TABLE OF CONTENT

1. The important of a healthy weight 2

2. Factors contribute to a healthy weight 2
3. Tips for sustainable weight loss 3
4. Designing a healthful diet 6
4.1. Introduction 6
4.2. Nutrition and health 6
4.2.1. Nutrition affects health 7
4.2.2. The difficulty of food selection 8
4.3. Classification of nutrients 9
4.4. Tools for achieving a healthy diet 11
4.5. Healthy eating 12
4.5.1. Whole grains 12
4.5.2. Fruits and vegetables 13
4.5.3. Protein 13
4.5.4. Dairy 14
4.5.5. Fats 14
5. Nutrition through the life cycle: Pregnancy 15
5.1. Healthy eating in pregnancy 15
5.2. Nutrient requirements in pregnancy 15
5.2.1. Energy and macronutrients 15
5.2.2. Micronutrients 16
5.3. Gestational weight gain and obesity in pregnancy 17
6. Nutrition through life cycle: Childhood and adolescence 18
6.1. Childhood 19
6.2. Adolescence 21
7. Nutrition through life cycle: Adult and years later 22
REFERENCES: 23
 1. The important of a healthy weight
Achieving and keeping a healthy weight is crucial for overall health since it
may help you avoid and manage a variety of illnesses and ailments. You have an
increased risk of significant health issues including heart disease, high blood pressure,
type 2 diabetes, gallstones, breathing issues, and some malignancies if you are
overweight or obese. Due to the fact that it lowers your chance of acquiring these
issues, improves your self-esteem, and provides you more energy to enjoy life,
keeping a healthy weight is crucial.

2. Factors contribute to a healthy weight

A person's weight can be affected by a variety of circumstances. These
variables include the environment, genetics and family history, metabolism (the
process by which your body converts food and oxygen into energy), and behavior or
habits.
● Energy balance
For one to keep a healthy weight, energy balance is crucial. Your body needs to
balance the energy it receives from food and drink (energy IN) with the energy it
expands when breathing, digesting, and engaging in physical activity (energy OUT):
Weight is constant if energy IN and energy OUT remain constant over time (energy
balance) Weight growth occurs over time when there is a surplus of energy. Over
time, a net energy deficit equals weight reduction.
Your energy IN and OUT don't have to balance perfectly every day in order to
maintain a healthy weight. You can keep a healthy weight as long as you strike a
balance over time.
In order to achieve and keep a healthy weight, you should:
- Maintain a balanced diet, and if you are overweight or obese, cut 500
calories from your daily consumption to lose weight.
- Limit the amount of time you spend without being physically active.
 3. Tips for sustainable weight loss
● Vegetables and Fruit
Fill up on vegetables! Vegetables have a lot of fiber, which makes them filling
despite having relatively few calories. Additionally, they are loaded with vitamins and
minerals that your body adores. Aim to consume 5 servings or more of veggies each
day. Vegetables and fruit both give us equivalent amounts of vitamins, minerals, and
fiber. Fruit gives us additional energy (calories/kilojoules) (mainly from
carbohydrates). Eat two pieces of fruit every day, ideally (at least).
● Protein
By consuming protein with each meal, you may maintain your fullness for
longer, and strength training can slow the loss of muscle mass. Meat, poultry, fish,
low-fat cheese, eggs, milk, yogurt, tofu, and legumes are some examples of foods high
in protein (chickpeas, kidney beans, lentils, etc.)
● Carbohydrates
Though they sometimes have a poor name, whole grain and high-fiber
carbohydrates are a good source of fiber, important vitamins, and minerals that
promote intestinal health, general wellness, and energy levels. It's crucial to
concentrate on the kind and quantity of carbs. Type: Pick high-fiber carbs like whole-
grain bread and pasta, lentils and other beans, potatoes and kumara with the skin on.
serving size A fist-sized portion of carbs is generally advised at each meal, however it
varies from person to person. Depending on how busy you are, you could need more
or less.
Reduce your intake of refined carbs, such as white bread, cakes, and pastries,
and add sugars, which are high in calories but low in fiber and other nutrients. Pick
reduced sugar or no added sugar kinds of items like cereals, muesli bars, and yogurt.
● Fat
Fat is a crucial component of the diet and aids in making us feel satisfied.
Having said that, fat has a high kilojoule/calorie content per gram compared to protein
and carbs (energy). A little fat goes a long way. At mealtimes, limit yourself to around
a thumb's worth. Use an oil spray or a spoon when cooking with oil rather than
pouring straight from the container. Before eating, remove any visible fat from the
meat and skin from the fowl. Many types of cheese contain a lot of fat. Edam, cottage
cheese, and lite cream cheese are all low-fat possibilities. You may also just use a
smaller amount of the standard versions. Change the milk from regular (blue top) to
lite (light blue) or trim (green).
We receive the same number of calories/kilojoules from all forms of fat
(energy). But the secret to good health is to choose healthy fats like avocado, extra
virgin olive oil, nuts and seeds, and oily fish over bad fats like fatty beef, processed
meat, and ultra-processed foods like chips and cookies. To make sure you are
receiving a proper balance of various nutrients, using the Healthy Plate Model is a
fantastic idea.
- ½ plate (~2 handfuls) of non-starchy vegetables: the more color the
better (non-starchy veggies include tomato, leafy greens, mushrooms,
and eggplant whereas starchy vegetables include potato, kūmara, and
yams)
- ¼ plate (~1 closed fist) carbohydrates, ideally high fiber e.g., whole
grain pasta, brown rice, potato/kūmara with the skin-on.
- ¼ plate source of protein: e.g., lean meat or beans or eggs.
Total fat in a meal should equate to roughly a thumb-sized amount: choose
mainly heart-healthy fat e.g., olive oil, or avocado.

