experiment 3 (B) P32 labelled in DNA of T2 bacteriophage was
found at the base of the test tube inside E.coli cells. This draws two
conclusions.
1. Protein is not the genetic material of T2 bacteriophage and
2. DNA is the genetic material of T2 bacteriophage.
Structure of DNA
• 1953, James.D. Watson and Francis.H.Crick proposed the double
helical model structure of DNA (i.e., B-DNA), based on X-ray diffraction
studies of DNA by Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins.1962,
Wilkins, Watson and Crick were awarded Nobel Prize.
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• DNA is a long polymer of deoxyribonucleotides. The length of DNA is
usually defined as number of nucleotides present in it. The DNA is
double stranded, antiparallel, alpha helical, right handed,
complimentary polynucleotide chains. The two chains have anti-parallel
polarity. It means, if one chain has the polarity 5  3 , the other has
3  5 (i.e., direction)
• The sugar and phosphate forms the backbone of DNA linked by
phosphodiester bonds and the nitrogen bases are towards inside.
The phosphate gives negative charge to DNA.
• The bases in two strands are paired through hydrogen bond (H-bonds)
forming base pairs (bp). Adenine forms two hydrogen bonds with
Thymine from opposite strand and vice-versa. Similarly, Guanine is
bonded with Cytosine with three H-bonds. As a result, always a purine
comes opposite to a pyrimidine. This generates approximately uniform
distance between the two strands of the helix.
• In each helical turn about 10 base pairs (bp) are present. The space
0
of distance between two base pairs is 0.34 nm (or 3.4 A ). Thus, the
0
length of each helical turn or pitch of the helix is 3.4 nm (or 34 A ). The
plane of one base pair stacks over the other in double helix. This, in
addition to H-bonds, confers stability of the helical structure.
• The Chargaff's rule is applied only to double stranded DNA (or dsDNA)
and not applied to single stranded DNA (or ssDNA) or RNA. Chargaff's
rule 1: states that in dsDNA, amount of purine is always equal to
amount of pyrimidine or the ratio of molar concentration of purine and
pyrimidine is always equal to 1. i.e., Purine =Pyrimidine or A+G=T+C
or A + T / G + C = 1. Chargaff's rule 2: states that in dsDNA, the ratio
of molar concentration i.e., A+T/G+C = constant for species.
Packaging of DNA
•   174 bacteriophage ssDNA 5,386 nucleotides or bases . phage (or

lambda phage) dsDNA 48,402 bp, E.coli dsDNA 4.6 x 106 bp, Haploid
DNA content of human cell dsDNA 3.3 x 109 bp and Diploid DNA
content of human cell dsDNA 6.6 x 109 bp.
• Types of Histones in Nucleosome: H2A, H2B, H3 and H4 (two in
number thus octamer).
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Brain Pointer
• H1 histone is not the part of Nucleosome and H1 is present in linker or

spacer DNA. The packaging of DNA in chromatin appears to be in
"Beads on String" manner, where Beads refer to Nucleosome and
string refers to DNA. In each Nucleosome the DNA is wrapped for
3
~1 turns to about 200 bp in it.
4
• Types of proteins in chromatin - total histones with packed DNA and
non histone chromosomal proteins (NHC) together pack DNA in
chromatin.
• Euchromatin - some region of chromatin contain less number of
proteins, loosely packed, stains light and contain transcriptionally active
genes. Heterochromatin - some region of chromatin contains more
number of proteins, densely packed, stains dark and contain
transcriptionally inactive genes.
Experiments to prove semiconservative mode of DNA replication
• While proposing the double helical structure for DNA, Watson and
Crick had immediately proposed a scheme for replication of DNA.
This scheme was termed as semiconservative DNA replication.
Meselson and Stahl experiment
• Step - 1 They cultured E.coli bacterium in a medium containing heavy
isotope of nitrogen N15 in N15H4Cl (as a source of nitrogen) for several
generations. As a result N15 got incorporated into newly synthesized
DNA They extracted N15 DNA and centrifuged using CsCl density
gradient centrifugation.
• The transferred E.coli from a medium containing heavy isotope of
nitrogen N15 to a medium containing light isotope of nitrogen N14 in
N14H4Cl ( as a source of nitrogen) and extracted DNA at various definite
intervals (i.e., every 20 minutes) They extracted N14 DNA and
centrifuged using CsCl density gradient centrifugation.
• Step -3 (after 40 minutes)
• Observation: Step 2 of the experiment, the DNA with intermediate
density (N15/ N14) was found at the middle of the test tube (one band)
Conclusion: DNA replication is semiconservative.
• Very similar experiments were performed by Taylor and Wood, using
radioactive thymidine in the chromosomes of eukaryotic root
meristematic cells of Vicia faba (faba beans)
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Process of DNA replication
• In eukaryotic cells the DNA replication occurs at the synthesis of S
phase of interphase of the cell cycle and in prokaryotic cells the DNA
replication occur prior to fission. In E.coli DNA replication occurs with
the speed of 2000 base pairs per second, to complete DNA replication
in 18 minutes, when the cell divides every 20 minutes.
• Deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates or dNTP's (i.e., dATP, dGTP, dCTP
and dTTP} - serve dual purpose i.e., Act as substrate and Provide
energy and enzymes and proteins.
• Two polynucleotide strands of DNA will unwind and uncoil in presence
of DNA helicase or unwindase or unzipping enzyme, which breaks
the hydrogen bonds.
• Due to unwinding of DNA strands, tension or strain is created at the
distal ends of the DNA molecule, which is relieved by DNA Gyrase/
Topoisomerase. To prevent rewinding and recoiling, single strand
binding proteins or SSB's attach to template strands. For the initiation
of DNA synthesis, a short segment of RNA called RNA primer
synthesized by RNA primase is required. Using RNA primer, DNA
polymerase III progressively adds deoxyribonucleotides in 5  3
direction. Afterwards, DNA polymerase I degrade RNA primer and
replace it with DNA. Later, DNA ligase joins the fragments i.e., Okazaki
fragments of DNA. In the template strand of 3  5 direction occurs
a continuous synthesis of DNA called leading or continuous strand
and in the template strand of 5  3 direction occurs a discontinuous
synthesis of DNA called lagging strand and each discontinuous
fragment of the DNA is called Okazaki fragment.
RNA World
Messenger or mRNA
• Messenger or mRNA (3-5%)- Cistron: functional part of the gene
which can code for a polypeptide chain. Cistron is equivalent to
structural gene.
• Codon (genetic code) is a series of three ribonucleotide or nitrogen
base sequences on mRNA, that can code for an amino acid (on tRNA).
• Structure of mRNA - Cap region with methylguanosine triphosphate
and poly A tail is absent in prokaryotic mRNA. 5' cap with 7-
methylguanosine triphosphate or methylguanylate - present at the
5'cap of mRNA (in eukaryotes). Untranslated region efficient translation.
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Brain Pointer
Coding region - starts with initial codon AUG (which codes for N-
formylmethionine or N-fmet in prokaryotes and Methionine in
eukaryotes) followed by codon sequences that ends at stop codons
UAA or UAG or UGA 3'end. Poly A tail - About 200-300 adenine
nucleotides are present at 3'tail end to provide structural stability to
mRNA (in eukaryotes).
• Polycistronic mRNA - mostly in prokaryotes, multiple genes transcribe
to for single molecule of mRNA with multiple coding regions
In prokaryotes transcription and translation occur simultaneously in
cytoplasm.
• Eukaryotic mRNA - Monocistronic mRNA- mostly in eukaryotes, one
gene transcribes to form single molecule of mRNA (with one coding
region). In eukaryotes, transcription occur inside nucleus and
translation in cytoplasm. Note: In eukaryotes, immediately after
transcription inside nucleus, heterogeneous nuclear RNA or hnRNA
is formed. The hnRNA is converted to mRNA by RNA processing,
inside nucleus. There are three steps in RNA processing:
 Capping- addition of 7-methyl guanosine triphosphate 5' end of hnRNA
 Tailing - addition of about 200 to 300 adenine nucleotides at 3' tail
end of hnRNA
 Splicing - carried out by spliceosomes (ribozyme proteins complex)
helps to remove intron and join exons to form mRNA. Note: This mRNA
is taken from nucleus to cytoplasm for translation.
Ribosomal or rRNA
• Ribosomal or rRNA (70-80%) - rRNA is found in ribosomes i.e., 70S
or 80S
• Prokaryotic ribosome has 23 S ribozyme Peptidyl transferase at larger
subunit of ribosome (i.e., at 50S) and Eukaryotic ribosome has 28 S
ribozyme Peptidyl transferase at larger subunit of ribosome (i.e., at
60S)
Transfer or tRNA
• Transfer or tRNA (15-20%) - There are 61 types of tRNA and stop
codons do not have tRNA (and neither the stop codons code for any
amino acids nor have anticodons) . The tRNA is amino acid specific
but the amino acid is not specific to tRNA except methionine and
tryptophan. Clover leaf shape structure of tRNA (secondary structure
and biologically inactive).
369
• The tRNA, then called sRNA (soluble RNA), was known before the
genetic code was postulated.
• tRNA is a compact molecule which looks like inverted L (tertiary

