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• A GHGSat satellite observation of methane cloud

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3
 Environmental Pollution
 Environmental pollution can be defined as any
undesirable change in physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of any component of the environment like air,
water, soil which can cause harmful effects on various forms
of life or property.

 Pollution : The term pollution can be defined as the

influence of any substance causing nuisance, harmful effects
and uneasiness to the environment.

 Pollutants : The pollutant may be physical, chemical,

bacteriological, suspended, colloidal, dissolved, organic,
inorganic, mineral salts, toxic chemicals etc.

Pollution has touched all parts of the planet. It is a global problem. Although urban
areas are usually more polluted than the countryside, pollution can spread to remote
places where no people live. For example, pesticides and other chemicals have been
found in the Antarctic ice sheet. In the middle of the northern Pacific Ocean, a huge
collection of microscopic plastic particles are formed what is known as the Great
Pacific Garbage Patch. Air and water currents carry pollution. Ocean currents and
migrating fish carry marine pollutants far and wide. Winds can pick up radioactive
material accidentally released from a nuclear reactor and scatter it around the world.
Smoke from a factory in one country drifts into another country.

Pollution v/s human health:

Pollution is affecting our health through the food we eat, the water we drink and the
air we breathe. Approximately 19 million premature deaths are estimated to occur
annually as a result of the way we use natural resources and the way we impact the
environment to support global production and consumption.

The number of potential pollutants is countless. There are, for example, some 30,000
chemicals in common use today, any one of which may be released into the
environment during processing or use. Fewer than 1% of these have been subject to a

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detailed assessment in terms of their toxicity and health risks. The number of
biological pollutants is truly unquantifiable. There is no shortage of potential
environmental risks to health. What is lacking, for the most part, is an understanding
of the nature and mechanisms of these risks. The adverse effects of these
pollutants in the environment are not limited to ourselves, but may pass on to
our future generation by the way of genetic mutations, birth defects, inherited
diseases and so on. The future generation may blame our generation for all
these syndromes.

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted by the United Nations in
2015 commits to “ensure that all human beings can enjoy prosperous and fulfilling
lives and that economic, social and technological progress occurs in harmony with
nature”. Do you think this can happen?

Pollution can take many forms, ranging from organic compounds and other chemical
substances to different types of energy. Some types of pollution are easily noticed,
such as certain forms of contaminated water, poor air quality, noise etc. Others are
less visible, for example pesticides in food, mercury in fish, excess nutrients in the sea
and lakes, chemicals in drinking water, and other micro-pollutants in fresh and marine
water. Some of these, such as those coming from abandoned industrial sites, armed
conflict zones, nuclear power stations, pesticide stockpiles and waste landfills, form a
part of a longer-term legacy.

The sources and types of pollution are highly diverse, as are the solutions to deal with
them. For example, hazardous chemicals in paints, cleaning compounds, dyes,
electronic products, and many other household substances can become pollutants if
not managed correctly. Ecosystem functions are put at risk as well. There are also
many emerging and novel products, such as some therapeutic drugs and
nanomaterials, for which data on potential pollution effects are scattered.

On the other hand, food waste globally has been estimated to be as high as one third
of all food produced for human consumption – nearly 1.3 billion tons.

Pollution is not a new phenomenon; it is largely controllable and often avoidable, but
still considerably neglected. Thanks to better knowledge, alternative consumption
and production models, as well as innovative technological solutions. Many countries,
cities, and businesses can now successfully tackle serious pollution issues, if adopted
effectively.

Today, a majority of UN Member States recognize environmental rights. The first

Principles of both the 1972 Stockholm and 1992 Rio Declarations focused on the

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human right to a safe and clean environment. The Stockholm Declaration describes
“the fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life, in an
environment of a quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being...”, while the Rio
Declaration states that humans “are entitled to a healthy and productive life in
harmony with nature”. These declarations have, together with other principles,
informed many national constitutions over the past three decades.

At the same time, voluntary environmental initiatives have supported more formal
environmental agreements, resulting in progress in some areas. But even more robust
governance frameworks are required to bring us closer to a pollution-free planet. In
particular, the 17 Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations provide an
opportunity to accelerate the implementation of targeted and time-bound actions on
pollution, which have been limited and inadequate.

With regards to chemicals and waste, legally binding approaches at the global level
are essential to address the most critical and complex pollution challenges. Existing
multilateral environmental agreements already enable actions. This was notably in
relation to the ban and substitution of ozone-depleting substances achieved in 2015.
Several of the multilateral environmental agreements were given consent worldwide
or nearly worldwide.

Although no international agreement explicitly recognizes the right to a healthy

environment, national constitutions have played a vital role at the forefront of human
rights and environmental protection. The majority of constitutional environmental
rights include coniderable, procedural, and emerging rights, such as the right to
health and food, while others refer to policy-based, reciprocal-duty, and
miscellaneous provisions.

At the same time, responses by governments, business and citizens to pollution

remain sometimes limited in scope and scale and to date, there are no legally binding
agreements that systematically address pollution in all its forms. If global and regional
environmental agreements provide a partial framework, there are many gaps. For
example, some agreements are only target-based, some are time-bound, while
others cover also compliance-related actions, monitoring and reporting.

Benefits:
It is obvious from many case studies that tackling pollution has already brought
multiple benefits even if current responses may still be limited and inadequate.
Projections indicate that further actions have the potential to enhance both health,
well-being, and the economy. Two success stories show what can be achieved: the
healing of the ozone layer and the phasing out of lead in fuel.