● Snacks, ultra-processed foods/takeaway foods.

 Consume less high-fat takeout and snacks. Only purchase takeout once every
week at most. Butter, margarine, sweets, cakes, biscuits, and chocolate are all high in
calories and poor in nutrients. Eliminating these items from the grocery list is one
strategy to decrease consumption of them. They are not available for consumption if
they are not in the refrigerator or pantry. Snacks: Consider having yogurt and fruit, a
glass of cut milk, a few almonds, and fresh or dried fruit.
● Drinks
The greatest choice for rehydrating the body is water. Try keeping a jug of
water in the refrigerator and flavoring it with lemon or lime juice to make it more
appetizing. Fruit juices and fizzy drinks are two examples of beverages that are easy
to over consume since they are high in sugar yet don't actually fill you up. One
effective strategy for lowering your calorie and kilojoule intake is to switch from
ordinary carbonated beverages to diet or no-sugar options. Keep alcohol consumption
to a minimum because it is a substantial source of calories and has little nutritional
value. Learn how to drink responsibly here if you do.
● How to eat
Eat carefully; it takes 20 minutes for your brain to register that you are full, so
hold off on getting another serving. Reduce distractions by turning off the TV and
your phone to better focus on your fullness cues.
● Mindset
The right mentality is essential for implementing any good changes. You don't
have to give up your favorite, decadent foods, like chocolate and chips. Include the
foods you truly like, eat little amounts of them, and concentrate on savoring and
consuming them thoughtfully. This lessens the sense of limitation and increases the
sustainability of good eating. Instead of removing something, consider what you could
add. A hearty serving (about two handfuls) of vegetables, such as crunchy lettuce, a
juicy tomato, beets, or some delectable grilled mushrooms, will bulk out a hamburger,
for instance. Keep in mind that these are only broad suggestions that may need to be
adjusted for each person.
● Being active
 Along with assisting weight reduction attempts, exercise also benefits your
heart, bones, and mental health. Be more active throughout your whole day, whether it
be at home, school, or work, since it all adds up. Aim for at least 30 minutes of
exercise each day. Throughout the week, try to mix strength (weight-bearing) training
with cardio (walking, jogging). You may become even more active with a planned
activity. Increase the quantity progressively as your fitness level rises. Whatever
workout you select, it must be interesting and fun for you to stay motivated.