structure and biologically active)
• The tRNA has anticodons (to interact with codon’s on mRNA)

Criteria for being genetic material
A molecule that can act as a genetic material must fulfil the following
criteria:
(i) It should be able to generate its replica (Replication).
(ii) It should chemically and structurally be stable.
(iii) It should provide the scope for slow changes (mutation) that are
required for evolution.
(iv) It should be able to express itself in the form of 'Mendelian
Characters'.
• Central Dogma in molecular biology (by Crick)
DNA RNA Protein
Replication
Transcription Translation
DNA mRNA Protein
Central dogma
• Reverse central Dogma in molecular biology by Temin and

Baltimore
Replication
Transcription Translation
DNA RNA Protein
Reverse
transcription
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Brain Pointer
Genetic code/Codon
• George Gamow - a physicist, using permutation combination of
43 (4 × 4 × 4) would generate 64 codons; generating many more
codons than required. ie., triplet
• Marshall Nirenberg- synthesized mRNA using poly- U sequence
etc., and used a cell-free system, amino acids, enzymes etc., for
protein synthesis and thus, obtained a polypeptide chain, which finally
helped the code to be deciphered.
• Har Gobind Khorana - He used chemical method in synthesising
RNA molecules with defined base combinations of bases and to obtain
homopolymers and copolymers.
• Severo Ochoa - He discovered the enzyme "Polynucleotide
phosphorylase" (i.e., RNA polymerase) that can be used in
polymerising RNA with defined sequences in a template independent
manner (enzymatic synthesis of RNA).
Features of genetic code:
• The genetic code or codon is a series of three ribonucleotide or nitrogen
base sequence on mRNA, to be read on 5'3' direction and written
using letters.
• There are 64 codons. Out of which 61 codons code for 20 naturally
occurring amino acids and three codons do not code for any amino
acids namely stop codons.
• The initiator codon is AUG (sometimes GUG) and stop codons are
UAA(Ochre), UGA(Amber) and UGA(Opal).
• Degeneracy - Where one amino acid can be specified by more than
one codons Note Methionine and Tryptophan do not show degeneracy
Unambiguous nature- Where particular specific codon always codes
for a particular specific amino acid only.
• The genetic code is non-overlapping, to be read collinear and must
be written without any punctuations.
• The code is nearly universal: for example, from bacteria to human
UUU would code for Phenylalanine.
• Some exceptions to this rule have been found in mitochondrial codons,
and in some protozoans.
Note: AUG has dual functions. It codes for Methionine (met) , and it
also act as initiator codon.
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Protein synthesis
• Protein synthesis - It occurs in two stages i.e., Transcription and
Translation
• Transcription : The process of formation of RNA transcript from the
template strand of DNA, at transcription unit. Transcript unit: it is
defined by three regions on DNA from where RNA transcript is formed.
The three regions of transcription unit are
1. A promoter
2. Structural gene (equivalent to structural gene)
3. A terminator
• A promoter - is located towards 5' end of coding strand, at upstream
region of structural gene. Promoter provides binding recognition site.
• Structural gene (equivalent to cistron) is present between promoter
and terminator. As a convention, the DNA strand in 3  5 direction
act as template strand and it has sequence complimentary to mRNA
transcript. As a convention, the DNA strand in 5  3 direction act as
coding strand and it has sequence similar to mRNA transcript except
for Thymine and Uracil Note: As a convention, the position of promoter
and terminator are define on coding strand. A terminator - is located
towards the 3' end of coding strand, towards downstream region of
the structural gene.
Transcription
• Transcription in Prokaryotes Note: Single form of RNA polymerase
can transcribe to form different type of cellular RNA i.e., mRNA, tRNA,
rRNA etc., in prokaryotic cells. The RNA polymerase is composed of
Core enzyme and Sigma (  ) factor (also known as initiation factor in
prokaryotes).
• STEPS: Sigma factor joins core enzyme to activate RNA polymerase.
RNA polymerase binds to promoter and initiates the synthesis of
formation of mRNA transcript towards 5  3 direction. After the
initiation of the mRNA synthesis, sigma factor leaves core enzyme,
near promoter. mRNA transcript grows longer (i.e., elongation)
Termination.
Transcription in Eukaryotes - Three forms of RNA polymerases
are required to transcribe to form different type of cellular RNA i.e.,
mRNA, tRNA, rRNA etc., in eukaryotic cells.
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Brain Pointer
• RNA polymerase-I transcribe to form rRNA (5.8S, 18S and 28S), RNA
polymerase-II polymerase-I transcribe to form hnRNA (or precursor
mRNA) and RNA polymerase-III polymerase-I transcribe to form tRNA,
5S-rRNA and small nuclear RNA or snRNA.
• RNA polymerase II transcribe to form heterogeneous nuclear RNA or
hnRNA. The hnRNA is converted to mRNA by RNA processing, inside
nucleus. There are three steps in RNA processing:
1. Capping- addition of 7-methyl guanosine triphosphate at 5' end of
hnRNA.
2. Tailing - addition of about 200 to 300 adenine nucleotides at 3' tail
end of hnRNAand
3. Splicing - carried out by spliceosomes (ribozyme proteins complex)
helps to remove intron and join exons to form mRNA. This mRNA
is taken from nucleus to cytoplasm for translation.
Translation
• Translation-The process of formation of a polypeptide or protein, using
codon sequence of mRNA and with the help of tRNA and rRNA, in
cytoplasm.
• Activation/Charging/aminoacylation of tRNA- Aminoacyl tRNA
synthetase attaches specific amino acid (through -COOH) end to 3'end
of tRNA to make tRNA charged or active or aminocacylated tRNA.
Initiation of polypeptide chain synthesis .Smaller subunit of ribosome
attaches to 5' cap of mRNA. The charged tRNA with initiator amino
acid arrives at P site. Larger subunit of ribosome joins to complete
the formation of the initiation complex. Initiation factors or IF (different
in prokaryotes and eukaryotes), are required.
• Elongation of polypeptide chain synthesis - The charged tRNA
arrives at A site. Peptidyl transferase (23S or 28S) cleaves the bond
between tRNA and amino acid of P site and forms the peptide bond
between -COOH end of P-site amino acid and -NH2 end of A site amino
site (and the peptide bond is formed towards A site). Peptide bond
formation is simultaneous with the translocation of ribosome to next
codon in 5  3 direction with the help of enzyme translocase and
elongation factor or EF (different in prokaryotes and eukaryotes).
• Termination of polypeptide chain synthesis - When ribosome
reaches the stop codons, releasing factors (different in prokaryotes
and eukaryotes), join the complex. Peptidyl transferase (23S or 28S)
373
cleaves the bond between tRNA and amino acid of the polypeptide
chain, ribosome subunits dissociate, tRNA and mRNA leave the site.
