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APPROACH – ANSWER: G. S. MAINS MOCK TEST - 1488 (2021)

Answer all the questions in NOT MORE THAN 200 WORDS each. Content of the answers is more
important than its length. All questions carry equal marks. 12.5X20=250
1. What do you understand by the phenomenon of El Nino? How does it influence Indian monsoon?
Approach:
• Describe the phenomenon of El Nino.
• Explain how it influences Indian Monsoon.
• Conclude on the basis of above points.
Answer:
El Nino is a periodic phenomenon, which affects the Pacific Ocean, every two to seven years. In the
usual course, there is an east-west circulation of the atmosphere above the tropical Pacific Ocean,
called the Walker circulation. During El Nino, this walker circulation is weakened and shifted
eastward. As a result, the cold Peruvian current in the eastern Pacific Ocean is temporarily
replaced by the warm water.
The El Nino is also closely
associated with the pressure
changes in the Central Pacific
and Australia. This change in
pressure condition over Pacific
is known as the Southern
Oscillation. El Nino conditions
are said to develop when the
sea-surface temperature stays
above the average by 0.5
degree Celsius or more for
about 5-6 months.
Influence of El Nino on Indian
Monsoon:
El Nino leads to warming of the
whole middle Pacific Ocean and
this causes a very low
atmospheric pressure in that area. Whenever this low-pressure belt extends to the eastern central
part of the Indian Ocean, it creates a low pressure in that area also.
The Indian Monsoon is primarily driven by low-pressure cell over the Indian sub-continent, which
attract the southeast trade winds from the Equator. However, the low pressure in the eastern
central part of Indian Ocean due to El Nino is comparatively stronger than the low pressure
formed on the landmass of the Indian subcontinent. Therefore, winds from the high-pressure area
of the Arabian sea begin to blow towards the south-eastern Indian Ocean (as seen in the diagram).
In this way, the El Nino generally leads to reduced rainfall in case of southwest monsoon.
Further, some studies have also suggested that the northeast monsoon is strengthened with El
Nino, as it picks up moisture from Bay of Bengal and causes rainfall over peninsular India. However,
El Nino alone cannot be used to predict the Indian monsoon. Indian monsoon is a very complex
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 phenomenon, which involves other factors like Indian Ocean Dipole, Madden-Julian Oscillation etc.
For example, the year 2019 was a strong El Nino year, but due to positive Indian Ocean Dipole, India
received excess rainfall.

2. Illustrating the heat budget of earth, explain the mechanisms through which redistribution of
heat takes place between latitudes on earth.
Approach:
• Explain the heat budget of the earth.
• Discuss the mechanisms through which heat is redistributed on the earth.
• Conclude on the basis of above points.
Answer:
The heat budget of the earth means that the earth as a whole maintains its temperature as it
neither accumulates nor loses heat. The amount of heat received in the form of insolation equals
the amount lost by the earth through terrestrial radiation.
Roughly 35% of the radiation
is reflected back even before
reaching the earth’s surface.
The remaining 65% is
absorbed which is radiated
back to the space as shown in
the figure.
However, there are
latitudinal variations in the
amount of insolation received
at the earth’s surface. Tropics
receive a surplus of heat
energy, which is redistributed
pole wards, having a deficit in heat energy. As a result, there is no progressive heating up of the
tropics and the high latitudes do not get permanently frozen as well.
This redistribution of heat between latitudes is called meridional heat transfer, which happens
through following mechanisms:
• Atmospheric system: Atmospheric circulations from the surface upwards and vice-versa form
convective cells to transfer heat energy between latitudes. These convective cells create bands
of low and high pressure that roughly follow lines of latitude. For example, Hadley cell in the
tropics where air rises near the equator and
descends on subtropical latitudes, transfers heat
from the equator to the tropics. Ferrel cell in the
middle latitudes constitutes air that flows along
the surface towards high latitudes. This air
accumulates the heat energy and rises near 45-
60 degree latitudes, thus transferring energy in
the process. Polar cell exists at polar latitudes.
Here, the cold dense air subsides near the poles
and blows towards middle latitudes as the polar
easterlies. Also, there are many seasonal and
local winds, which act to transfer the heat
between latitudes.
• Oceanic system: Various ocean currents transfer the heat from the equator to the pole. Cold
currents bring cold water into warm water areas. These currents are usually found on the west
coast of the continents in the low and middle latitudes. In the northern hemisphere, they are
found on the east coast in the high latitudes. Warm currents bring warm water into cold-
water areas and are usually observed on the east coast of continents in the low and middle
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 latitudes. In the northern hemisphere, they are found on the west coasts of continents in high
latitudes. For example, the presence of warm ocean currents, Gulf Stream and North Atlantic
drift, make the Northern Atlantic Ocean warmer. Similarly, the warm Kuroshio current makes
ports in Japan navigable during winter.
This collective mechanism of the atmospheric and oceanic system is known as Earth’s heat engine,
which helps earth keep its heat balance by transferring heat between the latitudes.

3. Give a brief account of location of sugar industry in India.

Approach:
• Briefly write about the significance of the sugar industry in India.
• Write about the factors determining location of the sugar industry.
• Conclude on the basis of above points.
Answer:
Sugar industry is an important agro-based industry that impacts the rural livelihood of about 50
million sugarcane farmers and around 5 lakh workers directly employed in sugar mills. India
became the world’s largest sugar producer in 2018-19 overtaking Brazil and is also the largest
consumer. Sugar industry in India is broadly distributed over two major areas of production-
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana and Punjab in the north and Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
and Andhra Pradesh in the south.
Factors affecting location of sugar industries in India:
• Historical factor: Development of
the industry on modern lines dates
back to 1903, when a sugar mill
was started in Bihar. Subsequently,
sugar mills were started in other
parts of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
• Government’s incentive structure:
The government’s favourable
policies including the subsidies on
power and effective minimum
support price (MSP) promote
cultivation of sugarcane. This along
with the availability of the fertile
land and water were the reasons
that ensured the sugar industries
flourished in the subtropical climate
of UP, Bihar and other northern
states like Punjab and Haryana,
despite sugarcane being primarily a
tropical crop.
• Nature of raw material: Sugar
industry in India is based on
sugarcane, which is a heavy, low
value, weight losing and
perishable raw material.
Sugarcane cannot be stored for long
as the loss of sucrose content is inevitable. Besides, it cannot be transported over long distances
due to increase in the cost of production and drying up of sugarcane on the way. This is the
reason that the sugar industries are localized in the regions of sugarcane production.
• Shifting of sugar industries from north India to south India: The sugar industry of India is
gradually shifting from north India to south India in the states of Maharashtra, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh because of:

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 o South India has tropical climate, which is suitable for higher sucrose content giving
higher yield per unit area as compared to north India.
o South India enjoys a longer crushing season, which lasts from October to May or even June
(nearly 8 months) as compared to north where it lasts from November to February (4
months)
o South India has better export facilities than north India.
o Cooperative sugar mills are better managed in south India.
Sugar industry in India continues to face some challenges like low yield of sugarcane, short crushing
season, low sugar prices and high sugarcane cost, old and inefficient methods of production etc. In
this context, it is imperative to take steps to bring down the cost of production of sugar in India and
upgrading of infrastructure and processes in the sugar industry.

4. Giving a brief account of temperature distribution of ocean water, highlight the factors
responsible for the same.
Approach:
• Give a brief account of vertical temperature distribution of ocean water.
• Similarly, give an account of horizontal distribution of ocean water.
• Highlight the various factors responsible for temperature distribution of ocean water.
Answer:
Temperature distribution of ocean water is explained in two profiles i.e. Horizontal and Vertical
distribution.
Vertical distribution of ocean water:
The temperature-depth profile for the ocean water shows
how temperature decreases with increasing depth. The
temperature structure of oceans over middle and low
latitudes can be described as a three-layer system from the
surface to the bottom.
• The first layer represents the top layer of warm oceanic
water and it is about 500m thick with temperature
ranging between 20° and 25°C. This layer, within the
tropical region, is present throughout the year but in the
mid-latitudes, it develops only during summer.
• The second layer called the thermocline layer lies
below the first layer and is characterized by rapid
decrease in temperature with increasing depth. This
layer is about 500-1000m thick.
• The third layer is very cold and extends up to the deep ocean floor.
In the Arctic and Antarctic circles, the surface temperature is close to 0°C and only one layer of
cold water exists, which extends from surface to deep ocean floor.
Horizontal distribution of ocean water:
The average temperature of surface water of the oceans is about 27°C and it gradually decreases
from the equator towards the poles. The rate of decrease of temperature with increasing latitude is
generally 0.5°C per latitude. The average temperature is around 22°C at 20° latitude and 14°C at 40°
latitude and 0°C near the poles. Further, the highest surface temperature is not recorded at the
equator but slightly towards north of it.
Factors responsible for the distribution of ocean temperature are:
• Latitude: The temperature of surface water decreases from the equator towards the poles
because the amount of insolation decreases poleward.

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 • Unequal distribution of land and water: The oceans in the northern hemisphere receive more
heat due to their contact with larger extent of land than the oceans in the southern hemisphere.
• Prevailing winds: The winds blowing from the land towards the oceans drag warm water away
from the coast resulting in upwelling of cold water from below. This results in the longitudinal
variation in the temperature. The onshore winds have a reverse effect.
• Ocean currents: Warm ocean currents raise the temperature in cold areas while cold ocean
currents decrease the temperature in warm ocean areas. For example, the Gulf stream (warm
current) raises the temperature near the eastern coast of North America and the west coast of
Europe while the Labrador current (cold current) lowers the temperature near the north-east
coast of North America.
The mentioned factors influence the temperature of the ocean currents locally. Also, the enclosed
seas in the low latitudes record relatively higher temperature than the open seas; whereas the
enclosed seas in the higher latitudes have lower temperature than the open seas.

5. Highlighting the characteristic features of equatorial vegetation, explain why these regions
remain largely underdeveloped.
Approach:
• Briefly state the climatic factors that influence growth of vegetation in the equatorial region.
• Highlight the characteristic features of equatorial vegetation.
• Discuss the factors that affect the development of the region.
Answer:
High temperature and abundant rainfall throughout the year in the equatorial regions
(between 5° and 10° north and south of the Equator) support a luxuriant type of vegetation i.e. the
equatorial rain forests.
The characteristic features of the equatorial vegetation are:
• Diversity of vegetation: The equatorial vegetation comprises a multitude of evergreen trees
(e.g. mahogany, ebony), small palm trees, climbers (like lianas), epiphytic and parasitic plants.
Under the trees, a wide variety of ferns, orchids and lalang also grow.
• A distinct layered arrangement: All plants struggle upwards for sunlight resulting in a distinct
layered arrangement. Lack of sunlight makes
undergrowth less dense.
• Multiple species: The trees of the equatorial rain
forests are not found in pure stands of a single
species. For instance, in Malaysia, as many as 200
species of trees can be found in an acre of forest.
• Forest clearings: Many parts of the virgin tropical
rain forests have been cleared either for lumbering
or shifting cultivation. When these are left
abandoned, less luxuriant, secondary forests spring
up, which are characterized by short trees and very
dense undergrowth.
The equatorial regions are sparsely populated. Mostly primitive groups live as hunters and
collectors and the more advanced ones practice shifting cultivation. Despite having abundant
natural resources, the equatorial regions remain underdeveloped due to the following
factors:
• Equatorial climate and health: Under the conditions of excessive heat and high humidity,
people are subjected to serious physical and mental stress, which reduces their capacity to
work. Also, people in these areas are susceptible to various diseases like malaria, yellow fever
etc., which hampers their productivity.

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 • Forest hinders development and maintenance: Since the jungle is luxuriant, it is difficult to
clear and maintain a patch of land. Further, construction and maintenance of roads and railways
become difficult.
• Difficulties in lumbering: Commercial extraction of abundant timber resources of the region is
difficult because the trees do not occur in homogenous stands. Also, there is no frozen surface to
facilitate logging and the tropical hardwoods are sometimes too heavy to float in the rivers.
• Rapid deterioration of tropical soil: The torrential downpours in the region wash out most of
the soil nutrients and the soil deteriorates rapidly, making the region unsuitable for large-scale
farming.
• Difficulties in livestock farming: It is greatly handicapped by the absence of meadow grass,
frequent occurrence of diseases such as ngana (caused by tsetse flies) among domesticated
animals etc.
With the advent of colonialism, however, many large plantations were established in Malaysia,
Indonesia, Ghana etc. due to favourable climate for crops such as rubber, cocoa etc.