4. Designing a healthful diet

4.1. Introduction
A healthy diet consists of eating nutrient-dense foods in the appropriate
amounts from all of the major food groups. A healthy diet must include a variety of
food groups, as no single food group can provide everything the body requires for
good health.
Making healthy food choices lowers one's risk of developing many chronic
health conditions, such as cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and cancer. Because
there is so much information available, creating a suitable, healthful diet can be
overwhelming. However, a few simple changes can make a diet more nutritious while
also lowering the risk of many medical problems.
4.2. Nutrition and health
Simply expressed, food refers to the plants and animals we consume, while
nutrition refers to how food influences bodily health. The Academy of Nutrition and
Dietetics states that food is crucial because it gives the body the nutrients it needs to
function and stay healthy. Food is made up of macronutrients like protein, carbs, and
fat that not only provide calories to fuel and energize the body, but also have specific
functions in preserving health. Additionally, food provides the body with
phytochemicals and micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) that are necessary for the
body to function at its best. (Phytochemicals are the substances that give plants their
flavor, color, and aroma. Although many have been shown to have an impact on
human health, they are not technically nutrients.)
 The study of nutrition entails more than just talking about food and the
nutrients the body requires. It covers how those nutrients are broken down, absorbed,
and utilized by the body's cells. It looks at how food fuels daily activities and how our
eating habits and food preferences affect our body weight and risk for chronic diseases
like heart disease and type 2 diabetes. It also sheds light on the behavioral, social, and
environmental factors that affect our eating habits, including what, how, when, and
why. As a result, nutrition plays a significant role in the overall conversation about
health and wellness.
4.2.1. Nutrition affects health
Health is "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not
merely the absence of disease or infirmity," according to the World Health
Organization (WHO). According to the WHO, proper nutrition is essential to both
health and development and is associated with:
● Improved infant, child and maternal health
● Stronger immune systems
● Safer pregnancy and childbirth
● Lower risk of non-communicable diseases (such as type 2 diabetes and
cardiovascular disease)
● Greater longevity
● Greater productivity, creating opportunities to break cycles of poverty
and hunger
Malnutrition poses a serious risk to human health, including both under- and
overeating. In fact, heart disease, cancer, diabetes, and stroke are four of the top ten
leading causes of death in the United States that are correlated with nutrition.
Both the physical and mental health can be impacted by nutrition. According to
some research, people's eating habits can affect how they feel. In a 2019 study of
moderately depressed individuals between the ages of 17 and 35, it was discovered
that when half of the participants switched to a Mediterranean-style eating pattern for
three weeks, emphasizing more fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean protein sources,
unsweetened dairy, fish, nuts and seeds, olive oil, and spices, their depression levels
decreased in comparison to participants who continued to follow their regular dietary
patterns. Healthier diets and a lower risk of depression have been linked in certain
other research as well. Researchers hypothesize that these dietary habits may affect
the brain and mental health, possibly by reducing inflammation or altering the body's
microbiome.
In addition to nutrition, genetics, the environment, the life cycle, and lifestyle
all have an impact on health. Personal food preferences are an essential aspect of
lifestyle. Dietary practices include what a person consumes, how much they eat at
meals, how frequently they eat, and how frequently they eat out. Other lifestyle factors
that affect health and have an impact on dietary preferences and nutrition status are the
amount of physical activity, use of recreational drugs, and sleeping patterns. Your
general health and well-being will improve if you lead a healthy lifestyle.
4.2.2. The difficulty of food selection
In addition to environment and lifestyle, there are other elements that affect the
meals you choose to eat. Your appetite and mood can be controlled by the food you
eat. Numerous studies have shown that some high-fiber and high-protein foods reduce
appetite by delaying the feeling of fullness and slowing the digestive process. Manage
how much you eat and how long it takes you to feel full by making food choices that
maximize nutrient intake and satiety.
Taste, texture, and appearance: They are a few key aspects that influence
people's nutritional decisions. People have a diverse spectrum of taste preferences,
which affects the foods they choose to eat. For instance, some people detest milk
while others detest uncooked veggies. People can eventually learn to like foods with
repeated exposures, even those that may not initially appeal to them, like vegetables or
tofu. These foods can frequently be adapted to meet most taste preferences.
Economics: For those who live in economically underdeveloped or remote
areas, where the only affordable food options are convenience stores and fast food,
access to fresh fruits and vegetables may be restricted.
Habits: It's common to develop dietary routines, which can be beneficial or
detrimental to your health. Even though eating a fast food sandwich for breakfast
every day may seem convenient, it might not provide much nutrients. But developing
the habit of consuming enough water every day can have a number of advantages.
 Culture: How a person views food in daily life and on special occasions
depends on the culture in which they were raised.
Geographical factors can affect a person's eating preferences. For instance,