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Actions:
Solutions to help remove pollutants and detoxify our environment exist around the
world. These need to be expanded, shared, and scaled up in order to avoid risking
further exposure of humans and ecosystems to current and future pollution as well as
increasing the costs of clean up. Improved risk assessment of new pollution sources is
also urgently needed. Transitioning to a pollution-free world can drive innovation and
social equity throughout the economy, by seeing pollution prevention and regulation
compliance as an opportunity to clean up everyone’s environment, create new jobs,
improve economic productivity and protect the rights of this and future generations.
Resource efficiency over the whole production-consumption system in particular can
generate products which are identical or have the same functionality as when using
traditional technologies and processes, while also reducing critical emissions and
mitigating resource requirements and environmental impacts in the upstream
processes.
Moving to less-polluting and nature-based technologies also offer economic and
employment opportunities.

However, challenges and gaps still limit the effectiveness of current actions. The key
gaps are:
Implementation,
Knowledge,
Infrastructure,
Limited financial and industry leadership,
Pricing and fiscal, and
Behavioural.

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 Causes of Pollution

Man has spoiled and polluted the environment by:

• Uncontrolled growth
• Rapid industrialization
• Rapid urbanization
• Exploitation of nature

Besides man, contributors to pollution are:

• Volcanic eruptions
• Radio activities
• Strong wind
• Forest fires
• Sandstorms etc.

Natural radioactivity comes from elements in nature.

Artificial radioactivity comes from elements created in nuclear reactors and
accelerators.

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Types of Pollution
Air pollution

Land pollution

Nuclear pollution

Water pollution

Noise pollution

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AIR POLLUTION

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 Air pollution is a chemical, particulate matter, or
biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics of
the atmosphere.
 Air pollution is said to exist if the level of harmful gases,
solids or liquids present in the atmosphere are high
enough to affect humans, other organisms, buildings,
monuments, etc.
 Air pollution is measured in terms concentrated
suspended particulate matter (SPM), nitrogen-oxide &
sulphur dioxide.

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 Particulate matter
 Solid particles generated by handling, crushing, grinding, spraying
and other operations are known as particulate matter.
 Particle's size vary from 2.5 microns to 100 microns in the
atmosphere.
 Small and light particles suspend whereas bigger sized particles
settle by their own weight.
 Fine particles reach human lungs and cause respiratory diseases.

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 The National Air Quality Index (AQI) was launched in New Delhi on
September 17, 2014, under the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan. The continuous
monitoring systems that provide data on near real-time basis are installed
in New Delhi, Mumbai, Pune and Ahmedabad.

National Air Quality Index (AQI) transforms complex air quality data of eight
pollutants into a single number (index value), nomenclature and colour.
National Air Quality Index (AQI) was launched on 17 October 2014 to disseminate
information on air quality in an easily understandable form for the general public.
The measurement of air quality is based on eight pollutants.

Air pollution kills an estimated seven million people worldwide every year. Around
91% of the world’s population lives in places where air quality levels exceed WHO
limits. WHO data shows that 9 out of 10 people breathe air that exceeds WHO
guideline limits containing high levels of pollutants, with low- and middle-income
countries suffering from the highest exposures.
From smog hanging over cities to smoke inside the home, air pollution poses a
major threat to health and climate. The combined effects of ambient (outdoor) and
household air pollution cause about seven million premature deaths every year,
largely as a result of increased mortality from stroke, heart disease, chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer and acute respiratory infections.

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 Source of Pollutants
Natural sources

• sand/dust storms
• volcanoes
• forest fires
• gases produced by decaying
organisms

Human activity

Sometimes, air pollution is visible. A person can see dark smoke pour from the
exhaust pipes of large trucks or factories, for example. More often, however, air
pollution is invisible. Polluted air can be dangerous, even if the pollutants are
invisible. Most air pollution is not natural.

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 Human Activity

Source : Wikipedia.org

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 Result:
Hazy Horizon, Acid rain, Global warming etc.

Source : Wikipedia.org

Source: interestingengineering.com/

City traffic produces highly concentrated carbon monoxide. Cars and factories
produce other common pollutants, including nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, and
hydrocarbons. These chemicals react with sunlight to produce smog, a thick fog or
haze of air pollution. Smog can be brown or grayish blue, depending on which
pollutants are in it.

Smog makes breathing difficult, especially for children and older adults. Some cities
that suffer from extreme smog; issue air pollution warnings. The government of Hong
Kong, for example, will warn people not to go outside or engage in strenuous physical
activity (such as running or swimming) when smog is very thick.

When air pollutants such as nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide mix with moisture, they
change into acids. They then fall back to earth as acid rain.

Greenhouse gases are another source of air pollution. Greenhouse gases such
as carbon dioxide and methane occur naturally in the atmosphere. In fact, they are
necessary for life on Earth. They absorb sunlight reflected from Earth, preventing it
from escaping into space. By trapping heat in the atmosphere, they keep Earth warm
enough for people to live. This is called the greenhouse effect. But human activities

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such as burning fossil fuels and destroying forests have increased the amount of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This has increased the greenhouse effect, and
average temperatures across the globe are rising. The decade that began in the year
2000 was the warmest on record. Global warming is causing ice sheets and glaciers to
melt, ocean acidification. Scientists have predicted that global warming will cause an
increase in severe storms. It will also cause more droughts in some regions and more
flooding in others.

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Classification of Air pollutants

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 Classification of Pollutants

Primary Pollutant:

Secondary Pollutant:

Source-https://greenanand.blogspot.com/

Primary Pollutant:
Primary pollutants are substances directly emitted from source; such as ash from a
volcanic eruption or the carbon monoxide gas from a motor vehicle exhaust.

Secondary Pollutant:
Secondary pollutants not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary
pollutants react or interact. An important example of a secondary pollutant is ground
level ozone - one of the many secondary pollutants that make up photochemical
smog.