6. Define the phenomenon of temperature inversion. What are the factors for it to take place?
Also, enumerate its prominent effects.
Approach:
• Explain temperature inversion.
• Mention the factors for temperature inversion to take place.
• Discuss its prominent effects.
Answer:
Temperature inversion or thermal inversion is defined as a reversal of the general pattern of
changes in air temperature with elevation in the troposphere. Under normal conditions, the
temperature of the atmosphere decreases with an increase in the altitude at the rate of 6.5 degree
celsius per 1000 meters, which is called the normal lapse rate. Sometimes instead of decreasing, the
temperature may rise with the elevation. This rise of temperature with height is known as
temperature inversion. Inversion is usually of short duration but quite common in some places,
such as the Polar Regions throughout the year.
The factors required for it to take place are:
• Long winter nights aided by mountainous topography allow cold air on the mountains to
move down and occupy the valley due to high pressure. It pushes warm air upwards, giving rise
to temperature inversion where the layers of warm and cold air are formed.
• Cloudless clear sky allows the unobstructed escape of radiation. In the night the ground
becomes cooler while the air above it retains the heat and is warmer.
• Calm and stable atmosphere restricts the cold air near the ground and prevents the blowing
and mixing of the warm and cold air.
• In the coastal regions upwelling of cold water can decrease surface air temperature. Thus, the
air mass near the surface becomes cooler than the warmer upper layer. Ice-covered surfaces
have high albedo and therefore absorb less heat. At night, due to terrestrial radiation, most of
the heat is lost to the atmosphere and the surface is cooler than the atmosphere.
The above factors manifest in various types of inversions such as frontal inversion, radiation
inversion, subsidence inversion and air drainage inversion.
Prominent effects of temperature inversion include:
• Increased air pollution and reduced visibility: Inversion prevents movement of smoke, dust
particles and other pollutants and keeps them trapped in the lower layer of the atmosphere. The
resulting smog like conditions cause breathing problems along with reduced visibility.
• Reduced precipitation: Due to stability in the lower atmospheric layers and resultant lack of
vertical movement of moist air, convective clouds do not grow high enough for rainfall to take
place.

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 • Loss of vegetation: Sometimes, the temperature of the air at the valley bottom reaches below
freezing point. As a result, the trees along the lower slopes are bitten by frost, whereas those at
higher levels are free from it.
• Habitation pattern: To avoid cold and foggy valleys, people in the intermontane valley tend to
settle along the upper slope. Coffee plantations in Brazil and apple growers of the Himalayas in
India avoid lower slopes.

7. Explain the formation of tropical cyclones. Also, illustrate the global distribution of these
cyclones.
Approach:
• Write a short note about tropical cyclones and favourable conditions for the formation of
tropical cyclones.
• Discuss origination of tropical cyclones and their intensification.
• Highlight its global distribution in the concluding part.
Answer:
A tropical cyclone is a rotational low-pressure system (not associated with a front) that develops
over tropics and has organized deep convection with a closed wind circulation about a well-defined
center. The conditions favorable for its formation and intensification are:
• Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C
• Presence of the Coriolis force
• Small variations in the vertical wind speed/strong pressure gradient force
• A pre-existing weak low-pressure area
• Upper divergence/high pressure above the sea level system
Formation of tropical cyclones
• Tropical cyclones form only over low pressure/high temperature areas in tropical waters. Due
to higher temperature, the moist air over the ocean gets warm and starts rising upward
from the surface. As the air moves up from the ocean surface, it leaves less air near the surface
and creates a lower pressure zone.
• The air from surrounding high pressure areas pushes into the low pressure area. Then this air
becomes warm and moist and rises, too. This cycle continues and creates an intense low-
pressure system.
• As the storm system rotates faster, “an eye”
forms in the centre, which is a calm region with
very low air pressure. Around the eye is the eye
wall, where there is a strong spiraling ascent of
air to greater height reaching the tropopause.
The wind reaches maximum velocity in this
region and torrential rain occurs here.
• As the warmed, moist air rises and cools, the
water in the air forms towering cumulonimbus
clouds. The whole system of clouds and wind
spins and grows, fed by the ocean’s heat and
water evaporating from the ocean surface.
• On reaching the land the moisture supply is cut
off and the storm dissipates. The place where a
tropical cyclone crosses the coast is called the
landfall of the cyclone.
Global distribution of cyclones
• Their occurrence is limited to warm tropical
areas with vast ocean surface. Tropical cyclones mostly originate on the western margins of the
tropical oceans and are rare in the eastern tropical oceans. Because the cold currents lower the
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 surface temperatures of the eastern parts of the tropical oceans making them unfit for the
breeding of cyclonic storms. For example, the presence of Peru Current on eastern margin of
South America reduces the temperature of ocean waters.
• The lower pressure area at equator is directly filled by the air from the high-pressure area due
to absence of the Coriolis force. Therefore, tropical cyclones do not occur at the equator.
• It is known as cyclones in the Indian Ocean, Hurricanes in the Atlantic, Typhoons in the Western
Pacific and South China Sea, and Willy-willies in the Western Australia.

8. What are geomorphic processes? Briefly describe different types of geomorphic processes.
Approach:
• Explain what geomorphic processes are.
• Describe different types of geomorphic processes.
• Make use of examples, wherever possible.
• Give a brief conclusion.
Answer:
The forces causing physical stresses and chemical actions on earth materials and bringing about
changes in the configuration of the surface of the earth are known as geomorphic processes.
There are various types of geomorphic processes, which can be combined under two major
subheadings:
• Endogenic geomorphic processes: The energy emanating from within the earth is the main
force behind endogenic geomorphic processes.
o Diastrophism: All processes that move, elevate or build up portions of the earth’s crust
come under diastrophism. It involves mountain building, earthquakes involving relatively
minor movements etc.
o Volcanism: Volcanism includes the movement of molten rock (magma) onto or toward the
earth’s surface and also formation of many intrusive and extrusive volcanic forms.
• Exogenic geomorphic processes: The exogenic processes derive their energy from the
atmosphere, determined by the ultimate energy from the sun and also the gradients created by
tectonic factors.
o Weathering: Weathering is action of elements of weather and climate over earth materials
in order to reduce them to fragmental state. Weathering processes are responsible for
breaking down the rocks into smaller fragments and preparing the way for formation of not
only regolith and soils, but also erosion and mass movements.
o Mass movements: These movements transfer the mass of rock debris down the slopes
under the direct influence of gravity. The movements of mass may range from slow to rapid,
affecting shallow to deep columns of materials and include creep, flow, slide and fall.
o Erosion and Deposition: Erosion involves acquisition and transportation of rock debris.
When massive rocks break into smaller fragments through weathering and any other
process, erosional geomorphic agents like running water, groundwater, glaciers, wind and
waves remove and transport it to other places. Deposition is a consequence of erosion. The
erosional agents lose their velocity and hence energy on gentler slopes and the materials
carried by them start to settle themselves.
In general terms, the endogenic forces are mainly land building forces and the exogenic processes
are mainly land wearing forces. Earth’s crust is subjected to these internal and external forces and
various landforms are the result of these forces.