residents of US states in the Midwest have less access to seafood than residents of
areas with coasts.
4.3. Classification of nutrients
Nutrients are chemical substances found in food that are required by the body
to provide energy, give the body structure, and help regulate chemical processes.
There are six classes of nutrients:
● Carbohydrates
● Lipids
● Proteins
● Water
● Vitamins
● Minerals
Nutrients can be further classified as either macronutrients or micronutrients
and either organic or inorganic, as well as whether or not they provide energy to the
body (energy-yielding). We’ll discuss these different ways of classifying nutrients in
the following sections.
Macronutrients: Nutrients that are needed in large amounts are called
macronutrients. There are three classes of macronutrients: carbohydrates, lipids, and
proteins. Water is also a macronutrient in the sense that humans require a large
amount of it, but unlike the other macronutrients, it does not yield energy.
● Carbohydrates are molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen. They are a major fuel source for all cells of the body. The major
food sources of carbohydrates are grains, dairy products, fruits, legumes,
and starchy vegetables. Certain cells, like red blood cells, rely solely on
carbohydrates for energy.
● Lipids are also a family of molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen. Lipids are found predominantly in butter, oils, meats, dairy
 products, nuts and seeds. The three main types of lipids are triglycerides,
phospholipids, and sterols.
● Proteins are large molecules composed of chains of amino acids, which
are simple subunits made of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen.
Food sources of proteins include meats, dairy products, seafood, and a
variety of plant-based foods. Scientists estimate that more than 100,000
different proteins exist within the human body.
● Water: More than 60% of total body weight is water. On average, an
adult consumes just over two liters of water per day from food and drink
combined. Since water is so critical for life's basic processes, we can
only survive a few days without it.
Micronutrients: Nutrients that the body requires in smaller amounts but are still
necessary for bodily functions. All of the essential minerals and vitamins are included
in micronutrients. There are 16 minerals and 13 vitamins that are required.
Micronutrients, unlike carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, do not provide energy, but
they do aid in the process of energy metabolism as cofactors or enzyme components
(known as coenzymes). Enzymes are proteins that catalyze (or accelerate) chemical
reactions in the body; they are involved in all aspects of body functions, including
energy production, nutrient digestion, and macromolecule formation.
● Minerals are inorganic substances that are classified based on the
amount required by the body. Trace minerals like molybdenum,
selenium, zinc, iron, and iodine are only needed in milligrams or less per
day. Calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, and phosphorus are all
essential minerals that must be consumed in quantities of hundreds of
milligrams or more per day. Many minerals are required for enzyme
function, while others are used to maintain fluid balance, build bone
tissue, synthesize hormones, transmit nerve impulses, contract and relax
muscles, and protect the body from harmful free radicals.
● Vitamins are organic nutrients that are classified based on their water
solubility. Vitamin C and all of the B vitamins are water-soluble.
Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble vitamins. Vitamins are required
 for many bodily functions, including the formation of red blood cells,
the formation of bone tissue, and the maintenance of normal vision,
nervous system function, and immune function.
● Energy - yielding nutrients: The only nutrients that provide energy to the
body are macronutrients such as carbohydrate, protein, and fat. The
chemical bonds between macronutrients provide energy. This chemical
energy is converted into cellular energy, which can be used to perform
work and allows cells to carry out their basic functions. Although
vitamins contain energy in their chemical bonds, our bodies do not
produce the enzymes required to break these bonds and release the
energy.
4.4. Tools for achieving a healthy diet
Achieving a healthy diet is a matter of balancing the quality and quantity of
food that you eat to provide an appropriate combination of energy and nutrients. There
are four key characteristics that make up a healthful diet:
● Adequacy: A diet is adequate when it contains adequate amounts of
calories, each essential nutrient, and fiber. Most Americans report eating
insufficient amounts of fruits and vegetables, whole grains, and dairy,
which may result in a lack of essential vitamins and minerals found in
these food groups, such as Vitamin C, potassium, and calcium, as well
as fiber.
● Balance: A balanced diet consists of eating foods from various food
groups, and because these food groups provide different nutrients, a
balanced diet is likely to be nutrient-dense. Vegetables, for example, are
high in potassium, dietary fiber, folate, vitamin A, and vitamin C,
whereas grains are high in B vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and
folate) and minerals (iron, magnesium, and selenium). There is no one
food that is more important than another. The combination of all food
groups (fruit, vegetables, grains, dairy, protein, and fats/oils) ensures an
adequate diet.
 ● Moderation: Moderation entails consuming neither too much nor too
little of any one food or nutrient. Small portions of higher-calorie,
lower-nutrient foods like chips and candy can fit into a healthy diet if
consumed in moderation. Incorporating these foods can make healthy
eating more enjoyable and sustainable. When eating becomes excessive-
when many foods are forbidden-this eating pattern is frequently short-
lived until forbidden foods are overeaten. Too many food rules can
create a vicious cycle of restriction, deprivation, overeating, and guilt.
Giving yourself permission to eat all foods is essential for long-term