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 Major Primary Pollutants
 Sulfur oxides (SOx) especially sulfur dioxide are emitted from
burning of coal and oil.

 Nitrogen oxides (NOx) especially nitrogen dioxide are emitted

from high temperature combustion. Can be seen as the brown
haze dome above or plume downwind of cities.

 Carbon monoxide is a product by incomplete combustion of

fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a
major source of carbon monoxide.

 Carbon dioxide (CO2), emitted from combustion and

respiration.

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 Major Primary Pollutants…..
 Particulate matter (PM), measured as smoke and dust.
 Volatile organic compounds (VOC), such as hydrocarbon fuel
vapors and solvents.
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), harmful to the ozone layer emitted
from products currently banned from use.
 Ammonia (NH3) emitted from agricultural processes.
 Toxic metals, such as lead, cadmium and copper.
 Odors, such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes
 Radioactive pollutants produced by nuclear explosions and war
explosives, and natural processes such as radiation.

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 Secondary pollutants
Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary
pollutants and compounds in photochemical smog, such
as nitrogen dioxide.

Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs.

Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) similarly formed from NOx

and VOCs.

VOC – Volatile organic compounds

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Absorption: Involves bringing pollutant gas in contact with a liquid absorbent
(solvent) so that one or more constituents of the pollutant gas are removed, treated
or modified.

Adsorption: Passing a stream of effluent gas through a porous solid material (the
adsorbent) contained in an adsorption pad (Types of adsorbents: Activated carbon,
alumina, silica gel etc.)

Combustion: The process called incineration or combustion—chemically, rapid

oxidation—can be used to convert VOCs and other gaseous hydrocarbon pollutants
to carbon dioxide and water. Incineration of VOCs and hydrocarbon fumes usually is
accomplished in a special incinerator called an afterburner.

Gravity Settling Chambers:

This is a simple particulate collection device using the principle of gravity to settle the
particulate matter in a gas stream passing through its long chamber. The primary
requirement of such a device would be a chamber in which the carrier gas velocity is
reduced so as to allow the particulate matter to settle out of the moving gas stream
under the action of gravity. This particulate matter is then collected at the bottom of

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the chamber. The chamber is cleaned manually to dispose the waste.

Cyclones:
Settling chambers (discussed above) are not effective in removing small
particles. Therefore, one needs a device that can exert more force than gravity force
on the particles so that they can be removed from the gas stream. Cyclones use
centrifugal forces for removing the fine particles. They are also known as centrifugal
or inertial separators.

Fabric Filters:
The particulate laden gas stream passes through a woven fabric that filters out the
particulate matter and allows the gas to pass through

Electrostatic Precipitators:
Particulates moving through a region of high electrostatic potential, tend to become
charged and are then attracted to an oppositely charged area where they can be
collected

Wet Collectors:
Wet collectors, or scrubbers, remove particulate matter from gas streams by
incorporating the particles into liquid droplets directly on contact.

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 Control measures of Air pollution
Using low sulphur coal in industries

Removing NOx during the combustion process

Using mass transportation system

Removing particulate from stack exhaust gases by employing electrostatic precipitator,

bag filters, cyclone separators, scrubbers etc.
Shifting to less pollution fuels (Hydrogen gas)

Installing catalytic converters by engine modification to have fuel efficient to reduce

CO and hydrocarbon emissions
By planting trees

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LAND POLLUTION

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 Land pollution is the degradation of Earth's land
surfaces often caused by human activities and their
misuse of land resources.

 It occurs when waste is not disposed of properly.

Disposal of urban and industrial wastes, exploitation
of minerals, and improper use of soil by inadequate
agricultural practices are a few factors.

 Urbanization and industrialization are major

causes of land pollution.

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Land pollution comprises of :

Solid Waste

Soil Pollution

Source-https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/

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 Solid Waste
Wastes from Agriculture

Wastes from Mining

Wastes from Industries

Solids from Sewage Treatment

Ashes

Garbage

Wastes from Agriculture: This comprises of waste matter produced by crop, animal
manure, and farm residues.

Wastes from Mining: Piles of coal refuse and heaps of slag.

Wastes from Industries: Industrial waste matter that can cause land pollution can
include paints, chemicals, and so on.

Solids from Sewage Treatment: Wastes that are left over after sewage has been
treated, biomass sludge, and settled solids.

Ashes: The residual matter that remains after solid fuels are burned.

Garbage: This comprises of waste matter from food that are decomposable and other
waste matter that are not decomposable such as glass, metal, cloth, plastic,
wood, paper, and so on.

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 Soil pollution
It is caused by the presence of xenobiotic (human-made) chemicals
or other alteration in the natural soil environment.

Caused due to :
 underground storage tanks,
 application of pesticides,
 percolation of contaminated surface water to subsurface strata
 oil and fuel dumping

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 Control measures

 Reduce, Recycle and Reuse.

 Reduce the use of pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural

activities. Encourage organic farming

 Reduce the use of non-biodegradable materials.

 Avoid buying packaged items as they will lead to creating

garbage and end up in the landfill site.

 Ensure that you do not litter on the ground and do proper

disposal of garbage.

 Make people aware of the concept of Reduce, Recycle and Reuse.

 Reusing materials help to reduce the requirement of harvesting resources. The

products that cannot be reused can likely be recycled.

 Reduce the use of pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural activities. Encourage

organic farming.

 Reduce the use of non-biodegradable materials. By simply switching to a

reusable cloth bag for groceries instead of plastic shopping bags will help cut
down on the need for non-biodegradable materials.

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 Avoid buying packaged items as they will lead to creating garbage and end up in
the landfill site.

 Ensure that you do not litter on the ground and do proper disposal of garbage.

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  Buy biodegradable products.

 Create dumping ground away from residential areas.