9. With the help of diagram, give an account of various landforms resulting from intrusive and
extrusive igneous activities.
Approach:
• Write a brief introduction about igneous activities and resulting landforms.
• Give an account of various landforms resulting from intrusive and extrusive igneous activities.
• Illustrate these landforms in a diagram.
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Answer:
Volcanic activities have a profound influence on the earth's landforms. Molten magma forces its way
into the planes of weakness of the crust to escape quietly or explosively to the surface, which results
in different types of landforms.
Landforms of intrusive igneous activities
Magma while thrusting its way up to the surface cools and solidifies within the crust as plutonic
rocks, resulting in intrusive landforms. Various intrusive landforms are:
• Batholiths: A large body of magmatic material that cools in the deeper depth of the crust
develops in the form of large domes. Batholiths are the cooled portion of magma chambers.
• Lacoliths: These are large dome-shaped intrusive bodies with a level base and connected by a
pipe-like conduit from below. It can be regarded as the localised source of lava that finds its way
to the surface.
• Lapolith, Phacolith and Sills: As and when the lava moves upwards, a portion of the same may
tend to move in a horizontal direction wherever it finds a weak plane. It may get rested in
different forms.
o In case it develops into a saucer shape, concave to the sky body, it is called lapolith.
o A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is found at the base of synclines or at the top of
anticlines in folded igneous country. These are called the phacoliths.
o The near horizontal bodies of the intrusive igneous rocks are called sill (thicker ones) or
sheet (thinner ones).
• Dykes: When the lava makes its way through
cracks and the fissures developed in the land, it
solidifies almost perpendicular to the ground. Such
structures are called dykes.
Landforms of extrusive igneous activities
Magmas that reach the surface and solidify, form
exclusive landforms such as:
• Composite Volcanoes: These volcanoes are
characterised by explosive eruptions of cooler and
more viscous lavas than basalt along with large
quantities of pyroclastic material and ashes. These
accumulate in the vicinity of the vent openings forming layers, which makes the mounts appear
as composite volcanoes.
• Caldera: They are usually so explosive that when they erupt they tend to collapse on
themselves rather than building any tall structure. The collapsed depressions are called
calderas.
• Flood Basalt Provinces: These volcanoes outpour highly fluid lava that flows for long
distances. Some parts of the world are covered by thousands of sq. km of thick basalt lava flows.
• Mid-Ocean Ridge Volcanoes: These volcanoes occur in the oceanic areas. There is a system of
mid-ocean ridges that stretches through all the ocean basins. The central portion of this ridge
experiences frequent eruptions.

10. What are 'air masses'? Highlight their role in the formation of extra-tropical cyclones.
Approach:
• Introduce by defining an air mass.
• Mention the basis of their classification and their types.
• Highlight the role played by them in formation of extra-tropical cyclones.
• Conclude on the basis of above points.
Answer:
Air mass is a body of air covering a relatively wide area, exhibiting approximately uniform
properties regarding temperature and moisture through any horizontal section. When the air
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 remains over a homogenous area (ocean surface or vast plains) for a sufficiently longer time, it
acquires the characteristics of the area.
Air masses can extend thousands of kilometers in any direction, and can reach from ground level to
the stratosphere—16 kilometers into the atmosphere.
Air masses are classified according to the temperature and moisture characteristics of their source
regions. Based on moisture content:
continental (dry) and maritime (moist) and
based on temperature: tropical (warm), polar
(cold), arctic (extremely cold). Following types
of air masses have been identified:
• Maritime tropical (mT): Warm, moist
and usually unstable air mass that
originates over tropical and subtropical
ocean (Atlantic Ocean).
• Continental tropical (cT): Extremely warm and dry air mass that originates over subtropical
hot deserts (North Africa and Sahara desert).
• Maritime polar (mP): Initiates as a very cold and dry air mass over snow covered continents
(Canada and Greenland) but becomes cold, moist and unstable with frequent showers after
reaching British Isles.
• Continental polar (cP): Very cold and dry air mass formed over snow-covered continents in
high latitudes (Eastern Europe and Russia).
• Continental arctic (cA): It is extremely cold, dry and stable air mass formed over permanently
ice over Arctic.
Role in the formation of Extra-Tropical cyclones:
Air masses play an important role in the formation of extra-tropical cyclones as they are formed
when cold air mass (such as continental polar) interacts with a warm air mass (such as
maritime/continental tropical) in an unstable environment. Initially the boundary of these air
masses called the polar front is stationary.
In the northern hemisphere, the colder air from the north and warmer air from the south flow
toward each other, in opposite directions, creating an area of low pressure between them. This sets
up a cyclonic wave, lowering central pressure further and
increasing wind speeds. This cyclonic circulation leads to a well-
developed extra tropical cyclone, with a warm front and a cold
front.
There are pockets of warm air or warm sector wedged between
the forward and the rear cold air or cold sector. The warm air
glides over the cold air and a sequence of clouds appear over the
sky ahead of the warm front and cause precipitation. Further, the
cold front approaches the warm air from behind and pushes the
warm air up.
As a result, cumulus clouds develop along the cold front. The cold
front moves faster than the warm front ultimately overtaking the
warm front. The warm air is completely lifted up and the front is
occluded and the cyclone dissipates.
Therefore, the extra-tropical cyclones are formed due to
interaction of different air masses and have a clear frontal system
while extending over large areas (more than 500 kms).