health benefits.
● Variety: Variety refers to eating different foods from each food group on
a regular basis. Eating a diverse diet helps to ensure that you get enough
of all essential nutrients for good health. One of the major disadvantages
of a monotonous diet is the risk of consuming too many nutrients while
not getting enough of others. Trying new foods can also be pleasurable;
you never know what foods you'll like until you try them.
4.5. Healthy eating
Having a balanced diet means eating foods from all main food groups in the
right quantities. These food groups are whole grains, fruits, vegetables, protein, dairy,
fats.
4.5.1. Whole grains
Whole grains are made from the entire grain, including the germ and bran.
Refined grains, on the other hand, contain only a portion of the grain.
Whole grain foods are extremely nutritious. A meta-analysis published in 2016
examined various studies and concluded that eating whole grains helps protect against
a variety of health conditions, with benefits including the following:
● A lower risk of heart disease
● A lower risk of cardiovascular disease
● A lower total cancer risk
● Reduced all-cause mortality
 Whole grain foods are high in fiber and high in B vitamins and trace minerals
such as iron, zinc, and magnesium. Grains lose a lot of their health-promoting
properties after they've been refined. Whole grains include the following:
● Wholemeal bread
● Whole wheat pasta
● Whole grain cereals, such as oatmeal
● Corn
4.5.2. Fruits and vegetables
Vitamins, minerals, and fiber are abundant in fruits and vegetables. Choosing a
variety of colorful fruits and vegetables, according to the American Heart Association
(AHA), is the best way to get all of the vitamins and minerals the body requires. The
AHA recommends that you fill half of your plate with fruit or vegetables at each meal,
totaling 4.5 cups per day. This amount can include fresh, frozen, and canned options.
People can get the most health benefits by reading product labels and avoiding
canned, frozen, or dried products with high sodium or added sugars. All fruits and
vegetables have health benefits, and doctors suggested eating a variety of them.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), a diet rich
in fruits and vegetables can aid in weight loss programs. The CDC also associates this
diet with a lower risk of a variety of conditions, including heart disease, stroke,
diabetes, high blood pressure, and certain cancers.
4.5.3. Protein
Protein is an essential macronutrient that is required by every cell in the body.
It aids in the formation and repair of cells and body tissues such as skin, hair, muscle,
and bone. Protein is also required for blood clotting, immune system responses,
hormone production, and enzyme activity.
Many protein-rich foods are also high in minerals like iron, magnesium, and
zinc. Protein can be found in both animal and plant foods. Meat, fish, and eggs are
examples of animal sources. Protein sources for vegans and vegetarians include beans,
nuts, and soya.
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends that people consume
50 grams (g) of protein per day on a 2,000 calorie diet. Individual protein
requirements will vary depending on activity level and weight. A well-balanced diet
should include a variety of protein foods.
4.5.4. Dairy
Dairy products can be excellent calcium sources. A calcium-rich diet promotes
bone and tooth health.
The dairy food group, according to the United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA), includes:
● Products made from fluid milk.
● Yogurt and cheese are dairy products that retain their calcium content.
● Soy milk with calcium, or soy beverage.
However, there is some debate about whether dairy is beneficial or harmful to
humans. To benefit your heart health, choose low fat or fat-free dairy products such as
milks and yogurts. However, dairy consumption is not required for good health as
long as people get essential nutrients like calcium from nondairy sources. Dairy
substitutes can be part of a healthy diet.
4.5.5. Fats
Fats are an important part of a healthy diet. Fats are required for nervous
system function, energy, vitamin absorption, and skin, hair, and joint health.
Fats can be found in both animal and plant foods. There are several types of
fats, and some are better for you than others:
● Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats are healthful fats that can
boost heart health. Good sources include avocados, fish, nuts, seeds, and
olives.
● Saturated fats and trans fats can raise total cholesterol and low-density
lipoprotein (LDL) or “bad” cholesterol. LDL can increase the risk of
heart disease. Saturated fats usually come from animal products,
including cream, fatty meat, and fried foods.
In a 2,000 calorie diet, the FDA recommends 78 g of fat per day. Saturated fats
should account for no more than 10% of daily calories.
 5. Nutrition through the life cycle: Pregnancy
5.1. Healthy eating in pregnancy
Calorie restriction is not recommended, and recommendations focus on
achieving and maintaining a healthy weight during pregnancy by focusing on starchy
foods (wholegrain if possible), eating fiber-rich foods, and eating at least five portions
of fruit and vegetables per day. Foods high in fat and sugar (such as fried foods, some
beverages, and confectionery) should be avoided. Pregnant women are also advised to
eat breakfast and to monitor their portion sizes and frequency of eating.
Low-fat dairy foods are recommended as a calcium source, along with a daily
protein intake of lean meat, two portions of fish per week (one of which should be
oily), or lentils, beans, and tofu.
5.2. Nutrient requirements in pregnancy
5.2.1. Energy and macronutrients
Carbohydrates and fiber: Carbohydrates are the primary substrate for fetal
growth, fueling maternal and fetal organ function, biosynthesis, and are also used in
cell structure, coenzymes, and DNA. Glucose from carbohydrates is the preferred
source of energy for maternal and fetal brain functions, with glucose accounting for at
least 75% of fetal energy requirements. Glucose crosses the placenta via facilitated