 Avoid littering and proper disposal of waste

 Education is key to mitigate the land pollution problem.

Governments can combat pollution by passing laws that limit the

amount and types of chemicals used. Solid waste management should
be effectively adopted.
We have to show people the adverse effects of land pollution and the
way to mitigate them. Convincing others can motivate every one of us to
make a significant contribution to save our environment.

 Buy biodegradable products.

 Create dumping ground away from residential areas.

 Avoid littering and properly dispose of waste, which is an essential measure

against land pollution both for households as well as for industries.

 Education is key to mitigate the land pollution problem. We have to show people
the adverse effects of land pollution and the way to mitigate them. Convincing
others can motivate every one of us to make a significant contribution to save
our environment.

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 Clean up

 Excavate soil and take it to a disposal site away from ready

pathways for human or sensitive ecosystem contact. Aeration
of soils at the contaminated site.

 Thermal remediation

 Bioremediation

 Phytoremediation

 Excavate soil and take it to a disposal site away from ready pathways for human
or sensitive ecosystem contact. Aeration of soils at the contaminated site.
 Thermal remediation by introduction of heat to raise subsurface temperatures
sufficiently high to volatize chemical contaminants out of the soil for vapor
extraction.
 Bioremediation, involving microbial digestion of certain organic chemicals.
Techniques used in bioremediation include landfarming and bioaugmentating soil
biota.
 Phytoremediation is a bioremediation process that uses various types of plants
to remove, transfer, stabilize, and/or destroy contaminants in the soil and
groundwater

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NUCLEAR POLLUTION

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  Undesirable effect caused to the environment due to radioactive
substances or radiations
 Radioactive decay
 The extent of damage or danger posed to
the environment depends upon the
radioactive material concentration, the
energy emitted by the radiation,
proximity of the radioactive materials to
those exposed, and the radiation type.

Any undesirable effect caused to the environment due to radioactive substances or

radiations is called nuclear pollution. This occurs when there is a presence or
depositions of radioactive materials in the atmosphere or environment, especially
where their presence is accidental and when it presents an environmental threat due
to radioactive decay. The destruction caused by the radioactive materials is because
of the emissions of hazardous ionizing radiation (radioactive decay) like beta or alpha
particles, gamma rays or neurons in the environment where they exist.
Since the substances are characterized by radiation – because there is a lot of
instability of the particles present in the radioactive materials, it can seriously affect,
alter and even destroy plant, animal, and human life. The extent of damage or danger
posed to the environment depends upon the radioactive material concentration, the
energy emitted by the radiation, proximity of the radioactive materials to those
exposed, and the radiation type.

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Cosmic Rays and Other Natural Sources: Cosmic rays come from the outer space to
our planet with intense radiation as their nature, therefore, causing radioactive
pollution. The quantity with which the rays hit the earth depends on the altitude of
the earth and the geographical location. There may be terrestrial radiations from
radioactive elements present in the earth’s crust. These radioactive elements include
potassium 40, radium 224, radon 222, thorium 232, uranium 235, uranium 238, and
carbon 14 and occur in rocks, soil and water.
Mining: Mining mostly involves the excavation of the mineral ores, which are then
broken into smaller, manageable pieces. Radium and Uranium, for instance, are
naturally occurring in the environment and are equally radioactive. Hence, mining
increases the natural geological processes by moving these materials from
underneath the earth to the surface. Other minerals with a hint of radiation are
thorium, plutonium, radon, potassium, carbon and phosphorus.
Nuclear Accidents From Nuclear Energy Generation Plants: In the postmodern
world, various forms of energy are being discovered. Among them is nuclear energy,
which is touted to be the most potent source of energy due to its high latent power.
Reports indicate that the high latent power is due to its high level of radiation.
Its use is, therefore, prohibited, but research is underway to determine
its environmental safety and to put in place the most appropriate precautionary

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measures for its use. In some cases and countries, however, nuclear power plant
accidents like the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster (2011), Chernobyl
disaster (1986), and Three Mile Island accident (1979) left many dead and even many
more affected by the radiation released.
It isn’t necessary that only nuclear power stations cause nuclear pollution. Even other
industries, not related to nuclear power production, can also contribute to it. Coal has
small amounts of radioactive material in the form of uranium and thorium. These do
not burn completely and become part of fly ash. Even while producing oil and gas,
radium and similar elements are released in to the air.
Medical Technology: Radiation has been seen to have a lot of interesting properties,
which has promoted a lot of scientists to conduct tests to learn more about it. It is
one of the key elements in the cure and treatment of cancer. Despite this, scientists
have been exposed to radiation leading to their deaths or other complications.
Use of Radioisotopes: Radioisotopes are used to make detectors and in other
industrial activities. Isotopes such as uranium have high concentrations of radiation in
them. On the other hand, common Isotopes such as carbon-containing radioactive
material are easily found in waterways through sewage lines.
Since most of the raw sewage is untreated before release, once released, the isotope
combines with other compounds and elements present in water. This is the same
water that people fetch for domestic use. Moreover, fishes use the same water to
survive. Consumption of these fishes and from contaminated water sources means
the potential intake of radiation.
Nuclear waste: The radioactive wastes mainly comprise of the disposal from nuclear
weapons, the cleaning materials from nuclear plants, military installations, emitted
from plutonium processing and other radioisotopes from hospitals and laboratories.
The handling and disposal of nuclear waste may generate low to medium radiation
over a long period of time. Their effects are not only hard to predict but may not be
easily distinguishable as the radioactivity may contaminate and propagate through
air, water, and soil as well. Moreover, identifying locations of some nuclear waste is
not easy. The main issue is that the radiation waste cannot be degraded or treated
chemically or biologically.
Research Applications: Nuclear tests are carried out to invent better nuclear
weapons. The production of defensive weapons that may release radioactivity from
the radioactive materials handled usually have high health risks. However, the current
standards will not allow the release of any significant amount of radiation unless an
accident occurs.
The smallest particles of the radioactive material are called fallout. The fallout settles
on the leaves of plants and trees. These leaves are eaten by the grazing animals.
Radioactive material now enters the ecosystem. Fallouts that do not drop on leaves
accumulate over the sea. This can be harmful for the sea life, which ultimately affects
the humans.
The Use of Nuclear Weapons as Weapons of Mass Destruction: The use of nuclear