Thus, at the end of translation, a polypeptide chain or protein is formed.
• In eukaryotes, nascent polypeptide chain formed has to be taken to
golgi complex for further modification to attain biological structure and
function (post translational modification).
Gene regulation and lac operon
• Gene regulation : Gene regulation is performed by the metabolic,
physiological or environmental conditions (that regulate the expression
of genes).
• In eukaryotes, the regulation could be exerted at
1. Transcriptional level (formation of primary transcript)
2. Processing level (regulation of splicing)
3. Transport of mRNA from nucleus to the cytoplasm
4. Translational level.
• The operator region is adjacent to the promoter elements in most
operons and in most cases the sequences of the operator bind a
repressor protein.
• Operon (single unit) - group of genes which work together to bring
about a common effect. Generally, genes of operon include Regulator
gene, Promoter gene, Operator gene and Structural genes
• Inducer operon - is transcriptionally active or switched on in
presence of the substrate molecule e.g., lac operon (lactose or
allolactose act as inducer). In lac operon, lac stands for lactose or
beta-galactoside ( galactose + glucose (  (1  4) glycosidic bond))
Note: Lac operon model in E.coli was proposed by Jacob and Monod
in the year 1961 (Nobel prize - 1965).
• Lac operon - Switched off - when lactose is absent
Components of Lac operon:
1) Regulator gene
(Lac i; where "i" stands for inhibitor and not inducer)- transcribes to
form repressor protein or regulator protein (with definite structure)
Note: In absence of lactose, repressor protein is present attached to
operator gene (switched off condition).
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Brain Pointer
2) Promoter gene
(Lac P) - is the site for binding of RNA polymerase that transcribes
structural genes.
Note: When repressor protein is present at operator gene, RNA
polymerase present in promoter gene cannot transcribe structural
genes (switched off condition).
3) Operator gene
(Lac O) - is the site for the binding of repressor protein in absence of
lactose.
Note: Only in presence of the lactose, repressor protein can be made
free from operator gene (switch on condition)
4) Structural genes - are of three types in lac operon, Lac Z - transcribes
to form  -galactosidase (to digest lactose or lactose}. Lac Y -
transcribes to form Permease, a membrane bound protein to increase
the permeability of the lactose into the cell. Lac A - transcribes to
form Transacetylase.
• Lac operon - Switched on - when lactose is present
Human Genome Project (or HGP)
• A very ambitious project of sequencing human genome was launched
in the year 1990. Human Genome Project (HGP) was called a mega
project and was a 13-year and the project was completed in 2003.
Goals of HGP (Some of the important goals of HGP were as follows)
• Identify all the approximately 20,000-25,000 genes in human DNA;
Determine the sequences of the 3 billion chemical base pairs that
make up human DNA, Store this information in databases; Improve
tools for data analysis, transfer related technologies to other sectors,
such as industries
• Address the ethical, legal, and social issues (ELSI) that may arise
from the project
• Many non-human model organisms, such as bacteria, yeast,
Caenorhabditis elegans (a free living non-pathogenic nematode),
Drosophila (the fruit fly), plants (rice and Arabidopsis), etc., have also
been sequenced.
The methods involved two major approaches.
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• The genes that are expressed as RNA (referred to as Expressed
Sequence Tags (ESTs).
• The other took the blind approach of simply sequencing the whole set
of genome that contained all the coding and non-coding sequence,
and later assigning different regions in the sequence with functions (a
term referred to as Sequence Annotation).
• The cloning resulted into amplification of each piece of DNA fragment
so that it subsequently could be sequenced with ease. The commonly
used hosts were bacteria and yeast, and the vectors were called as
BAC (bacterial artificial chromosomes), and YAC (yeast artificial
chromosomes).
• The fragments were sequenced using automated DNA sequencers
that worked on the principle of a method developed by Frederick Sanger.
• Physical maps on the genome was generated using information on
polymorphism of restriction endonuclease recognition sites, and some
repetitive DNA sequences known as microsatellites (one of the
applications of polymorphism in repetitive DNA sequences shall be
explained in next section of DNA fingerprinting).
Salient Features of Human Genome:
• The human genome contains 3164.7 million nucleotide bases.
• The average gene consists of 3000 bases, but sizes vary greatly,
with the largest known human gene being dystrophin at 2.4 million
bases. The total number of genes is estimated at 30,000-much lower
than previous estimates of 80,000 to 1,40,000 genes. Almost all (99.9
per cent) nucleotide bases are exactly the same in all people. The
functions are unknown for over 50 per cent of the discovered genes.
Less than 2 per cent of the genome codes for proteins. Repeated
sequences make up very large portion of the human genome.
Repetitive sequences are stretches of DNA sequences that are
repeated many times, sometimes hundred to thousand times. They
are thought to have no direct coding functions, but theshed light on
chromosome structure, dynamics and evolution.
• Chromosome 1 has most genes (2968), and the Y has the fewest
(231). Scientists have identified about 1.4 million locations where
single base DNA differences (SNPs - single nucleotide polymorphism,
pronounced as 'snips') occur in humans.
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Brain Pointer
DNA FINGERPRINTING
• The technique of DNA Fingerprinting was initially developed by Alec
Jeffreys. DNA fingerprinting is a very quick way to compare the DNA
sequences of any two individuals.
• It is these differences in sequence of DNA which make every individual
unique in their phenotypic appearance.
• Polymorphism in DNA sequence is the basis of genetic mapping of
human genome as well as of DNA fingerprinting.
• Polymorphism (variation at genetic level) arises due to mutations.
• Allelic sequence variation has traditionally been described as a DNA
polymorphism if more than one variant (allele) at a locus occurs in
human population with a frequency greater than 0.01.
• Alec Jaffrey used a satellite DNA as probe that shows very high degree
of polymorphism. It was called as Variable Number of Tandem Repeats
(VNTR). The VNTR belongs to a class of satellite DNA referred to as
mini-satellite. A small DNA sequence is arranged tandemly in many
copy numbers. The copy number varies from chromosome to
chromosome in an individual. The numbers of repeat show very high
degree of polymorphism. As a result the size of VNTR varies in size
from 0.1 to 20 kb.
• The sensitivity of the technique has been increased by use polymerase

