BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE

Science – systematic pursuit of knowledge

Books of Brenda Corpuz

SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Step:
1. Ask a question
2. State a hypothesis
3. Conduct an experiment
4. Analyze the results
5. Make a conclusion
6. Dissemination

Problem: Which type of soil is the best for growing plants?

Hypothesis: The loam type of soil is best for growing plants

SANDY , LOAM , CLAY

Independent variable: value being manipulated
HEIGHT OF THE PLANT
Dependent variable – value being measured

Constant variable – not manipulated

 Moisture
 Number of plants
 Sunlight
 Water

Variables – characteristics that can assume different values.

Qualitative variables – placed into distinct characteristics (gender, color, texture)
Quantitative variables – numerical in nature and can be ordered and ranked (age, height, weight)
Independent Variable – variable that is being manipulated (cause)
Dependent Variable – variable that changes depending on manipulations (effect or result)

Science in K to 12 Curriculum
Aristotle – plantae, Animalia

Science in K to 12 Curriculum
 Main goal: Scientific literacy
 Spiral progression approach
 Learning area standard for science teaching is Holistic and value laden
 Constructivist principle - demonstration

BRANCHES OF SCIENCE
Formal Science – math, stat
Social Science – anthropology, sociology, economics
Applied Science – Technology, Product = invention
Natural Science – Biological Science, Physical Science, Chemistry, Physics, Astronomy, Earth Sciences
BIOSTATISTICS
Statistics – conducting studies to collect, organize, summarize, analyze, and draw conclusions from the data.

Areas of Statistics
 Descriptive – collection, organization, summarization and presentation of data, realism
 Inferential – generalizing from samples and making predictions, idealism

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE:
 Homeostasis
 Organization
 Metabolism
 Growth and Development
 Adaptation
 Response to stimuli/irritability
 Reproduction

HOMEOSTASIS – ability to maintain internal BALANCE

Ex: regulation of Temperature
 Warm Blooded vs Cold Blooded animals
Ex. Regulation of Body Fluids
 Kidneys – regulates salt and water balance

Plasma Membrane
 Semi-permeable
 Phospholipid bilayer – hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail (flued mosaic model)
Hydrophilic – makitubig, water loving, nasa internal
Hydrophobic – hindi makitubig, water hating, nasa external
Phagocytosis – kakain
Pinocytosis – iinom
Package center of our cell – golgi
Active = ATP
ATP – kelangan para makapasok yung cell

Transport of Materials across the cell Membrane

1. Passive Transport
 Diffusion (HIGHER to LOWER conc.),
 Osmosis *movement of WATER form lower to higher solute conc.)
2. Active transport (needs energy)
 (LOWER to HIGHER concentration)
3. Bulk transport (transport of large molecules)
 Phagocytosis “cell eating”
 Pinocytosis “cell dinking”

HYPOTONIC – Swell
HYPERToNIC – Shrink
ISOTONIC – Equal or balance
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
What is negative feedback mechanism – once a maReach yung dami ng number, titigil.
Pituitary gland – responsible for growth hormones

Gland Hormones Function

Pituitary Growth hormone Growth
Pituitary Prolactin Milk production
Pituitary Oxytocin Uterine contraction, milk letdown
Thyroid Thyroxine Cellular metabolism
Thyroid Insulin Calcium deposition
Parathyroid Parathyroid Calcium reabsorption
Pancreas Insulin Entry of glucose into the cell
Adrenal Corticosteroids cathecholamines Stress, CHO, CHON, fat
metabolism, sympathetic
response
Ovaries Estrogen Menstruation and pregnancy
Testes Testosterone Male characteristics

O - organization
M - metabolism
G – growth and development
A – adaptation

Cytology – study of cell

Histology – tissue
OPCEB
Organism – Population – community – Ecosystem – Biosphere

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION: CTOSO

 Organism
 Organ system
 Organ
 Tissue
 Cell

CELL – 4 – Hooke
Robert Hooke – coined the term “Cell”
Eggcell – largest cell in the body
Spermcell – Smallest cell
Mitosis – cell regeneration
Meiosis – for sex

CELL THEORY
Schwann (1838), Schelden (1839) and Virchow (1858)
1. All = Cell
2. Basic Unit
3. CELLS = cells –cells come from pre-existing cell
PROKARYOTIC
 Without membrane – bound nucleus and organelles
 MOneras (bacteria)
 Unicellular