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missiles and atomic bombs, a form of nuclear energy, in the Second World War
explains not only the cause but also the damaging nature of radioactive pollution or
contamination. The effects of those two strikes in Hiroshima and Nagasaki that
prompted the end of the war in 1945 have been seen to date with children born with
complications such as mental retardation as well as conditions like autism and other
disorders. The number of cancer cases present in the two towns is more than those
of the rest of Japan.
Reprocessing: Radioactive contamination or nuclear pollution is the most dangerous
for the environment since the wastes maintain their radioactive properties for
thousands of years. There is no way to have them assimilated in the soil, the water or
the air in the initial form. Reprocessing is the only solution we have to limit the extent
of nuclear pollution and clean the planet from such increasingly harmful residues.
The highest likelihood of radioactive elements reaching in open environment is by
accident during the transportation to the reprocessing plants located in some parts of
the globe. Reprocessing in itself causes other pollution problems adding other risks to
an already fragile environment condition.

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 Nuclear wastes
Two categories
 High-level waste (HLW)
 Low-level waste (LLW)

These are generally recognized, based on radioactivity, source

and hazard.

Nuclear waste is the radioactive waste produced by nuclear reactors, or left over
from research projects, medical uses, and the manufacture of nuclear weapons.

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 High Level Wastes
 High-level waste consists mainly of spent fuel rods from
nuclear reactors.

 Power plants rely on nuclear fission to generate heat.

 Spent fuel rods and are highly radioactive, containing a

number of fission products.

 These elements decay at different rates, and over time, the

rods become less radioactive, but will remain potentially
dangerous for many thousands of years.

High-level waste consists mainly of spent fuel rods from nuclear reactors.

These power plants rely on nuclear fission to generate heat, and the fuel is made into
rods that can be moved in and out of the reactor core to control the process. After a
time, the rate of fission in a rod will decrease to the point where it is no longer
efficient, and the rod will be removed. The removed rods are known as spent fuel
rods and are highly radioactive, containing a number of fission products.

These elements decay at different rates, and over time, the rods become less
radioactive, but will remain potentially dangerous for many thousands of years.

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 Nuclear fuel storage pool and Casks

https://rampages.us/longlc/type/link/

The Spent Nuclear Fuel are kept underwater (wet storage), which provides both
shielding and cooling. Most fuel removed from reactors is stored underwater for at
least the first few years to allow the decay heat to be reduced. After this initial
cooling period, the fuel can then be transferred to dry storage, which relies on heavy
concrete or metal casks and/or structures for shielding and provides cooling
by natural convection (When a fluid, such as air or a liquid, is heated and then travels
away from the source, it carries the thermal energy along. This type of heat transfer is
called convection) or forced air circulation.

Beyond storage, many options have been investigated which seek to provide publicly
acceptable, safe, and environmentally sound solutions to the final management of
radioactive waste. The most widely favoured solution is deep geological disposal. The
focus is on how and where to construct such facilities.

Intermediate-level radioactive waste (ILW) that contains long-lived radioisotopes is

also stored pending disposal in a geological repository. Some countries are at the
preliminary stages of their consideration of disposal for Intermediate-level radioactive
waste ILW and High Level radioactive Wastes, whilst others, such as Finland and
Sweden, have made good progress in the selection of publicly acceptable sites for the

35
future disposal of radioactive waste.

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Nuclear fuel storage pool

Source : www.pinterest.com

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 Pool is 12m deep
 Bottom 4.3 m is equipped with storage racks designed to
hold fuel assemblies removed from reactors.
 Such pools are used for immediate "cooling" of the fuel
rods, which allows short-lived isotopes to decay and thus
reduce the ionizing radiation emitting from the rods.
 The water cools the fuel and provides radiological
protection shielding from their radiation.

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 Low Level Wastes
 Consist of materials that have come into contact with
radioactive substances, or which have become radioactive
themselves due to exposure to some forms of radiation, as
well as small quantities of radioisotopes from research
establishments and hospitals.
 Protective clothing worn by staff, syringes and needles

It comes from a wide variety of sources. It consists of materials that have come into
contact with radioactive substances, or which have become radioactive themselves
due to exposure to some forms of radiation, as well as small quantities of
radioisotopes from research establishments and hospitals.

Examples are items of protective clothing worn by staff who work with radioactive
materials, and syringes and needles used for the injection of radioisotopes for
medical purposes. It typically remains potentially hazardous for between a few tens
and a few hundreds of years.

Most low-level radioactive waste (LLW) is typically sent to land-based disposal

immediately following its packaging for long-term management. These can
sometimes be disposed in caverns (A cave or cavern is a natural void in the ground)
below ground level (at depths of tens of metres).

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 Low-level waste is compressed with a hydraulic press to half
its original volume and packed in barrels. Liquid radioactive
waste is dried and mixed with a solid agent, such as bitumen,
and then cemented in barrels.