chain reaction.
• Steps included Isolation of DNA - Digestion of DNA by restriction

endonucleases, Separation of DNA fragments by electrophoresis,
Transferring (blotting) of separated DNA fragments to synthetic
membranes, such as nitrocellulose or nylon, Hybridisation using
labelled VNTR probe, and Detection of hybridised DNA fragments by
autoradiography.
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CHAPTER - 06
EVOLUTION
 Evolutionary biology - Study of history of life forms on earth.

 Word evolution coined by - Herbert spencer
 Darwin defined evolution - Descend with modification.
Origin of universe - 20 bya
 Origin explained by Big-Bang Theory (Single huge thermonuclear
explosion)
 First formed gases Hydrogen and Helium
Origin of earth - 4.5 bya
 Primitive atmosphere - reducing type due to absence of O2
Consisted of CH4, NH3, H2, H2O (vapour) and CO2.
 Ozone layer absent; UV rays broke up water into hydrogen and
oxygen.
 Oxygen combined with ammonia and methane to form water, CO2
and others.
 Life appeared 500million years after the formation of earth.
Origin of life - 4 bya
 First non cellular form of life-3bya.
(giant molecules like RNA, protein and polysaccharides).
 First cellular form of life - 2 bya
Theories of origin of life
1. Theory of special creation /conventional religious literature.
 All living organisms we see today were created as such.
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Brain Pointer
 Earth is about 4000yrs old.
 Diversity was always the same since creation and will remain same
in future.
2. Theory of abiogenesis/Theory of spontaneous generation.
 Life came out of decaying and rotting matter.
3. Theory of biogenesis.
 Life comes only from pre existing life
NB : Louis paster disproved Theory of spontaneous generations by

Swan neck flast experiment.
4. Theory of Panspermia.
Early Greek thinkers thought that unit of life is called spore transferred
from other planets.
5. Theory of chemical evolution.
Proposed by Oparin of Russia and Haldane of England.
 Proposed that the first form of life would have come from pre existing
non living organic molecules like RNA and protein. The formation of
life was preceeded by chemical evolution.
 Formation of diverse organic molecules from inorganic constituents.
 Experimental proof of chemical evolution given by - S.L. Miller in 1953.
 Miller created electric discharge in a closed flask containing CH4, H2,

NH3 and water vapour at 8000C.
 He observed the formation of aminoacids.
 In similar experiments others observed the formation of sugars,

nitrogen bases, pigments and fats.
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 Main steps in the origin of life according to the Oparin-Haldane
theory
Evidences of organic evolution

Concept of organic evolution given by Charles Darwin
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Brain Pointer
1) Palentological evidence
 Palentological study reveals the existence of life in past and illustrate
the course of evolution.
 Fossils are the remains of extinct organisms buried and preserved
by natural resources.
 Fossils are the direct evidences of organic evolution
 Fossil in different sedimentary layers showed that life forms varied
over time and certain life forms are restricted to certain geological
time spans.
 New forms of life have arisen at different times in the history of earth.
 Geological history of earth closely correlates with the biological history
of earth.
 Age of fossil calculated by
1) Radioactive clock method
2) Carbon dating technique.
Brief account of evolution
 Invertebrates active  500 mya
 Jawless fish evolved  350 mya
 See weed and few plants existed  320 mya
 1st organisms invaded land  plants
 Fish with shout and strong fins (coelacanth)  350 mya
 Coelacanth fish caught in South Africa (1938)
Lobe fins
 Lobe fins  Amphibians.(ancestors of modern day frogs and
salamanders.
 Amphibians  Reptiles (Turtles, tortoise, Crocodile, etc)
 Next 200mya - reptiles of different shape and size dominated on earth.
(Mesozoic era)
 Giant ferns 