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11. Mediterranean lands are known as the orchards of the world whereas the Prairies are known
as the granaries of the world. Explain.
Approach:
• Introduce by mentioning the reason for variation in vegetation.
• Mention why Mediterranean lands are known as orchards and prairies known as granaries.
• Conclude appropriately.
Answer:
Different regions of the world experience different vegetation depending on factors such as climate,
soil type, topography etc., which leads to variation in economic activities practiced in these regions.
Mediterranean lands include the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea. They are known for the
production of temperate fruits (olives, figs, pomegranate and citrus fruits), nuts and different
varieties of grapes and are called orchards of the world.
Characteristics of Mediterranean lands that make them ideal for fruit production and
viticulture:
• Climatic conditions: The Mediterranean region offers favorable climate for fruit production
due to dry, long, hot summers aiding fruits to mature and wet winters, which are mild and frost
free in the presence of seas and on-shore westerlies.
• Total amount of rainfall: Mediterranean climate is fairly dry with only 20 inches of annual
rainfall. Drought resistant fruit trees like olives, figs and dates having long and widespread roots
can grow well in these areas. Citrus fruits having thick and leathery skin are also well adapted
for this climate.
• Soil conditions: Most temperate fruits grow well on poor calcareous soils of rocky hillsides and
semi-arid climates. Depending upon moisture content in the soil, the variety of grapes in
different regions offer specific flavor and are known for their specific wines.
Prairies are the temperate grasslands of North America (covers parts of the USA and Canada). The
main crops grown in the region are wheat, maize, soybean, rye, oat and barley. They are also called
‘Wheat Basket’ or Granaries of the world.
Characteristics of Prairies, which make it ideal for growth of wheat and other grains:
• Climatic conditions: Continental type climate is found i.e. summers are very warm, over 18 –
20° C and the winters are cold with rainfall in June and July (late spring and early summer).
These conditions are ideal for wheat cultivation as the cool, moist spring stimulates early
growth and the light showers in the ripening period help to swell the grains to ensure a good
yield.
• Soil type: The vast temperate grasslands have soils that are very rich in organic matter and are
deep. Such fertile, well-drained dark soils (mollisols) are ideal for the growth of wheat.
• Topography: Prairies are enormously flat grasslands or have a gently rolling topography. The
region is drained by tributaries of Mississippi in the USA and Saskatchewan in Canada. This
makes it ideal for cultivation of grains in the region.
These areas are amongst the developed regions of the world due to favourable climatic conditions
leading to surplus vegetation and horticultural produce. Further, human development along with
technological advances have led to promotion of activities such as wine making in the
Mediterranean region and commercial wheat production in the Prairies.

12. With the help of diagram, explain the formation of land breeze and sea breeze in coastal areas.
Approach:
• Introduce with a brief note on land and sea breeze.
• Explain the process of formation of land breeze and sea breeze in coastal areas.
• Draw diagrams to support your arguments.
• Conclude on the basis of the above points.

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Answer:
The land breeze and sea breeze are the result of differential heating of land and water bodies. The
land breeze and sea breeze are winds originating from diurnal temperature and pressure variation
as land gets heated and cools faster than water. These are observed in the coastal areas.
Formation of land breeze and sea breeze in coastal
areas:
• During the day time, land gets heated up faster than
water. Due to this the air above the land surface gets
heated quickly and rises up thereby developing low-
pressure area over the surface. In comparison to
land, water takes longer time to acquire the same
temperature. Because of this the air over the sea
surface is comparatively cooler and has high
pressure than that over land. This pressure difference
causes the movement of air from sea towards land,
which is called Sea Breeze. Sea breeze is more
prevalent on warm sunny days during the spring
and summer months because of the greater
temperature differences between the ocean and
nearby land, particularly in the afternoon when the land is at maximum heating from the sun.
The sea breeze strength will vary depending on the temperature difference between the land
and the ocean.
• On the other hand, at night, land releases the heat quickly thereby lowering the surface
temperature and developing a high-pressure area over it. Contrary to the land, water releases
heat at a comparatively lower speed, due to which a low-pressure area develops over the sea.
This results in development of a pressure difference over the land and sea, which causes
wind to blow from the higher pressure over the land to lower pressure over the sea. This
movement of wind from land towards sea is called Land Breeze. Land breeze can occur at
any time of year but are more prevalent during the fall and winter seasons when water
temperatures are still fairly warm and nights are cool.
The land and sea breeze are significant for the coastal areas as they bring relief to inhabitants of
these areas by moderating temperature and humidity. They are also helpful in coastal navigation in
case of small crafts.

13. How does the plate tectonics theory help in understanding the mountain building process?
Approach:
• Briefly explain the theory of plate tectonics and its underlying principles.
• Discuss how plate tectonics helps to understand the mountain building process.
• Give a brief conclusion.
Answer:
The theory of plate tectonics involves understanding the movement and interaction of tectonic
plates. A tectonic plate (also called lithospheric plate) is a massive, irregularly-shaped slab of solid
rock, generally composed of both continental and oceanic lithosphere. Plates move horizontally
over the asthenosphere as rigid units.
This theory provides a framework for understanding mountain-building processes; volcanoes, and
earthquakes; the processes controlling creation and destruction of landforms as well as the
evolution of Earth’s surface.
Importance of plate tectonics to understand mountain building process:
The different plates while moving interact with each other in many ways forming convergent,
divergent and transform boundaries. Different types of interactions are responsible for different
types of mountains as can be understood below:
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 • Fold Mountains: They form at convergent boundaries where plates collide with one another.
These are formed in case of convergence between two continental plates. The collision buckles
the edge of one or both plates creating fold mountain ranges.
o The young fold mountain system
such as the Himalayas, was
formed due to the convergence of
Eurasian and Indo-Australian
continental plates. Similarly,
Andes and Rockes were formed by
convergence of the pacific plate
with the south American and
north American plates
respectively.
• Block Mountains: They form at
divergent boundaries where two
plates are moving and pulling apart.
Spreading apart of the surface
causes tensional forces.
o When the tensional forces are
strong enough to cause a plate to
split apart, it does so in a way that a center block drops down relative to its flanking blocks.
o Example: Sierra Nevada Mountains in North America
• Volcanic Mountains: These are formed
when oceanic plates converge into
continental plates. When this happens,
since the oceanic crust is much denser
than the continental crust, oceanic crust
sinks down below the continental crust.
The crust material gets heated and then
rises to the surface as magma, pushing
upward and forming a volcano. As
volcanic eruptions spew their material
out, the material builds up around the ground, forming the mountain itself.
o Some examples include Kilimanjaro in Africa, Mount Fuji in Japan, Mount St. Helen in USA.