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Low-level waste repository in Finland

Source : cienciaensocietat.org

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 Control of Radioactive Pollution
The following preventive measures should be followed to
control radioactive pollution :
(i) Usage should be totally stopped.
(ii) Proper storage
(iii) Radioactive wastes disposal must be safe.
(iv) Reusing
(v) Preventive measures - natural radiation level does not rise
above the permissible limits.
(vi) Safety measures in nuclear power plants.
(vii) Precautions at the Personal Level

Effects of Radioactive Pollution include

Genetic Mutations
Cell Destruction (Radiation distorts the cells present in living organisms leading to
permanent damage of the various organs and organ systems. In the face of too much
radiation, permanent illnesses and death are inevitable)
Diseases (Cancer is the most dominant radiation-related disease. Others are
leukemia, anemia, hemorrhage, a reduction in the life span leading to premature
aging and premature deaths as well as others such as cardiovascular complications)
Soil Infertility (Radioactive substances in the soil react together with the various
nutrients leading to the destruction of those nutrients, thus rendering the soil
infertile and highly toxic)
Effects on Wildlife, plants and marine life

The following preventive measures should be followed to control radioactive

pollution :
(i) Leakage of radioactive materials from nuclear reactors, industries and
laboratories using them should be totally stopped. Nuclear tests should be
banned.
(ii) Proper Storage - It is mandatory for containers carrying radioactive material

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 to be stored properly. For starters, such substances should be stored in
radiation proof containers to ensure no seeping or leakage during handling.
Proper storage means no harm and can minimize cases of accidental
leakage.
(iii) Radioactive wastes disposal must be safe. Radioactive waste still has some
level of radiation. Accordingly, it cannot be disposed of in the same way as
normal waste. It cannot be incinerated or buried. Since there is a likelihood
of seepage, this waste should be stored in heavy and thick concrete
containers. They should be changed into harmless form or stored in safe
places so that they can decay in a harmless manner. Another option is to
dilute the radiation since storage may not be possible. Since there are no
easy ways of disposing of radioactive material, professional assistance
should always be sought.
(iv) Reusing - Since it is not easy to store or dispose the waste, it can be recycled
and used for other purposes like in another reactor as fuel (typical reactors
only extract a few percent of the energy in their fuel) thereby protecting the
environment.
(v) Preventive measures should be taken so that natural radiation level does
not rise above the permissible limits.
(vi) Safety measures should be taken against accidents in nuclear power plants.
(vii) Precautions at the Personal Level - There may be the possibility of
contamination if one owns a house located near a nuclear power plant. In
that case, it is recommended to check the level of radon gas in your
building. The radon level needs to be removed. Those who work with
radioactive material are also at great risk. They need protective measures to
keep away from radioactive contamination.

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WATER POLLUTION

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  Water is used for drinking, domestic, agricultural, irrigation,
industries, navigation and recreation.

 Water pollution can be defined as alteration in physical,

chemical or biological characteristics of water through
natural or human activities and making it unsuitable for its
designated use.

Water is used for drinking, domestic, agricultural, irrigation, industries, navigation and
recreation. Safeguarding water supplies is important because even though nearly 70
percent of the world is covered by water, only 2.5 percent of it is fresh. And just one
percent of freshwater is easily accessible, with much of it trapped in remote glaciers
and snowfields. Natural life cycles in the aquatic ecosystem usually ensure that water
bodies are self-cleansing. It is when the quantity, concentration and frequency of
waste products entering into the water system exceeds its ability to clean itself, this is
when water pollution starts.

From big pieces of garbage to invisible chemicals, a wide range of pollutants ends up
in our planet's lakes, rivers, streams, groundwater, and eventually the oceans. Some
of them get dissolved and some remain suspended in the water or gets deposited on
the bed. Some polluted water looks muddy, smells bad, and has garbage floating in it.
Some polluted water looks clean, but is filled with harmful chemicals you can’t see or
smell. Water contamination consequently harms human health and the natural
environment.

Water pollution can be defined as alteration in physical, chemical or biological

characteristics of water through natural or human activities and making it unsuitable

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for its designated use.

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Consequences

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As Per BIS – For Indian scenario 12/22/2022

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 Sources of water pollution are :

 Municipal waste water

 Industrial waste
 Agricultural wastes
 Marine pollution
 Thermal pollution

http://shssenvironmentalscience.weebly.com/

Water pollution can happen from number of different sources. If the pollution comes
from a single source, such as an oil spill, it is called point-source pollution.
If the pollution comes from many sources, it is called nonpoint-source pollution. For
example, agricultural or storm water runoff or debris blown into waterways from
land.
Most types of pollution affect the immediate area surrounding the source.
Sometimes the pollution may affect the environment hundreds of miles away from
the source, such as nuclear waste, this is called transboundary pollution.

Here are the sources of water pollution

Apart from these, there are some natural sources of water pollution. Oil and natural
gas, for example, can leak into oceans and lakes from natural underground sources.
These sites are called petroleum seeps.
When acid rain, formed due to air pollutants, falls or runs off from the land into the
water it causes the lake or pond to become acidic. This is an unfavourable habitat for
life.

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 Municipal wastewater
 Municipal wastewater is the wastewater from households or
businesses or a mixture of wastewater from households and
industries.
 Also includes storm water runoff

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Municipal wastewater is the wastewater from households or businesses or a mixture

of wastewater from households and industries. Also includes storm water runoff,
which occurs when rainfall carries road salts, oil, grease, chemicals, and debris from
impermeable surfaces into our waterways.
Pollutants usually include household cleaning agents, detergents, grey water and also
the dumping of garbage into waterways (or even rain water run off/ winds carry
garbage from land fill to waterways).
It is comparatively easy to almost completely break down these pollutants with the
help of micro organisms used in wastewater treatment plants. Sewage that has not
been properly treated is a common source of water pollution. Many cities around the
world have poor sewage systems and sewage treatment plants.