Fell to form
 Coal deposits
 Fish like reptile - Ichthyosaurs (200 mya)
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 Biggest dinosaur  Tyranosaurus - (20 feet height) (with huge
fearsome dagger like teeth.
 Extinction of dinosaur - 65 mya (due to climatic change, most of them
evolved into birds etc.
 Small sized reptiles of mesozoic era still existed.
 First mammals - shrew like
Line of evolution of birds
Early reptiles  Sauropsids  Thecodont  Dinosaur  Bird
 Line of evolution of mammals
Early reptiles  Synapsids  Pelycosaurs  Therapsids
 Mammals
 Evolution of plants
 First plants colonised on land - Bryophytes
 All plants except bryophytes and lycopods evolved from psilophyton
 Line of evolution of angiosperms
Psilophyton  Progymnosperms  Seed ferns  Angiosperms
Embryological support for evolution
 Proposed by Ernst Heckel
 Certain features during embryonic stage common to all vertebrates
but are absent in adult
eg : Presence of vestigeal gill slits in all vertebrate embryos but that
are functional organ only in fish.
 Karl Ernst Von Baer disapproved their proposal.
 According to him “embryos never pass through the adult stages of
other animals”.
Morphological and Anatomical evidences
 Comparitive anatomy and morphology shows similarities and
differences among organisms.
1. Homologus organs  Similar in anatomy doing dissimilar functions.
eg : - 1) Fore limb pattern of man, bat, whale and cheetah.
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2) Comparitive anatomy of heart and brain of different vertebrates

3) Thorns and tendrils of Bougainvilla and Cucurbita.
Homology based on divergent evolution.
 Similar structure developed along different directions due to adaptation
to different needs.
2. Analogous structures : - Dissimilar in anatomy but doing similar
functions.
Example:
1) Eye of octopus and mammal
2) Flippers of penguin and dolphins
3) Sweet potato and potato
4) Wings of butterfly and birds
 Analogy based on convergent evolution.
 Different structures evolving for the same function
 Occupied in similar habitat.
Biochemical evidence
 Biochemical similarities (proteins and genes) point to common
ancestry.
 This indicates molecular homology
Biogeographical evidence
1. Continental drift - drifting apart of land masses over time to be placed
in the present continental position.
 Due to continental drift
1) Extinction of some South American mammals.
 Restriction of marsupials on Australia.
 Adaptive radiation
 Example : -
Marsupials in Australia
Darwin’s finches in Galapagos Islands.
Placental mammals in Australia
383
 Convergent evolution
 Example : -
Placental and marsupials of Australia
 When more than one adaptive radiation occur in an isolated
geographical area. (represent different habitat) lead to convergent
evolution.
Theories of Evolution
1) Lamarckism
 French naturalist Lamarck
 Two key concepts :
1) Use and disuse of organs
2) Inheritance of acquired characters.
Example : Long neck and forelimbs in giraaffe.
2) Darwinism - (Theory of Natural Selection)
 Proposed by Charles Darwin
 Work of Thomas Malthus on population influenced Darwin.
 Key concepts:-
1) Branching descent
2) Natural selection.
Postulates of Darwinism
1) Over production
2) Struggle for existance
3) Variation - According to Darwin variation are small, slow, directional,
continuous.
4) Natural selection/Survival of fittest.
 Fittest individuals are selected
 Fitness is the end result of the ability do adapt and get selected by
nature.
 Fitness according to Darwin is reproductive fitness.
5) Inheritance of favourable variation
6) Speciation
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 Alfred Russel Wallace worked in Malay Archipellago had also come

to similar conclusions around the same time.
Types of natural selection
1) Balancing/stabilising selection.
 More individuals acquire mean character value.
Example : Carriers in sickel cell anemia and malaria. Selection of
infants having average birth weight.
2) Directional /progressive selection
 More individuals acquire value other than mean character value.
Example : Industrial melanism
 DDT resistance in mosquitoes
 Resistance to pesticides/antibiotics (anthropogenic action)
 This indicates that evolution is not a directed process but it is a
stochastic process based on chance events in nature and chance
mutations in organisms.
3) Disruptive selection
 More individuals acquire peripheral character value.
Mutation theory
 Proposed by Hugo de vries
 Worked on evening prime rose
 According to him
1) Mutations causes evolution
2) Mutations are large, random, discontinuous, directionless
3) Mutation caused speciation (single step large mutation)
Hardy Weinberg Principle
 States that allelic frequencies in a population are stable and constant
from generation to generation  genetic equilibrium
 Sum total of allelic frequencies in a population is1
 It is calculated as
p+q=1
385
  p  q   1 or p 2  2pq  q 2  1
2
where p and q are the frequencies of dominant and recessive allele

respectively.
 Change of frequency of alleles in a population results in evolution.
Factors that affect Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium are.
1) Mutation
2) Recombination of genes
3) Natural selection
4) Genetic drift
 random change in allele frequency in a small isolated population which
occurs by chance.
 genetic drift operates through founder effect.
 end result of genetic drift new species.
Example: Darwin’s finches
Gene flow/gene migration
 migration of genes from one population to another.
Human evolution
 Dryopithecus (15 mya)
 Hairy, Walk like apes, more ape like
 Ramapithecus (15mya)
 Hairy, Walk like apes, more man like in appearance
 Austrapithecines (3-4 mya/2mya)
 Fossils discovered from Ethiopia and Tanzania
 Reveal hominid features
 Walked upright
 Not taller than 4 feet
 Lived on east African grass lands
 Hunted withstone weapons
 Ate fruits
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 Homo Habilis (1.8mya)

 Brain capacity 650-800cc
 Firs hominid
 Probably did’nt eat meat
 Tool makers
 Homo erectus (1.5mya)
 Fossils discovered in Java (1891)
 Brain capacity 900c
 Probably ate meat
 Neanderthal man. (100000 - 40,000 yrs ago)
 Brain size 1400cc
 Lived east and central Asia
 Used hides to protect their body and buried their dead.
Modern man (Homo sapiens) - (75,000 - 10,000 yrs ago)
 Arose in Africa moved across continents and developed into distinct
races.
 Arose during ice age
 Started agriculture about 10,000 years ago and had settled life
NB: - Prehistoric cave arts developed about 18000yrs ago.
NB : - Evolution of modern man appears in parallel evolution of human
brain and Language.
387
CHAPTER - 07
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE
 Health - The state of complete physical, mental and social well being.
 Health is affected by: -
1) Genetic disorders 2) Infections
 Health is maintained by
1) Balanced diet 2) Personal hygiene
3) Regular exercise 4) Immunisation
5) Control of vectors
Common Diseases in Humans