14. The ocean floor is not just a vast plain but it is full of relief. Describe the various relief features
of the ocean basins.
Approach:
• Introduce with a short note on the evolution of knowledge about the ocean floor.
• Discuss the various divisions of ocean floors.
• Discuss the major and minor relief features in the ocean floors.
• Make use of relevant diagrams.
Answer:
Until the 1960’s most geologists assumed that the crust beneath the ocean basins was very old,
generally flat and fixed in place. These assumptions were refuted by expeditions to map the ocean
floor in the post-World War II period, which demonstrated the existence of various relief features
ranging from trenches to mountains in the ocean basins.
The ocean floors can be divided into four major divisions:
• Continental Shelf: The continental shelf is the extended margin of the continent occupied by
comparatively shallow gulfs and sea.
• Continental Slope: The continental slope links the continental shelf and the ocean basins. It
starts where the bottom of the continental shelf abruptly drops off into a steep slope. Canyons
and trenches are seen in this region.
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 • Deep Sea Plain: These are gently sloping areas with depths varying between 3000 and 6000m.
These plains are covered with fine-grained deposits like silt and clay.
• The Oceanic Deeps or Trenches: These are topographic depressions of the sea floor, relatively
narrow in width, but very long. These are more or less a U-shaped valley and are the deepest
part of the ocean. Most of the world's deep-sea trenches are in Pacific Ocean. Trenches are the
most active geological features on earth where strong earthquakes and Tsunamis are born.

Besides the major divisions, there are found minor relief features in the ocean floors, such as:
• Continental Rise: It is a major depositional regime in oceans made up of thick sequences of
continental material that accumulate between the continental slope and the abyssal plain.
• Mid-Ocean Ridges: Oceanic ridges or Mid-oceanic Ridges (MOR) refer to the boundary between
the diverging plates. It refers to an underwater mountain system that consists of various
mountain ranges (chains). They are the sites where oceanic crust rifts and moves apart laterally.
• Seamounts: These are volcanic mountains with pointed summits, rising from the seafloor that
do not reach the surface of the ocean.
• Guyots: It is an isolated underwater volcanic mountain, with a flat top over 200 m below the
surface of the sea. These are inactive ocean volcanoes with a flat top.
• Atoll: These are low islands found in the tropical oceans consisting of coral reefs surrounding a
central depression.
• Submarine canyon: It is a class of narrow steep-sided deep valleys that cut into continental
slopes and continental rises of the oceans.
The understanding of oceanic relief helped in development of the concept of “sea-floor spreading”,
which further led to the development of the theory of Plate Tectonics.

15. What are footloose industries? Identify the factors that influence the location of these
industries, with the help of examples.
Approach:
• Explain footloose industries and state their characteristics.
• Mention the factors that determine the location of these industries.
• Substantiate with examples.
Answer:
Footloose industry is a general term for an industry that can be placed and located in a wide variety
of places. Footloose industries are seen as not tied to cost advantage from any particular location
and so they can set up in any location. Furthermore, they are not dependent on any specific raw
material, weight losing or otherwise. It can also easily relocate across boundaries in response to
changing situation. Examples include diamond industry, computer chips production, mobile
manufacturing, many other high technology industries
Some of the characteristics of footloose industries are:
• Their products have high value addition and are small in size. Transportation cost of the
products is only a small fraction of the total cost.
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 • They employ a relatively small labour force as compared to traditional industries.
• These are generally non-polluting industries.
• The industries largely depend on component parts, which can be obtained anywhere.
• It needs skilled workers as the industrial process is advanced and work requires high-quality
precision such as the diamond cutting and polishing industry in Surat.
The factors that influence the location of the industries are:
• Transportation facilities: An important factor in their location is accessibility by
transportation network enabling the workers to commute hassle free. The extensive network of
metro, railways and roads in the Delhi-NCR region has helped the growth of the service industry
in Gurugram and Noida.
• Economies of Cluster/Agglomeration: They are located close to similar industries to swap
ideas and supply raw materials/finished products. For e.g aerospace industry around
Bangalore.
• Availability of cheap land: They are located on the edge of cities because of cheaper cost of
land. For e.g. the development of software industry in the periphery of Delhi.
• Easy access to workers: The computing and information technology industry are not tied to
raw materials and can choose their own location. Software technology parks in cyber cities like
Bangalore and Hyderabad, have a large workforce who can travel from cities as well as nearby
suburban areas. They are also located close to research centres like universities.
• Amenities for workers: Footloose industries are more likely to be located in places with a
perceived high quality of life such as those with adequate healthcare, recreational and
educational amenities, where productive workforce can be attracted. For e.g. development of
Silicon Valley in California as a technology hub in the USA.
• Close to residential areas: Footloose industries are usually non-polluting and thus, they can be
located close to residential areas.
Footloose industries can provide employment in areas that lack locational advantages such as
access to weight losing raw materials like coal, iron ore, limestone etc. Impetus should be given for
the development of the footloose industries in such areas to increase employment opportunities.
Further, India could also gain a competitive advantage in high value goods in the global market.

16. Explain the propagation of different types of seismic waves. Also, illustrate the formation of P
and S shadow zones.
Approach:
• Briefly discuss the phenomena of earthquakes.
• Explain how different waves move or propagate.
• Discuss the phenomena of formation of shadow zones, making use of diagrams wherever
possible.
Answer:
Earthquake or seismic waves are basically of two types — body waves and surface waves. Body
waves are generated due to the release of energy at the focus and move in all directions travelling
through the body of the earth. The body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate a new
set of waves called surface waves. These waves move along the surface.
There are two types of body waves – P and S waves. The surface waves are known as- L and R
waves.
Propagation of Seismic waves:
• Different types of seismic waves travel in different manner. P-waves vibrate parallel to the
direction of the wave. This exerts pressure on the material in the direction of the propagation.
As a result, it creates density differences in the material leading to stretching and squeezing of
the material.
• Other waves vibrate perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

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 • The direction of vibrations of S-waves is perpendicular to the wave direction in the vertical
plane. Hence, they create troughs and crests in the material through which they pass.
• Rayleigh waves are formed on the surface of the Earth and make the particles move as a
retrograde elliptical trajectory. Motion is both in the direction of propagation and perpendicular
(in a vertical plane).
• Love waves arise at the interface of two media with different mechanical properties; in this case
the motion of the particle is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the disruption,
similar to the S-waves, but only occurs in the plane of the Earth's surface
Development of Shadow zones
• There are certain areas where the waves are not reported. Such zones are called Shadow Zones.
• During the earthquakes, it is observed that seismographs located at any distance within 105°
from the epicentre, recorded the arrival of both P and S-waves.
• However, the seismographs located beyond 145° from epicentre, record the arrival of P-waves,
but not that of S-waves.
• Thus, a zone between 105° and 145° from epicentre was identified as the shadow zone for
both the types of waves.