diffusion along a concentration gradient via glucose transporter family members.
Protein: Protein forms the building blocks for both structural and functional
components of cells. Protein is an alternative energy source when carbohydrate intake
is insufficient. Requirements are highest during the second and third trimesters due to
extra development and growth of both maternal and fetal tissue. Low socioeconomic
status and women with limited dietary variety are at risk of suboptimal protein intake.
Fats and essential fatty acids: Fat acids transport fat-soluble vitamins A, K, D
and E and are required for structural (e.g. membrane lipids) and metabolic functions
(e.g. precursor for steroid hormones). PUFAs (polyunsaturated fatty acids) are
important for neurological development including fetal brain, nervous system and
retina. Oily fish, nuts, seeds, vegetable oils, margarines and green leafy vegetables are
encouraged to obtain a greater intake of PUFA. Essential fatty acids linoleic and alpha
linolenic acid are precursors for n-6, n-3 LCPUFA and prostaglandins; these are
components of the inflammatory process with a role in diseases characterized by
inflammation, reproductive health, cervical ripening and initiation of labor. Systematic
reviews of RCTs have found little or no effect of n-3 LCPUFA supplementation in
pregnancy on cognitive development, birth weight, gestational diabetes mellitus or
pre-eclampsia. There is, however, a beneficial effect on increasing gestational length
and reducing risk of preterm birth. Triglyceride lipases in the placenta degrade
triglycerides into fatty acids. Diffusion allows fatty acids and ketone bodies (produced
by maternal lipolysis) to cross the placenta. LDL, HDL, and VLDL are cholesterol-
carrying lipoproteins that transport cholesterol into the fetal
circulation.Syncytiotrophoblasts express lipoprotein receptors such as the LDL
receptor, the scavenger receptor class B type 1 receptor, and the VLDL receptor. The
fetal endothelium's binding cassette transporters A1 and GI allow cholesterol to enter
the fetal circulation. Endogenous cholesterol synthesis occurs in the fetus as well.
5.2.2. Micronutrients
Iron and vitamin C: Iron is a component of hemoglobin that is required for fetal
development, placental growth, and maternal red blood cell mass expansion. Iron
deficiency occurs, especially in late pregnancy, when iron transfer to the fetus
increases to meet increased demands. Deficiency has been linked to an increased risk
of preterm birth, low birth weight, infant iron deficiency, and poor long-term
cognition and brain function. Because significant blood loss can occur during
childbirth, replenishing stores is essential. Iron transfer to the fetus is facilitated by
placental transferrin receptors for transferrin-bound iron endocytosis. Although
vitamin C aids iron absorption and competes with glucose for placental receptors,
maternal hyperglycemia does not result in fetal hypovitaminosis C. Supplementing
with vitamin C alone reduced the risk of preterm and term PROM, but supplementing
with vitamin C and vitamin E increased the risk of term PROM.
Folate and vitamin B12: The use of periconceptional folic acid to prevent
neural tube defects is well established. There is no clear effect of folic acid
supplementation on cleft palate/lip or congenital cardiovascular defects. Because 5%
of the general population is deficient in folate, all women are advised to take 400
mcg/day of folic acid prior to conception until the 13th week of pregnancy, with
higher doses in certain circumstances. Folate binding receptors maintain a high foetal
maternal concentration gradient for DNA synthesis while vitamin B12 is transported
via placental receptors. Both micronutrients are associated with a reduction in
megaloblastic anemia, placental vascular disorders, preterm birth, low birth weight
and SGA via regulation of circulating homocysteine levels.
Vitamin D and calcium: Vitamin D is necessary for immune and nervous
system function, as well as for the accumulation of fetal calcium from maternal stores
during skeletal growth. Rickets, craniotabes, and osteopenia can all be caused by a
lack of vitamin D. Calcium supplementation lowers the risk of developing
hypertensive disorders during pregnancy, and a growing body of evidence shows a
link between vitamin D deficiency and low birth weight, preterm delivery, gestational
diabetes mellitus, and pre-eclampsia.
Iodine: Iodine is required for fetal thyroid function as well as neurological
development. Mental retardation and cognitive deficit have been linked to iodine
deficiency. In areas with severe iodine deficiency, periconceptional and antenatal
iodine supplementation has been shown to reduce the risk of cretinism and improve
motor function. There have been reports of gestational iodine deficiency and the
potential benefits of iodine supplementation.
5.3. Gestational weight gain and obesity in pregnancy
To achieve appropriate gestational weight gain, energy intake is balanced
against physical activity, pre-pregnancy weight, age, nutritional status, percent of
body fat to fat free mass, basal metabolic rate, and energy expenditure to support
placental-fetal unit growth and development. It is difficult to establish a link between
gestational weight gain and pregnancy outcomes because it is a reflection of multiple
components, including the fetus, placenta, uterus, amniotic fluid, maternal adipose
tissue, blood volume expansion, and mammary glands.
A high pre-pregnancy BMI is associated with negative maternal and fetal
outcomes such as gestational diabetes, pre-eclampsia, cesarean section, assisted
delivery, postpartum hemorrhage, infection and thrombosis, large for gestational age
(LGA) growth, birth defects, and stillbirth. These women should be warned of the
increased risks during pregnancy and encouraged to make lifestyle changes to help
with weight management. Randomized controlled trials of physical activity and
dietary interventions in obese women failed to show a reduction in the risk of
gestational diabetes and LGA. More research is needed to determine the best
gestational weight gain in various BMI categories.