 Bacterial Diseases
Affected
Disease Pathogen Symptoms
body parts
High fever,
Typhoid Weakness, Intestinal
1 Salmonella typhi
(widal test) Constipation, perforation
Head ache
Streptococcus Fever, Chills,

pneumoniae Cough,headache,
2 Pneumonia fluid filled alveoli
Haemophilus lips and finger
influenzae nails turn bluish
Diarrhoea,
3 Dysentery Shigella species Colon
Stomach pain
Swollen lymph
Plague
4 Yersinia pestis nodes, Lymph nodes
(Black death)
fatigue, fever
Corynebacterium Fever, Chills, Skin and
5 Diphtheria
diphtheriae Sore throat respiratory tract
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 Viral Diseases
Dise a se Pa thoge n Sym ptom s Affe cte d orga ns
nasal congestion
Common and discharge, Nose, Upper
1 Rhino virus
cold sore throat, respiratory tract
Hoarseness, cough
HIV weight loss,

2 AIDS Helper T cells
(retrovirus) immunodeficiency
 Protozoan Diseases
Disease Pathogen Symptoms Affected organs
Plasmodium vivax
Plasmodium malariae
1 Malaria Chills, high fever Liver cells, RBC
Plasmodium ovale
Plasmodium falciparum
Constipation,
Amoebiasis
abdominal pain,
2 (Amoebic Entamoeba histolytica Large intestine
stool with mucus
dysentery)
and blood clot
 Helminth Diseases
Disease Pathogen Symptoms Affected organs
internal bleeding,
muscular pain
1 Ascariasis Ascaris lumbricoides blockage Intestine
of the intestinal
passage
lymphatic vessels lymphatic vessels of
Filariasis Wuchereria bancrofti
2 of lower limbs get lower limbs and genital
(Elephantiasis) Wuchereria malayi
blocked organs
389
 Fungal Diseases
Affected
Disease Pathogen Symptoms
organs
1) Microsporum dry, scaly
Ring skin,
1 2) Trichophyton lesions
worms nail, scalp
3) Epidermophyton on the skin
Life cycle of Plasmodium
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 Sporozoites - infectious form of Plasmodium

 Haemozoin - released from ruptured RBCs, causes chill and fever.
Immunity
 Immunity is the ability of the host to fight against the disease causing
organisms
Innate Immunity barriers

1. Physical barriers - skin, mucus coating of epithelium (lining the
respiratory , gastro- intestinal and urogenital tracts)
2. Physiological barriers - HCl in stomach, lysozyme in saliva and tear.
3. Cellular barriers : - Monocytes (macrophages) neutrophils(PMNL) and
Natural Killer Cells (lymphocytes).
4. Cytokine barriers - interferons, from virus infected cells, protect
neighbouring cells from that virus
Comparison of Innate and Acquired immunity
Innate Immunity Acquired Immunity
1 Present from the time of birth Develops during life time
2 Not based on memory Memory based
3 Non- specific in nature Specific immunity
4 It is inherited Not inherited
5 life long Short lived or life long
391
1. Primary immune response :- low intensity response on first
encounter with a pathogen
2. Secondary immune response : - High intensity response to a

subsequent encounter with the same pathogen
 Humoral immunity  B-lymphocytes (B-cells)  plasma

cells  antibodies.
 Secondary immune response is based on memory (memory cells)
Antibodies (Agglutinins) are proteins produced in our body in

response to Antigens (Agglutinogens).
Types of Antibodies
IgA, IgM, IgE, IgD, IgG
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Structure of Antibodies
 Each antibody molecule has 4 polypeptide chains, 2 long heavy chains

and 2 short light chains. H2L2 pattern. Biggest antibody is IgM. Most
abundant antibody is IgG.
Active and Passive immunity
Active im m unity Pa ssive im m unity
Receives ready made

Antibodies produced
1 antibodies from
on exposure to antigen
another individual
Quick in response,
2 Slow to act, but long lasting
but short lived
Immunity obtained by natural
obtained by injecting
3 infection or by introducing
pre-formed antibodies
antigens (vaccination)
393
 Vaccination and Immunisation are based on property of ‘memory’
of immune system.
 Vaccination is the act of introducing a vaccine into the body to obtain
immunity to a specific disease.
 Vaccine - preparation of antigenic proteins of pathogen or inactivated
/weakened pathogen.
 IgA in colostrum, Antivenom are examples of passive immunity.
 Allergies - exaggerated response to certain antigens/allergens.
Antibodies involved in allergic response is IgE. In allergy, chemicals
like histamine and serotonin are secreted from mast cells.
 Autoimmunity results from inability to differentiate self from non-self
cells.
 Rheumatoid arthritis, Myasthenia gravis, Multiple sclerosis etc are
examples of autoimmune diseases.
Immune system in the body
 Immune system includes : - Lymphoid organs, tissue cells and
antibodies.
 Primary lymphoid organs are the sites of origin and maturation of

lymphocytes. After maturation lymphocytes migrate to secondary
lymphoid organs, the sites of interaction of lymphocytes with antigens
and their proliferation.
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 MALT : (Mucosa Associated Lymphoid Tissue) constitutes 50% of

lymphoid tissue and found within lining of respiratory, digestive and
urogenital tract.
 AIDS : - first reported in 1981, caused by HIV, a retrovirus.
Transmission of HIV occurs by

1. Sexual contact with infected person
2. Transfusion of contaminated blood
395
3. Sharing of infected needles as in intravenous drug users
4. Passing through placenta to child.
Diagnostic test for AIDS  ELISA
Confirmatory test for AIDS  Western blot
 CANCER - major cause of death all over the globe.
 Characteristic of cancer cells
1. Break down of regulatory mechanism of cell growth and differentiation.
2. Loss of contact inhibition
3. Uncontrolled proliferation cause or develop tumor.
Leukemia is a tumorless cancer.
4. Metastasis is the most feared property of malignant tumor
Types of tumor
Be nign tum or Ma ligna nt tum or
Remains confined to Spreads to other