• The entire zone beyond 105° does not receive S-waves. The shadow zone of S-wave is much
larger than that of the P-waves.
• The shadow zone of P-waves appears as a band around the earth between 105° and 145° away
from the epicentre. The shadow zone of S-waves is not only larger in extent but it is also a little
over 40 per cent of the earth surface.
The earthquake events are scaled either according to the magnitude (Richter scale) or intensity
(Mercalli Scale) of the shock. Landslides, fires, soil liquefaction, floods and structural collapses are
some of the few immediate effects of the earthquake.

17. Write a brief note on the distribution of the Shale Gas resources in India. Also, discuss the
challenges associated with its exploration.
Approach:
• Introduce by briefly mentioning the status of Shale gas exploration in India.
• Mention the sites/regions in India where shale gas reserves are found.
• Discuss the challenges related to Shale gas exploration.
• Conclude on the basis of the above points.

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Answer:
Shales are fine-grained sedimentary rocks that can be rich sources of petroleum and natural gas.
Shale gas refers to natural gas that is trapped within shale formations.
As reported by US Energy Information Administration, India has around 290 trillion cubic feet
(TCF) shale gas in place, out of which 63 TCF is technically recoverable.
Distribution of the shale Gas resources in India:
• India has identified six basins as areas for shale gas exploration. These are Cambay
(Gujarat), Assam-Arakan (North-East), Gondwana (Central India), Krishna Godavari onshore
(East Coast), Cauvery onshore, and Indo-Gangetic basins.
• The ONGC drilled the first exploratory shale gas well in Jambusar, Gujarat, in Cambay basin
during 2013. It is estimated that from this basin around 20 TCF shale gas is recoverable.

Currently, India is exploring shale gas reserves in 50 allocated blocks spreading across seven Indian
states. However, shale gas being an unconventional gas has complex exploration and
production challenges than conventional gases. They include:
• Difficulty in extraction: While conventional gases are found in porous rocks, they can be
sponged out easily. Unconventional gases such as shale gas are located under non-porous, low-
permeable rocks that do not allow free movement of gases.
• Land availability: Shale gas in India is found about 2,000 meters deep on shore, in areas of
human habitation; unlike oil drilling that takes place offshore. So, land acquisition for shale gas
exploration will be a challenge in India.
• High water requirement: Shale gas is extracted through the process of hydraulic fracturing,
which requires around 5 to 9 million litres of water per extraction activity. This poses a
challenge to India’s fresh water resources.
• Contamination of aquifers: Sand/ceramic and other chemicals are used in the process of
fracturing. Shale rocks are usually found adjacent to rocks containing usable/drinking water
known as ‘aquifers’. During the fracking process, the shale fluid could possibly penetrate
aquifers leading to methane poisoning of groundwater that is used for drinking and irrigation
purposes.
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 • Inadequate data: Indian shale gas development faces an issue of lack of relevant data in
different basins of India. Also, there are issues related to prediction of production rates and
decline rates, which hampers exploration..
• In addition to these, there are concerns regarding lack of technical expertise in horizontal
drilling, air contamination, catastrophic spills, underground blowouts, and reports of home
explosions and increased rates of cancer in areas exposed to hydrofracking.
In 2018, the government issued policy guidelines for Exploration and Exploitation of Shale Gas and
Oil by national companies in India. But it does not adequately address the challenges related to
shale gas extraction. The government needs to establish the domain-specific environment clearance
process that takes into account the closeness of shale wells to the nearing aquifers, precautionary
measures that stop the seepage of contaminated water into groundwater resources and other
environmental effects.

18. Explain the process of precipitation. Also, elaborate on how rainfall can be classified on the
basis of origin.
Approach:
• Introduce by giving the definition of precipitation.
• Explain in brief the precipitation process.
• Discuss the types of rainfall on the basis of origin, along with diagrams.
Answer:
Precipitation is defined as any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapour that falls
to the earth from clouds in the form of rain, freezing rain, sleet, snow, or hail. This is the primary
method that water uses to move around in the hydrologic cycle.
Process of precipitation:
Precipitation is caused by condensation of water vapours of the air mass. The warm ascending air
mass with sufficient amount of water vapours becomes saturated due to adiabatic cooling.
Condensation of water vapours leads to the formation of clouds, which contains updraft (upward
moving air) and downdraft. Stronger the updraft, greater is the height of the cloud.
Precipitation forms when cloud droplets (or ice particles) in clouds grow and combine to become so
large that their fall speed exceeds the updraft speed in the cloud, and they then fall out of the cloud.
If these large water drops or ice particles do not re-evaporate as they fall farther below the cloud,
they reach the ground as precipitation.
On the basis of origin, rainfall may be classified into following types-
Convectional Rain:
The air on being heated, becomes light and rises up in convection currents. As it rises, it expands
and loses heat and consequently, condensation
takes place and cumulus clouds are formed.
This process releases latent heat of
condensation, which further heats the air and
forces the air to go further up. Convectional
rain is heavy but of short duration, highly
localised and is associated with thunder and
lightning. Such rain is common in the summer
or in the hotter part of the day. It is very
common in the equatorial regions and interior
parts of the continents, particularly in the
northern hemisphere.