EUKARYOTIC
 With membrane-bound nucleus and organelles
 Protists
 Fungi
 Plants
 Animals
 Unicellular and multicellular
STRUCTURE OF THE CELL:
 Plasma membrane/cell membrane
 Cytoplasm -
 Organelles – maliliit na part ng cell
It containes double helix or ladder – DNA

ORGANELLES
 Nucleus – control center (DNA)
 Ribosome – protein synthesis, pag wala rough
 Endoplasmic reticulum (smooth) LIPID syntehesis
 Endoplasmic reticulum (rough)
 Golgi Apparatus = Protein packaging
 Lysosomes (pampatapon) and Peroxisomes (para magamit) = cellular digestion
 Vacuoles (pang-imbak) cell storage
 Mitochondira – powerhouse of the cell, site of your cellular respiration = ATP
 Chloroplasts – Photosynthesis
 Centrioles – spindle fiber formation
 Cilla and flagella – cell motility
TYPES OF CELL
SOMATIC
 Refer to all body cells except sex cells
 Contains Diploid (2n) number of Chromosomes
 Undergo mitosis
SEX CELLS/GAMETES
 The sperm cell of the male and the egg cell of the female
 Contains haploid (n) number of chromosomes
 Undergo mitosis and meiosis

Mitosis – with crossing over, 2

Meiosis – without, 4
Cytokinesis – cell division

CELL DIVISION
 The process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells
 Occurs as part of a larger cell cycle
 All cell divisions, regardless of organism, are preceded by a single round of DNA replication

Morphology – shapes and forms

Anatomy – organs and systems
Physiology – functions
Tissue – histology
Cell – cytology

Plant tissues
Dermal
 Protection against water loss, regulates gas exchange, secretes metabolic compounds, and absorbs
water and mineral nutrients
VASCULAR
 Transport fluid and nutrients internally
 Xylem and phloem
GROUND
 Parenchyma
 Collenchyma
 Sclerenchyma

METABOLISM
Autotrophs
 utilize energy from the sun
 Plants, algae and cyanobacteria
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

HETEROTROPHS
 Utilize energy from organic molecules (carbon containing compounds)
 Animals, protozoans and most bacteria
 CELLULAR RESPIRATION
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
C O2 → H 2 O→ ( Light∧chlorophyll ) → O 2 → C2 H 12 O4 ( Sugar )
*Also called: PHOTO

 1 Molecule Of Glucose = 38 ATPs (total amount or 36)

 GLYCOLYSIS (2 ATP)
 KREBS (2 ATP)
 Electron Transport Chain (34 ATP)
 A type of COMBUSTION REACTION
 Needs Oxygen

GROWTH
 Increase in SIZE or DIMENSIONS
Ex. Increased height, weight, width
DEVELOPMENT
 Increase in COMPLEXITY of FUNCTION
Ex. Gross Motor and Fine Motor development, Metamorphosis, Embryonic development
METAMORPHOSIS
Complete metamorphosis = paro-paru-G
EGG
Larva
Pupa
Adult

Incomplete metamorphosis
Egg
Nymph
Adult

ANEUPLOIDY
(missing or extra chromosome)
Down’s syndrome (trisomy 21)
Edward’s syndrome (trisomy 18)
Patau’s syndrome (trisomy 13)
Klinefelter’s (XXY)
Turner’s (XO)

GERM LAYERS
Embryonic germ layer Adult tissues/organ
Ectoderm Skin (epidermis),nails, hair, teeth, nervous system,
retina
Mesoderm Skin (dermis), muscles and skeletons, gonads,
circulatory system, kidneys
Endoderm Middle ear, liver, gallbladder, lungs, pancreas,
epithelial lining of GI tract
ADAPTATION
Ability to FIT to the environment
 Isolation
 Competition
 Predation

ADAPTATION leads to creation of new species (SPECIATION)

MIMICRY
 Resemblance between an organism and another object or species
Types:
Defensive or protective mimicry
 Batesian mimicry, a harmless mimic poses as harmful.
 Mulerian mimicry, two or more harmful species mutually advertise themselves as harmful.
Aggressive mimicry
 Predators or parasites share some of the characteristics of a harmless species (wolf in sheep’s clothing)