1
the original location parts of the body
2 Slow growth Rapid growth
3 No metastasis Metastasis occurs
4 Non-cancerous Cancerous
Causes of cancer
1. Viral oncogenes
2. Cellular oncogenes(c-onc) /proto-oncogenes
3. Radiations
4. Chemical carcinogens (eg: in tobacco smoke)
Methods of cancer detection and diagnosis
1. Biopsy and histopathological studies
2. Blood and bone marrow test
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3. Radiography (X-rays), 4. CT, 5. MRI
6. Antibodies against cancer specific antigens.
Treatment of cancer
1. Surgery, 2. Radiation therapy
3. Chemotherapy 4.Immunotherapy
DRUG AND ALCOHOL ABUSE
Commonly abused drugs
1. Opioids, 2. Cannabinoids, 3. Coca alkaloids
1. Opioids - Affect CNS and GIT
eg : Heroin/Smack/ Diacetyl morphine
 Heroin - White, Odourless, bitter crystalline compound. Derived from

the latex of Poppy plant - Papaver Somniferum.
 Heroin is obtained by acetylation of morphine
2. Cannabinoids - acts on cannabinoid receptors in brain.
 Natural cannabinoids are obtained from inflorescence of Cannabis

sativa.
eg : Marijuana, Hashish , Charas, Ganga. These act on cardiovascular

system.
3. Coca alkaloids Cocaine from Erythroxylum coca. It interferes with

transport of dopamine.
 Cocaine is commonly called coke or crack.
 It stimulates CNS and produces a sense of euphoria and increased

energy.
Adolescence and Drug abuse
 Adolescence is the period between 12-18 years of age.
397
Causes of drug abuse.
1. Curiosity, 2. Need for adventure and excitement
3. Experimentation, 4. Pressure to excel in examination
Effects of drug/alcohol abuse
1. Drop in academic performance
2. Unexplained absence from school/college
3. Lack of interest in personal hygiene
4. Isolation and depression
5. Deteriorating relationship with family and friends
 Anabolic steroids are misused by sports persons.
Withdraw al symptoms - Symptoms manifested on
abrupt discontinuation of regular dose of drugs or alcohol.
Prevention and control
1. Avoid undue peer pressure
2. Educating and counselling
3. Seeking help from parents and peers
4. Seeking professional and medical help.
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CHAPTER - 08
MICROBES IN HUMAN WELFARE
 Microflora includes protozoa, bacteria, fungi, microscopic plant and

animal viruses, viroids and prions.
 Virus and viroid cannot be cultured in nutrient medium.
 Adenovirus - causes respiratory infections.
- Polyhedral in shape.
 Bacteriophage  DNA virus with tadpole shape.
 TMV - RNA virus with rod shape
Beneficiary effects of microbes
• For food production (house hold products)
• Production of industrial products
• Environment related (sewage treatment and biogas production)
• Agriculture related (biofertilizer and bio-control agents)
1) Food production / House hold production
 Production of curd
• By LABS  (Lactic Acid Bacteria)
• Produce lactic acid, vit.B12 and check disease causing microbes
• Lactic acid coagulates and partially digest milk.
 Production of dough
• By natural heterotrophic bacteria
• It ferment and produce CO2
 Production of bread
• by yeast, ferment and produce CO2
399
 Production of toddy, fermentation of fish, soyabean and bamboo
by various microbes
 Production of cheese
• by bacteria and fungi
• Swiss cheese  by Propionibacterium sharmanii
• Roquefort cheese (Blue cheese)  by fungi (Penicillium roqueforti)
2) Microbes in Industrial production
• Fermented beverages contains ethanol (produced by yeast)
• Production of large scale requires large vessels called fermentor.
 Fermented beverages :- From fermented broth
Non-distilled Distilled
eg: Wine, Beer eg: Whisky, Brandy and Rum
 Antibiotics :
• Chemicals produced by microbes can kill or destroy other microbes.
eg: Pencillin -by Alexander Flemming
• It is “against-life” with respect to disease causing microbes, while
“Pro-life” with respect to humans.
• Fully potential and effective antibiotic was established by Ernst Chain
and Howard Florey. They recieved Nobel Prize along with Flemming
in 1945.
 Organic acids :
• Citric acid  Aspergillus niger (fungus)
• Acetic acid  Acetobacter aceti (bacteria)
• Butryic acid  Clostridium butylicum (bacteria)
• Lactic acid  Lactobacillus (bacteria)
 Enzymes :
• Lipase-used in laundry detergents
• Pectinase and protease - Clarification of bottled juice
• Streptokinase from streptococcus - Clot buster.
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Brain Pointer
 Bioactive molecules
• Cyclosporin A - from Trichoderma polysporum (fungi)
• used as immunosuppressive agent.
• Statin - from Monascus purpureus (yeast)
• used as blood chloesterol lowering agent.
3) Environment related processes
Microbes in sewage treatment
• Muncipal waste water (sewage) contains large amount of organic
matter and microbes.
• The major component of waste water- human excreta.
• Treatment of sewage is done by heterotrophic aerobic microbes
naturally present in sewage.
Sewage Treatment in Sewage Treatment Plant
Primary treatment (Physical) Secondary treatment (biological)

* In aeration tank by aerobic
to
Filtration and bacteria and fungi (flocs)

in
sedimentation
d
* Floculation (consumption of
pe
m
organic matter by flocs)

part in pumped back
pu
as inoculum
Primay sludge Effluent * BOD of effluent decreases
* Allow to settle
Activated sludge Effluent
Pumped into digester Release into the

(Convert into CH4, water body
CO2, H2S by the
activity of anaerobic
bacteria)
401
Microbes in biogas production
• Biogas  a mixture of CH4, CO2 and H2
• Major component - CH4
• Gas produced depends upon substrate used and microbes involved.
• Most important part of a biogas plant - digester, where anaerobic
micorbes like methanogen splits
cellulosic materials into methane (CH4).
• Cow dung is the major source of methanogen bacteria such as
methanobacteria.
• In India, it is popularised by IARI and KVIC.
4) Microbes in Agriculture
Biocontrol of plant disease and pests
• It emphasises reduced use of chemicals and enhance biological
methods.
Examples:
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)  against insect larva and caterpillars
Trichoderma  against soil born root pathogens
Baculoviruses such as nucleopolyhedrovirus  against insects and
arthropods.
Lady bird and Praying mantis  against aphids.
Dragon fly  against mosquitoes
Biofertilizers
• Microbes that enrich soil fertility (especially nitrogen)
• Rhizobium and Frankia - Symbiotically fix Nitrogen.
• Azotobacter and Azospirillum - free living Nitrogen fixing.
• Glomus - most common mycorrhizal fungi
(Mycorrhizae mainly influce plant rather than soil)
• Cyanobacteria - N2 fixing, a common bio-fertilizer in paddy field.
• Eg: Nostoc and Anabaena- fix nitrogen both in symbiotic and free-
living conditions.
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CHAPTER - 09
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Biodiversity refers to the totality of genes, species and Ecosystem

of a region.
 The term Biodiversity was coined by Edward Wilson

Levels of Biodiversity
1) Genetic diversity
2) Species diversity
3) Ecological diversity
Number of species on Earth (Based on IUCN - 2004)
 Slightly more than 1.5 million.