6. Nutrition through life cycle: Childhood and adolescence

Early childhood and adolescence are acknowledged as essential periods in child
development, encompassing physical, cognitive, social, and emotional health.
Nutrition is critical to this process. Parents and caregivers are primarily responsible
for nutrition in infancy and early childhood, but as children get older, they gain more
autonomy or control over their food preferences and food choices. To sustain optimal
health, parents, caregivers, children, and adolescents must navigate an increasingly
complex food system. While nutrition is recognized as a crucial role, other elements
are also important in what has been referred to as loving care (WHO, UNICEF &
World Bank Group 2016). Infant, child, and adolescent care must include the
following components for optimal growth and development, which will influence the
options available and the trajectory for health in adulthood:

Figure: The domain of nurturing

6.1. Childhood
6.1.1. Definition
Childhood is commonly used to refer to the period between infancy and
adolescence. The Convention on the Rights of the Child defines it as a person younger
than 18 years old, unless the legal definition of 'adult' in a given country is younger. In
this essay, a physiological definition of child would be between the ages of one and
ten, when puberty begins.
6.1.2. Energy requirements
By examining the food intake of healthy newborns and children and basing
requirements on the amounts of nutrients acquired in the body during growth,
adequate intake of energy and nutrients required for proper growth in children may be
determined. In most cases, the Recommended Dietary Intake (RDI) is based on both
types of data. After the first year of life, the energy demand for baseline metabolism
and activity grows proportionally with body size, although the energy requirement for
growth is very minor. During childhood and adolescence, nutrient requirements grow
with age and body size, but decrease when expressed relative to body weight. Energy
requirements per day can be determined by this equation
Estimated Energy Requirement (kcal/day) = Total Energy Expenditure + Energy
Deposition