GEOGRAPHICAL ISOLATION – may division

Behavioral isolation – parehong location

Allopatric speciation - New kind of species not being affective by location

Sympatric speciation - naCreate ng pagmeMate ng mga isda

Evolution
 Change in heritable characteristics of a population over generations
 Explains the origin of species
 Organisms originate from a common ancestor
 Evidences:
Fossils, Biogeography, homologous structure

Homologous structure – similar structure, different function

Analogous structure – different structure, similar function

EVOLUTION
Mechanisms:
Theory of Evolution
 Jean Baptiste de Lamarck
 Theory of need, theory of use and disuse and theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics
Theory of Natural section
 Charles Darwin
 Differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype
 “Survival of the Fittest” (Spencer)

Types of natural selection

1. Stabilizing – favors the intermediate phenotype
2. Disruptive – favors the both extreme phenotype
3. Directional – favors EITHER of the extreme phenotype
Other Mechanisms:
 Mutation (change in genetic composition)
 Genetic drift (Random change in the frequency of genes/allele, causing reduction of genetic variation)
 Gene Flow (transfer of genetic variation; immigration and emigration)

The Hardy-Weinberg principle describes a population in which genetic variation remains constant due to the
absence of disturbances.
Five assumptions of a Hardy-Weinberg population
1. No selection
2. No mutation
3. No gene flow – no migration between population to change allele frequencies
4. Infinite population is necessary because the larger the population size is, the harder to change the
allele frequency
5. Random Mating which is pretty much what it says. Mating being based on nothing other than pure
chance, making it random.
 If a population is under Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium, allele frequencies over time will stay the same.

RESPONSE TO STIMULI/IRRITABILITY/REFLEX
In animals, controlled by the NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. CENTRAL NS
- Brain and Spinal Cord
2. PERIPHERAL NS
 Somatic NS
- Peripheral nerves (motor and sensory nerves)
 Autonomic NS (involuntary function)
- SYMPATHETIC (Fight of flight)
- PARASYMPATHETIC (Rest and Digest)

Cerebrum – largest part of the brain, awareness and consciousness

Brainstem – mid brain, pons, medulla oblongata
Cerebellum – little brain, balance and coordination
Occipital lobe – sight
Parietal lobe – language and touch
Frontal lobe – thinking, memory, behavior and movement
Temporal lobe – hearing, learning, feelings,
Brainstem – breathing, hearth rate, temperature

Spinal Cord
 Extends from the brain stem to the terminal portion of the vertebral column.

Olfactory Sensory Small

Optic Sensory Vision
Oculomotor Motor Most eye movement
Trochlear Motor Moves eye
Trigeminal Both Face sensation, mastication
Abducens Motor Abducts the eye
Facial Both Facial expression, taste
Vestibulochlea Sensory Hearing, balance
Glossopharyngeal Both Taste, gag reflex
Vagus Both Gag reflex, parasympathetic
innervation
Accessory Mother Shouder shrug
Hypoglossal Motor Swallowing, speech

Tropism – Plant growth responses

(+) towards the stimulus, (-) away from stimulus
Types:
 Phototropism – growth responses to light.
 Geotropism – response the gravity.
 Thigmotropism – response to touch
 Chemotropism – to chemical stimulus.
 Hydrotropism – to water or soil moisture
 Cryotropism – growth response to cold.

Nastic movements
 Movements due to environmental stimuli in different directions
Types
* Epinasty
- Movements due to different growth rates
- Example: opening of lower buds in response to light
 Seismonasty
- movements due to mechanical stimulus such as saking
Example: Folding of leaves of makahiya in response to touch (Mimosa pudica)
 Nyctinasty
- Movements due to daily rhythms of light and day
- Example opening and closing of leaves of legumes during day and night.
Photoperiodism
 Flowering response to duration of continuous darkness
 Causes different fruiting season

Types of plants as to response to Photoperiod:

 Day-neutral pants – flower without regard to duration of darkness; corn, roses, beans, rice
 Short-day plants – require a period of darkness that is onger in order to flower; kataka-taka, poinsettia,
strawberry, chrysanthemum
 Long-day plants - require period of darkness

Self-actualization
Esteem
Love and belongingness
Safety
Physiological

REPRODUCTION
Types:
 Sexual (needs, gametes, and fertilization)
 Asexual (no gametes, no fertilization)
- Binary fission (bacteria)
- Budding (yeast, hydra)
- Regeneration (starfish)
- Parthenogenesis (bees)