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 Orographic Rain:
When the saturated air mass comes across a mountain, it is forced to ascend and as it rises, it
expands; the temperature falls, and the
moisture is condensed. The chief
characteristic of this sort of rain is that
the windward slopes receive greater
rainfall. After shedding moisture on the
windward side, when these winds reach
the other slope, they descend, and their
temperature rises. Then their capacity to
take in moisture increases and hence,
these leeward slopes remain rainless
and dry. The area situated on the
leeward side, which gets less rainfall is
known as the rain-shadow area. It is also known as the relief rain.
Cyclonic or Frontal Rain:
This type of rainfall is independent of relief or convection. It is purely associated with cyclonic
activity whether in the temperate regions or tropical regions. Basically, it is due to the convergence
of two different air masses with
different temperatures and other
physical properties. As cold air is
denser, it tends to remain close to the
ground. The warm air is lighter and
tends to rise over the cold air as
shown in the figure. During ascent,
pressure decreases, the air expands
and cools, condensation takes place
and light showers called cyclonic or
frontal rain occur. The heavier and
colder air masses eventually push up
the warmer and lighter air and the
sky is clear again.

19. Give an account of the geographical, economic and socio-cultural factors that influence the
distribution of population in the world.
Approach:
• Explain the term population distribution in the introduction giving a brief picture of population
distribution across the globe.
• Discuss the geographical, economic and socio-cultural factors affecting the distribution of
population.
Answer:
Population distribution refers to the way people are spaced over the earth’s surface. Broadly, 90
percent of the world population lives in about 10 percent of its land area. The ten most populous
countries contribute about 60 percent of the world’s population. Of these ten countries, six are
located in Asia.
There are multiple factors which influence the distribution of population in the world, such as:
Geographical Factors
• Availability of water: Fresh water is the most important factor for life. It is used for drinking,
bathing and cooking – and also for cattle, crops, industries and navigation. It is because of this
that river valleys are among the most densely populated areas of the world.

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 • Landforms: People prefer living on flat plains and gentle slopes as such areas are favourable for
the production of crops and to build roads and industries. The mountainous and hilly areas
hinder the development of transport network and hence initially do not favour agricultural and
industrial development, thus scarcely populated. For e.g. Ganga plains are among the most
densely populated areas of the world while the mountains zones in the Himalayas are scarcely
populated.
• Climate: Extreme climates such as very hot or cold deserts or heavy rainfall are uncomfortable
for human habitation while areas with a moderate climate, where there is not much seasonal
variation attract more people. For e.g. Mediterranean regions were inhabited from early periods
in history due to their pleasant climate.
• Soils: Fertile soils are important for agricultural and allied activities. Therefore, areas which
have fertile loamy soils have high population pressure as these areas can support intensive
agriculture.
Economic Factors
• Urbanisation: Cities offer better employment opportunities, educational and medical facilities,
better means of transport and communication thus attracting migration from rural areas
leading to growing city sizes. Apart from that slums in metros offer cheap affordability making
the population density very high there.
• Industrialisation: Industrial belts provide job opportunities and attract large numbers of
people. These include not just factory workers but also transport operators, shopkeepers, bank
employees, doctors, teachers and other service providers. The Kobe-Osaka region of Japan is
thickly populated because of the presence of a number of industries.
• Minerals: Areas with mineral deposits attract industries. Mining and industrial activities
generate employment. So, skilled and semi–skilled workers move to these areas and make them
densely populated. Katanga Zambia copper belt in Africa is one such example.
Socio-Cultural Factors
• Some places attract more people because they have religious or cultural significance such as
Banaras in India.
• In the same way, people tend to move away from places where there is social and political
unrest. Sometimes governments offer incentives to people to live in sparsely populated areas or
move away from overcrowded places.

20. With examples of erosional and depositional landforms formed during its lifecycle, explain the
role of glaciers as a geomorphic agent.
Approach:
• Write a short note on the glaciers as a geomorphic agent.
• Describe various erosional and depositional landforms formed during different stages of
glaciation.
• Make use of diagrams wherever necessary.
Answer:
A glacier plays the combined role of erosion, transportation and deposition throughout its course.
As such, glaciers act as a geomorphic agent leading to formation of various landforms. Landforms in
the highlands display erosional features, while in the lowlands they display depositional features.
These are as under:
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS: Erosion by the glaciers is because of friction caused by sheer weight of
the ice. Few of the important erosional landforms are:
• Cirque: These are deep, long and wide troughs or basins with very steep concave to vertically
dropping high walls at its head as well as sides, formed by the downward movement of the
glacier from the valley head. The cirques are the most common glacial landforms quite often
found at the heads of glacial valleys.

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 • Horns and Serrated Ridges:
If three or more radiating
glaciers cut head ward until
their cirques meet, they form
high, sharp pointed and steep
sided peaks called horns.
Matterhorn and Everest are
examples of horns.
The divides between cirque
side walls or headwalls get
narrow because of
progressive erosion and turn
into serrated or saw-toothed
ridges sometimes referred to
as arêtes with very sharp
crests and a zigzag outline.
• Glacial Valleys/Troughs:
Glaciers on their downward journey fed by ice from several corries form glacial valleys, which
are trough-like and U-shaped with broad floors and relatively smooth, and steep sides. There
can be hanging valleys at an elevation on one or both sides of the main glacial valley.
• Roche Moutonnee: It forms where a glacier smoothens the uphill side of the bedrock and
plucks away rock from the downslope side.
DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS: The coarse and fine debris called as glacial till, are being dropped
along the way forming depositional landforms.
Major landforms in this category are:
• Moraines: They are long ridges of the deposits of glacial till. They can be of various types:
o Terminal moraines are long ridges of debris deposited at the end (toe) of the glaciers.
o Lateral moraines form along the sides parallel to the glacial valleys.
o Ground Moraines are deposits of varying thickness and surface topography formed over
their valley floors.
o Medial Moraines are the moraines in the center of the glacial valley flanked by lateral
moraines.
• Eskers: An esker is a winding ridge of sand and gravel deposited under a glacier by a stream of
water that results from the melting of glaciers in summer.
• Outwash Plains: The plains at the foot of the glacial mountains or beyond the limits of
continental ice sheets are covered with glacio-fluvial deposits in the form of broad flat alluvial
fans which may join to form outwash plains of gravel, silt, sand and clay
• Drumlins: A drumlin is a smooth oval shaped ridge-like feature made of sediments that points
in the direction the ice moved.
Glaciers have, thus, played an important role in the shaping of landscapes in the middle and high
latitudes and in alpine environments.

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