 Among this Animals - 70%
 Among this Plants - 22%
 Among animals - 70% are insects
 Insects are the largest groups
 Robert May - gave a hypothetical value for global Biodiversity ie, 7
million.
Biodiversity in India
 India has only 2.4% world’s land area, while it comprises 8.1% of
global diversity.
 India is one of the 12 megadiversity countries of the world.

 Number of plant species in India - 45, 000
 Number of animals in India - 90,000
403
Patterns of Biodiversity
(i) Latitudinal gradients - Diversity decreases with increase in
Latitude.
Species diversity maximum near to equator (23.5oN - 23.5oS) and
minimum in polar region.
Eg. Columbia located near to equator - has 1,400 sps. of birds
New York (41oN) - has 105 sps. of birds
Green land (71oN) - has 56 sps. of birds
Amazone rain forest - has 1,300 sps. of birds
India in subtropical region - has 1,200 sps. of birds
The main reasons for greater diversity in tropical regions
1. It had a long evolutionary time for species diversification.
2. Tropical environments are less seasonal, relatively more constant
and predictable.
3. Availability of more solar energy
(ii) Species - Area Relationships - Proposed by Alexander von
Humboldt
 Species diversity increased with increasing explored area but
only upto a limit.
The graph of species area relationship is rectangular hyperbola

for a wide variety of taxa represented by the equation, S = CAz
On a logarithmic scale, graph is a straight line represented by an
equation
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Brain Pointer
Log S = Log C + Z log A

Z (slope of the line) value for small area - 0.1 - 0.2
Z value for large area - 0.6 - 1.2
Frugivorous birds and mammals Z value - 1.15
Importance of species diversity to the Ecosystem
According to David Tilmen - High diversity  high productivity,,
more stable is the ecosystem.
Paul Ehrlich - Rivett popper hypothesis - According to this all species
are important, particularly key stone species.
Loss of Biodiversity
Based on IUCN 2004 data, 784 species extinct in the last 500 years,
which includes,
Vertebrates - 338
Invertebrates - 359
Plants - 87
Examples
Dodo - Mauritius
Quagga - Africa
Thylacine - Australia
Steller’s sea cow - Russia
3 subspecies of Tiger
(Bali, Javan and Caspian) - Indonasia
Around 15500 species world wide are facing the threat of extinction.
At present threat of Extinction
Amphibiance - 32%
Gymnosperms - 31%
Birds - 23%
Mammals - 12%
Sixth episode of mass extinction - faster than 100 - 1000 times than
previous extinction.
405
After Effect
1. Decline in plant production
2. Lowered resistance to environmental stresses
3. Variation in Ecosystem processes
Causes of Loss of Biodiversity (Evil Quadret)
1. Habitat loss and fragmentation (most important cause)
2. Over-exploitation
3. Alien species invasion
4. Co-extinction
Biodiversity Conservation
Reasons for Conservation
I. Narrowly Utilitarian II. Ethical I. Broadly Utilitarian

Arguement Arguement Arguement
(Direct beneficial) (Intrinsic value of species) (Ecosystem services)
Bioprospecting
Exploring molecular, genetic and species level diversity for
economically important products.
Biodiversity Conservatoin
In situ Ex situ
(conservation within (Conservation outside the habitat)
their natural habitat)
Hot spots Sacred forest Biosphere National Sanctuaries

(3) Reserves Parks (448)
(14) (90)
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Brain Pointer
Biodiversity Conservation (Ex-situ)
Sacred plants Seed Banks Botanical garden

Home garden Field gene banks Zoological parks
Aquaria Cryopreservation
Safari parks
International efforts for conserving biodiversity
1) Earth Summit (1992) Rio de Janeiro - Brazil
2) 2nd World Summit (2002) - Johannesburg - South Africa
407

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Mutholy Campus, Ph: 04822 - 206100, 206800

2. Sexual reproduction in Flowering Plants ------------------------------------------------------ 272

3. Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production ------------------------------------------ 281

4. Biotechnology : Principles and processes ------------------------------------------------------ 286

5. Biotechnology and its Applications ---------------------------------------------------------------- 293

6. Organism and Population --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 297

7. Ecosystem ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 305

8. Environmental Issues ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 311

2. Reproductive Health ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 336

3. Animal Husbandry --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 344

4. Genetics : Principles of Inheritance and Variation --------------------------------------- 349

5. Molecular Basis of Inheritance ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 365

6. Evolution ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 378

7. Human Health and Disease ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 388

8. Microbes in Human Welfare ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 399

9. Biodiversity and Conservation ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 403

 Total charge in a system, q   ne where n = 1, 2, ........and

 Units & Dimension of Electric Charge

 Coulomb’s law in Free space

 Vector form of Coulomb’s law

 1 q1q2 q1 r̂21 q2

 Electrostatic force between two point charges q 1 and q 2 if the

Case (i) q1 q2 > 0

Case (ii) q1 q2 < 0

 Equilibrium of suspended charges

Units & Dimension

 Motion of charged Particle in a uniform electric field

 Force is acted in the direction of electric field for positively charged

 Particle is projected in a direction : Perpendicular to the electric field

 Deviation of charged particle, parallel to electric field

 Time period of oscillation of a particle of mass ‘m’ and charge

case (ii) Electric field is vertically upward

Case (iii) : Electric filed is vertically downward

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO SOME CHARGED DISTRIBUTIONS

 Electric field due to Electric dipole

For short dipole r > > a

max  PE(  900 )   0(   o0 or1800 )

 Force acting on a dipole in non-uniform electric field E

Gauss law for continuous charge distributions

 Electric field due to an infinitely long unifamily charged wire

Electric field is non-uniform

 Electric field due to a thin hollow cylinder

 Electric field due to a solid cylinder

Electric field due to a charged non-conducting sphere

 Electric field due to a thin charged spherical shell

 Electric field due to a conducting sphere

 Electrostatic pressure acted on a charged conducting surface

Equilibrium of charged soap bubble

For equlibrium amount of change required

 Electric potential difference between two points P and Q

 Electric Potential energy of a charge q at a point P

 Electric Potential energy difference between two points P and Q is

 UNIT AND DIMENSIONAL FORMULA FOR ELECTRIC

Dimensional Formula = [V]   ML T A 

 Electric Potential due to multiple charges ( Additive Property)

 When the sound change is not located at the origin

 Potential Energy of a three charge system

 Potential energy of a system of ‘n’ point charges

 Potential due to continuous charge distributions

 Electric Potential due to an electric dipole

Relation between electric fiels and potential

 Electric potential at a point