IN-VITRO FERTILIZATION
“test-tube babies”

INFERTILITY
- Absence of livebirth for woman who desire a child and have been in a union for at east 12 months,
during …

BIOCHEMISTRY
60 – 70 % Water

 Water (Water H 2 O)
 Acids
 Bases
 Salts
 Gasses

ORGANIC MOLECULES
 Carbohydrates (CHO)
 Proteins (CHON/S)
 Lipids and Fats
 Nucleic acids

Hydrogen – most abundant element in the univers

Nitrogen – most abundant gas in the atmosphere
Helium – 2nd most abundant element in the universe
Oxygen – 65% of human body weight, carbon (C) 18%
Hydrogen (H) – 10%
Nitrogen (N) 3%
Calcium – most abundant minera in the human body (bones)

Nonosaccharides (glucose, fructose)

Building blocks of DNA ang RNA – nucleotides

CARBOHYDRATES (energy)→monosaccharides (glucose, fructose)

PROTEINS (growth and repair) →amino acids (essential/non essential)
LIPIDS AND FATS (stored energy)

Carbohydrates
- Main source of energy in the body
Monosaccharides (simple sugars)
Ex: glucose/dextrose (blood sugar)
Fructose (fruit sugar)
Galactose (milk sugar)

Disaccharides
 Sucrose (table sugar, cane sugar): Glucose + fructose
 Lactulose: Galactose + Fructose
 Lactose (milk sugar): Galactose + Glucose
 Maltose (malt sugar): Glucose + Glucose

Polysaccharides
 Ex. Starch, glycogen, cellulose
 Energy storage (animal glycogen and plant starch)
 Structure support (plant cellulose)

DNA STRUCTURE
Base pairing: Adenine = thymine, cytosine = guanine
RNA: Uracil = Adenine
Purines: PUGA
Pyrimidines: PyCT

DNA (replication) RNA (transcription) PROTEINS (Translation)

GENETICS
 Science of Heredity/Inheritance
 Gregor Mendel
 GENES – basic unit of inheritance
 Genetic makeup: GENOTYPE
 Observable traits: PHENOTYPE
 DNA – Molecular basis of genes
 CHROMOSOMES – composed of DNA and proteins
 GENOME – all DNA in an organism

Genetic engineering – to improve our agriculture

MICROBIOLOGY – study of microorganisms:

 Bacteria
 Protozoans
 Virus and prions
 Fungi (yeast)

BACTERIA
 Kingdom MONERA
 Prokaryotic cell
 The first form of life on earth
 Gram + (with murein in cell wall) Gram – (no murein)
 E. col = causes “eutrophication”
  Probiotics – “good bacterial
 Oil eating bacteria – “bioremediation”

SLIME – MOLDS
 Fungi – like protists
 Saprophytic, unicellular

ALGAE
 PLANT – LIKE PROTISTS
 Utotrophic, unicellular or multicellular
 Most supply of oxygen came from this group of organisms and also serve as food

PHYLUM
Cholorophyta – green algae
Rhodophyta – red algae
Phaeophyta – brown algae
Chrysophyta – golden algae
Pyrrophyta – fire algae

PROTOZOANS
 Animal like protists
 Motile, hetotrophic, unicellular

Capsid – protective covering or layer of virus

TOBACCO MOSAIC VIRUS

Virology
 Acellular, a self-replicating molecue
 1st discovered tobacco mosaic virus

Retrovirus – HIV, AIDS

LOUIS PASTUER – father of microbiology pasteurization

ALEXANDER FLEMING – discoverer of penicillin
ROBERT KOCH – germ theory of disease, koch’s postulates
EDWARD JENNER – pioneer of SMALLPOX VACCINE
ANTON VAN LUEWENHOEK – father of microscopy

TAXONOMY
Carolus Linneus
1. Identification
2. Classification
3. Naming
Do keep ponds clean or frogs get sick.
- Domain (Eukarya)
- Kingdom (Animalia)
- Phylum (Chordata)
- Class (mammalia)
 - Order (Primates)
- Family (Hominids)
- Genus (Homo)
- Species (Sapiens)

Philippine monkey eating eagle – Pithecopa jefferreyii

Mlikfish – (Sir Janus)Chanos chanos
Tamarraw – Bubalus Mindorensis
Tarsier – carlito syrychta