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 Industrial waste water
 The major source of water pollution is the waste water
discharged from industries such as chemical, metallurgical,
food processing industries, textile, paper industries etc.
 They discharge several organic and inorganic pollutants that
prove to be highly toxic.

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The major source of water pollution is the waste water discharged from industries
such as chemical, metallurgical, food processing industries, textile, paper industries
etc.
They discharge several organic and inorganic pollutants that prove to be highly toxic.
Inorganic pollutants include fine particles of different metals, chlorides, sulphates,
oxides of iron, cadmium, acids and alkalies. Organic pollutants include fats, oils, phenols,
organic acids, grease and several other compounds.

Buried chemical waste can also pollute water supplies. If not disposed of properly,
contaminants threaten groundwater, surface water, and marine resources.

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 Agricultural wastes
 Chemical fertilizers and pesticides - potential source of water
pollution.
 They contain major plant nutrients such as nitrogen,
phosphorous and potassium.
 Excess fertilizers may reach the ground water by leaching or
may be mixed with surface waters of rivers, lakes and ponds
by runoff and drainage.

Agricultural wastes include animal by-products, farm wastes, bacteria from livestock,
excess salts from soils of irrigated crop lands and chemicals such as fertilizers and
pesticides which now have become essential for the present day high yielding crops.
Consequently they have become a potential source of water pollution as they contain
major plant nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium.
Excess fertilizers may reach the ground water by leaching or may be mixed with
surface waters of rivers, lakes and ponds by runoff and drainage.

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 Marine Pollution
 Oceans are the final sink of all natural and manmade
pollutants.
 Rivers discharge their pollutants into the sea.
 The sewage and garbage
 The others sources include discharge of oil, grease, plastics,
detergents and radioactive wastes from ships.

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Oceans are the final destination of all natural and manmade pollutants as rivers
discharge their pollutants into the sea. The sewage and garbage of the coastal cities
are also dumped into the sea. In addition, rapid urbanisation along the world’s
coastlines has seen the growth of coastal ‘megacities’, which contribute to major
marine pollution. It is estimated that a staggering 80 per cent of marine pollution
originates on land. Land-based pollutants – such as agricultural run-off and nutrients
from sewage outflows - are contributing to ocean ‘dead zones’ – areas which can no
longer sustain life because they have low or zero oxygen. There are now some 500 of
these dead zones around the world. Plastics are one of the biggest man-made
pollutants in the marine environment, with an estimated eight million tonnes of
plastic waste finding its way into our oceans each year, where they break down into
ever smaller pieces, eventually becoming microplastics causing serious threat to
wildlife above and below the waterline.

The others sources include discharge of oil, grease, plastics, detergents and
radioactive wastes from ships.
Many of these pollutants sink to the ocean's depths or float far distances from their
original source, where they are consumed by small marine organisms and introduced
into the global food chain. Marine pollution encompasses many types of pollution

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that disrupt the marine ecosystem, including chemical, light, noise, and plastic
pollution.

Shipping accidents and oil spills add additional toxins to the mix. Big oil spills may
dominate headlines, but consumers account for the vast majority of oil pollution in
our seas, including oil and gasoline that drips from millions of cars and trucks every
day. Moreover, nearly half of the estimated 1 million tons of oil that makes its way
into marine environments each year comes not from tanker spills but from land-
based sources such as factories, farms, and cities. At sea, tanker spills account for
about 10 percent of the oil in waters around the world, while regular operations of
the shipping industry—through both legal and illegal discharges—contribute about
one-third.

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 Marine Pollution Abatement
 Identify load & type of pollutants and cut it at the source.
 Political commitment and enforce legislation.
 Coastal and marine planning & management.
 Create less waste.
 Reduce/Eliminate the creation of pollutants through
increased efficiency in the use of raw materials, energy,
water etc.
 Pretreatment before disposal to sea.
 Use of equipment to reduce water content and volume in
the chemical process.

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 Thermal Pollution
 Coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers -
decreases oxygen supply and affects ecosystem composition.

 Shading vegetation, turbidity

 Global warming

 Thermal shock

Thermal pollution is the degradation of water quality by any process that changes
ambient water temperature.

A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power

plants and industrial manufacturers. When water used as a coolant, is returned to the
natural environment at a higher temperature, the change in temperature decreases
oxygen supply and affects ecosystem composition.

Increase in ambient water temperature also occur in streams where shading

vegetation along the banks is removed or where sediments have made the water
more turbid.
Because of which more energy from the sun will get absorbed into the water and
thereby increasing its temperature.

There are also situations in which the effects of colder-than-normal water

temperatures may be observed. For example, the discharge of cold bottom water
from deep-water reservoirs behind large dams has changed the downstream
biological communities in systems

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Fish and other organisms adapted to particular temperature range can be killed by an
abrupt change in water temperature (either a rapid increase or decrease) known as
"thermal shock."

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 Effects of Water Pollution
 It damages the food chain. The toxins from water travel to the
body of human and animals.
 The water pollution is responsible for spreading some deadly
diseases like cholera, typhoid, diarrhea, and other
communicable diseases. This is called microbial water
pollution and the pathogens are responsible for it.
 Polluted water can also adversely affect the human heart and
kidneys. The toxins in the human body can create problems
like poor blood circulation, vomiting, skin lesions, damage to
nervous system and others.

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 Ground water level gets contaminated by carcinogenic
elements like lead, cadmium and others which when
consumed with drinking water increases the risk of having
cancer.
 Acid rain is another worry to water pollution. Sulfate
particles present in water creates problem for marine life. It
pollutes the water and also affects the food chain of marine
life.
 Lots of pollutants in water can be responsible for changing
the acidity, temperature, and conductivity of water.