6.1.3. Nutrient requirements

Macronutrients:
● Carbohydrate: The Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR) for
carb is 45-65 percent of daily calories (which is a recommended daily
allowance of 135–195 grams for 1,200 daily calories). The majority of calories
should come from fiber-rich carbohydrates.
● Protein: has an AMDR of 10-30% of daily calories (30–90 grams for 1,200
daily calories). Protein is essential for children's muscle growth and
development. Lipid: The AMDR for fat ranges between 25 and 35 percent of
daily calories (33–47 grams for 1,200 daily calories). Children should consume
17-25 g of fiber every day. To encourage growth, substantial quantities of
essential fatty acids are required (although not as high as in infancy and the
toddler years).
Micronutrients
 Food should be used first to meet micronutrient requirements. To ensure that
nutritional needs are met, parents and caregivers should choose a range of foods from
each food group. Because children grow quickly, iron-rich meals such as lean meats,
beans, fish, poultry, and iron-enriched cereals are essential. Adequate fluoride is
essential for strong teeth. Adequate calcium and vitamin D intake is one of the most
critical micronutrient requirements during childhood. Both are required for the
formation of thick bones and a robust skeleton. Children who do not get enough
vitamin D should be given a daily dose of 10 micrograms (400 international units).

Table: Micronutrient Levels during Childhood

6.2. Adolescence
Adolescence is characterized by change. This encompasses adjustments to
one's physical qualities, psychological growth, and societal duties and obligations.
Adolescents' increased control over their own eating habits is a significant result of
these changes. The foods consumed will now depend on a variety of additional factors
in addition to family food habits, such as self-image, peers, the media, cultural and
social standards regarding body size and shape, financial availability to food, and the
location of food establishments. Snacks are frequently consumed between meals and
sometimes even in place of them in the diets of adolescents. It is frequently forgotten
that adolescents need more total energy than young adults do. There is opportunity for
the eating of some foods with a higher energy density because adolescents' daily
energy needs are typically roughly 1000 kJ higher than those of adults. Despite the
fact that many snacks, such as chocolate bars, potato chips, crisps, cakes, pies,
biscuits, and soft drinks, may be high in calories (fat and/or sugar) but relatively low
in nutrients, there are others that may be more nutrient-dense. Snacks with a high
nutrient concentration include fruit, raw vegetables, nuts, cheese, bread, morning
cereals, eggs, meat, and fish.

7. Nutrition through life cycle: Adult and years later

Age, as defined for children and adolescents, is both a biological and a societal
construct. In Australia and New Zealand, adulthood is defined as being eighteen years
of age or older. Age can be defined as either chronological or biological age.
According to recent research, people are biologically older than they used to be
at the same chronological age, and this difference might be as much as ten years. In
Australia, those aged 65 and up are typically referred to as elderly, because this is the
age at which adults become eligible for the age pension. In other cultures, 'old age'
begins at the age of 50. Nutrient requirements may change as people age. The
fundamental issue for older persons is to eat a nutrient-dense diet that includes, among
other things, enough protein to preserve muscle mass and
micronutrients/phytonutrients for health and wellness.
The nutritional and dietary requirements that may prevent or manage the
development of key age-related conditions have been discussed. A variety of
measures, however, can contribute to good aging. These are concerned with nutrition,
physical activity, and social and emotional well-being. Messages for healthy longevity
could include:
● Maintain a sense of community and companionship as a security
network.
● Be active lifelong.
● Eat a variety of nutrient- and phytonutrient-dense foods and reduce
energy-dense/ nutrient-poor food intakes.
 ● Stay hydrated.
● Eat regularly and share meals.
● Maintain a healthy weight: beware unintended weight loss.
● Avoid stressful situations.
● Cultivate and maintain a sense of purpose.
● Develop and maintain restful sleep habits.
● Exercise minds and practice meditation.
● Develop an active social network.
● Default to healthy habits.

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