Domain () woese 1990 classification

1. Archea (extremophiles)
2. Bacteria (True bacteria)
3. Eukarya

 Universal standard name of an organism

 Binomial nomenclature
 Should be latin or latinized
 Should be underlined separately or italicized

Botany – study of plants

Kingdom Plantae
 Eukaryotic
 Multicellular
 Autotrophic/photosynthetic
 Sexual and asexual reproduction
 Alternating generations life cycle

Capillary action
Xylem and phloem
Turgor pressure – para mas tumindi

Diffusion – no energy needed

Osmosis – from lower to higher concentration

Transpiration – paglabas ng tubig sa mga halaman

Chitin – cell wall ng fungi

Growth promoters

 For cell elongation

 Produced in the shoot apical meristem

 For stem elongation

  Can cause dwarf plants to gro, seeds to germinate

 Promote cell division

 Prevent death of leaves and desenc …

Abscisic Acid
 Leaf abscission, also called stress hormone
 Initiates and maintain ____
 Brings about closing stomates when plant is under water stress

Ethylene
 For fruit ripening
 Involved in abscission (dropping of leaves of fruits and flowers)

Rhizome – ginger
Tuber – patatas
Runner – strawberries
Bulb – onion

PLANTS
Bryophytes – non-vascular
Ex. Moss, hornworts

TRACHEOPHYTES – vascular plants with xylem and phloem

1. Seed less – vascular plants ex. Ferns, lycopods
2. Seed – vascular plants
a. Gymnosperms – cone bearing ex. Pines, cycads
b. Angiosperms – seed bearing ex. Fruit trees and grasses
- Monocots
- Dicots
MONOCOTS – one cotyledon
- Fibrous root
- Parallel venation
- Herbaceous, soft stems

DICOTS – two cotyledons

- Taproot
- Net-like venation
- Woody stems

Mycology – study of fungi

Algae and fungi → lichen

Zoology – study of animals

KINGDOM ANIMALIA
  Eukaryotic cells (with membrane bound nucleus and organelles)
 Multicellular
 Heterotrophic
 Vertebrates (chordates)

PHYLUM PORIFERA

PHYLUM Cnidaria – with sting

Sea animoni – aren’t able to rationalize
Ex. Jellyfishes, sea anemone, corals
Sting cells: NEMATOCYST
Symbiotic relationship : sea anemone + clown fish

Phylum Echinodermata – spiny skin

Ex. Sea stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers

Analida – segmented worms

Phylum athropoda – jointed legs

Insects = 3 pair of legs
Arachnids – 4
Crustaceans – 5
Centipedes – 2 legs in 1 body segment
Millipedes = 4 legs in 1 body parts

Entomology – study of insects

Phylum Mollusca – soft-bodied animals

BIVALVES (2 shells), clams, oysters
GASTROPODS (1 SHELL), univalves: snails, nautilus
CEPHALOPODS (0 shell), squids, octopus, cuttlefish
Helminthology –

Phylum Platyhelminthes – flat worms, tapeworms, flukes. Nakukuha sag ma uncooked meats
Phylum nematode – “roundworms” ascaris, pinworms

Phylum annelida – segmented worms, eathworms, leeches

Phylum chordata
Characteristics
1. Presence of NOTOCHORD (backbone)
2. Hollow dorsal nerve cord (spinal cord)
3. Pharyngeal slits (gills/lungs)

Ichthyology – study of fishes

 Class agnatha – jawless fish
 Class chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish)
 Class osteichthyes – bony fish
Herpetology – study of amphibians & reptiles
Ornithology – study of birds
Ecology – application of princples

ECOSYSTEM
COMPONENTS
 BIOTIC – living
 ABIOTIC – non-living
 Transfer of energy
 Place: habitat
 Role: niche

Tertiary consumers
Secondary consumers
Primary consumers
Primary producers

 Mutualism (+/+)
 Parasitism (+/-)
 Commensalism (+ /0)
 Competition (-/-)
 Ammensalism (-/0)
 Predation (with act of killing
 Grazing – only a part is eaten)

Largest dessert – antartica , kapag wala (sahara)

Dessert – walang buhay, either hot or cold
Tundra
- Nearest to the polar region, Permafrost(nagyeyelo)
-