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 How to prevent water pollution?
 Public awareness
 Enforcing stringent environmental laws.
 Properly dispose of chemicals
 Safer Agricultural practices
 Not throwing any non degradable substances to rivers, lakes
and oceans.
 Pretreatment of industrial waste water before discharging to
water bodies.
 Scientific research and development
 Judicious use of water in every aspect of living

Educating the public about its harmful effects to human and environment. Creating
awareness especially among communities that are likely to be affected by the
pollution, so that they may be able to defend themselves by law, making sure that the
sources such as industries and others dispose of their wastes in a safe manner.
Enforcing stringent environmental laws.
Properly dispose of chemical cleaners, oils, and non-biodegradable items to keep
them from ending up down the drain.
Safer Agricultural practices incorporating organic farming so as to eliminate the use of
excess chemicals
Not throwing any non degradable substances to rivers, lakes and oceans.
Pretreatment of industrial waste water before discharging to water bodies.
Scientific research and development of new technologies for better management of
sewage and other wastes, developing more efficient ways of waste disposal.
Judicious use of water in every aspect of living

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NOISE POLLUTION

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  Noise pollution is the disturbing or excessive noise that may
harm the activity or balance of human or animal life.

 Outdoor noise

 Indoor noise

Noise pollution can be defined as any disturbing or unwanted noise that interferes or
harms humans or wildlife. Although noise constantly surrounds us, noise pollution
generally receives less attention than water quality and air quality issues because it
cannot be seen, tasted, or smelled.

Sound is measured in decibels. There are many sounds in the environment, from
rustling leaves (20 to 30 decibels) to a thunderclap (120 decibels) to the wail of a
siren (120 to 140 decibels). Not all sound is considered noise pollution. The World
Health Organization (WHO) defines noise above 65 decibels (dB) as noise pollution.
To be precise, noise becomes harmful when it exceeds 75 decibels (dB) and is painful
above 120 dB. Sounds that reach 85 decibels or higher can harm a person’s
ears. Sound sources that exceed this threshold include familiar things, such as power
lawn mowers (90 decibels), subway trains (90 to 115 decibels), and loud rock
concerts (110 to 120 decibels). As a consequence, it is recommended noise levels be
kept below 65 dB during the day and indicates that restful sleep is impossible with
nighttime ambient noise levels in excess of 30 dB.

The source of most outdoor noise worldwide is mainly caused by road traffic, trains,
aircrafts, agricultural machineries, loud speakers, construction activities, industrial

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activities, explosions, rockets, public concerts etc.

Indoor noise can be caused by machines, building activities, and music performances
etc.

There is no great difference whether noise-induced hearing loss is brought about by

outside (e.g. trains) or inside (e.g. music) noise.

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Noise level chart

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 Causes
 Transportation sector:- aircrafts, trains, trucks, tractors,
cars, three-wheelers, motorcycles etc. contribute maximum
noise.

 Industrial & construction machinery:-factory

equipment's, generators, pile-drivers, pneumatic drills, road
rollers etc. make lot of noise.

 Special events :- high volume sound speakers during

festivals , marriage celebrations, public meetings etc. create
unbearable noise.

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 Effects of noise
 Serious health hazards.
 Noise can lead to physiological & psychological damage if
the volume is very high or the exposure is prolonged.
 Ill effects like pupil dilation or muscle contraction.
 Migraine, nausea, dizziness, gastric ulcers and
constriction of blood vessels are some of the other possible
bad effects of noise.
 Sleep and behavioural disorders
 Memory and concentration

As well as damaging our hearing by causing deafness, constant loud noise can
damage human health in many ways, particularly in the very young and the very old.

 Noise is generally harmful and can create serious health hazards.

 Noise can lead to physiological damage (Respiratory agitation, racing pulse, high
blood pressure, headaches and, in case of extremely loud, constant noise can
cause gastritis, colitis – digestive disease and even heart attacks) &
psychological damage (stress, fatigue, depression, anxiety and hysteria in both
humans and animals)
 Noise can also have other ill effects like pupil dilation or muscle
contraction.
 Migraine , nausea, dizziness, gastric ulcers and constriction of blood
vessels are some of the other possible bad effects of noise.
 Noise above 45 dB stops you from falling asleep or sleeping properly. Loud noise
can have latent effects on our behaviour, causing aggressive behaviour and
irritability.
 Noise may affect people's ability to focus, which can lead to low performance
over time. It is also bad for the memory, making it hard to study.
Interestingly, our ears need more than 16 hours' rest to make up for two hours of
exposure to 100 dB.

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 Noise control measures
 Avoid very noisy leisure activities
 Opting for alternatives means of transport
 Insulate homes
 All machinery should be so designed that the noise
produced is minimum.
 Proper lubrication and better maintenance of machines
 Workers in noisy areas – Should wear noise shield like ear-
plugs, area isolation
 Governments can also take measures to ensure correct
noise management

Producing less noise is the best method

of reducing Noise pollution.
Avoid very noisy leisure activities
Opting for alternatives means of
transport such as bicycles or electric
vehicles
Insulate homes with noise-absorbing
materials
All machinery should be so designed

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 that the noise produced is minimum.
Proper lubrication and better
maintenance of machines will reduce
noise while running.
All the persons working in noisy areas
should wear noise shield like ear-
plugs and such areas should be
isolated by having noise absorbing
materials.
 Governments can also take measures to ensure correct noise management and
reduce noise pollution. For example: protecting certain areas — parts of the
countryside, areas of natural interest, city parks, etc. — from noise, establishing
regulations that include preventive and corrective measures — mandatory
separation between residential zones and sources of noise like airports, fines for
exceeding noise limits, etc. —, creating pedestrian areas where traffic is only
allowed to enter to offload goods at certain times, replacing traditional asphalt
with more efficient options that can reduce traffic noise by up to 3 dB, among
others.

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Applications

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