Basic Electronics (BEE) | 22BEE13/23

BASIC ELECTRONICS
[22BEE13]
Module-1

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering, MITE Page 1

 Basic Electronics (BEE) | 22BEE13/23

Course outcomes

At the end of the course the student will be able to:

CO1: Develop the basic knowledge on construction, operation and characteristics of

semiconductor devices.

CO2: Apply the acquired knowledge to construct small scale circuits consisting of
semiconductor devices.

CO3: Develop competence knowledge to study Linear Op amps & Applications.

CO4: Develop competence knowledge to construct basic digital circuit by make use of basic
gate and its functions.

CO5: Construct the conceptual blocks for basic communication system and Apply the
knowledge of various transducers principle in sensor system.

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering, MITE Page 2

 Basic Electronics (BEE) | 22BEE13/23

Module-1

Semiconductor Diodes: Introduction, PN Junction diode, Characteristics and Parameters, Diode

Approximations, DC Load Line analysis.

Diode Applications: Introduction, Half Wave Rectification, Full Wave Rectification, Full Wave
Rectifier Power Supply: Capacitor Filter Circuit (includes numerical)

Zener Diodes: Junction Breakdown, Circuit Symbol and Package, Characteristics and
Parameters, Equivalent Circuit, Zener Diode Voltage Regulator.

Suggested Text Book:

1. Electronic Devices and Circuits, David A Bell, 5th Edition, Oxford, 2016

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering, MITE Page 3

 Basic Electronics (BEE) | 22BEE13/23

Semiconductor diode & It’s applications:

Introduction:

A PN junction diode is a two terminal semiconductor device which allows electrical current only
in forward direction. Diode can be constructed by adding a P-type semiconductor with an N-type
semiconductor.

Fig.1 PN junction diode

The "p" (positive) side contains an excess of holes, while the "n" (negative) side contains an
excess of electrons in the outer shells of the electrically neutral atoms there. This allows
electrical current to pass through the junction only in one direction. The p–n junction possesses a
useful property for modern semiconductor electronics. A p-doped semiconductor is relatively
conductive. The same is true of an n-doped semiconductor, but the junction between them can
become depleted of charge carriers, and hence non-conductive, depending on the relative
voltages of the two semiconductor regions. By manipulating this non-conductive layer, p–n
junctions are commonly used as diodes: circuit elements that allow a flow of electricity in one
direction but not in the other (opposite) direction.

Biasing of Diode:

Biasing is the process of applying suitable voltage across diode terminals for its operation.
Accordingly, two types of biasing are:

i) Forward Bias.
ii) Reverse Bias.

Forward Biasing of Diode:

In forward biasing, Anode terminal of diode is applied with positive voltage and Cathode
terminal of diode is applied with negative voltage.

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering, MITE Page 4

 Basic Electronics (BEE) | 22BEE13/23

Fig.2. Forward biasing of diode

If the p-n junction diode is forward biased with approximately 0.7 volts for silicon diode or 0.3
volts for germanium diode, the p-n junction diode starts allowing the electric current. Under this
condition, the negative terminal of the battery supplies large number of free electrons to the n-
type semiconductor and attracts or accepts large number of holes from the p-type semiconductor.
In other words, the large number of free electrons begins their journey at the negative terminal
whereas the large number of holes finishes their journey at the negative terminal. When the p–n
junction is forward-biased, electric charge flows freely due to reduced resistance of the p–n
junction.

Reverse Biasing of Diode:

In reverse biasing, Anode terminal of diode is applied with negative voltage and Cathode
terminal of diode is applied with positive voltage.

Fig.3 Reverse Biasing of diode

If a diode is reverse-biased, the voltage at the cathode is comparatively higher than at the anode.
Therefore, very little current flows until the diode breaks down. The connections are illustrated
in the adjacent diagram. Because the p-type material is now connected to the negative terminal of
the power supply, the 'holes' in the p-type material are pulled away from the junction, leaving

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering, MITE Page 5

 Basic Electronics (BEE) | 22BEE13/23

behind charged ions and causing the width of the depletion region to increase. Likewise, because
the n-type region is connected to the positive terminal, the electrons are pulled away from the
junction, with similar effect. This increases the voltage barrier causing a high resistance to the
flow of charge carriers, thus allowing minimal electric current to cross the p–n junction. The
increase in resistance of the p–n junction results in the junction behaving as an insulator.

Diode Characteristics and Parameters:

Forward Characteristic:
The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the depletion layer
becoming very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance path through the junction
thereby allowing high currents to flow. The point at which this sudden increase in current takes
place is represented on the static I-V characteristics curve above as the “knee” point.

Reverse Characteristic:
During reverse bias, the current through the diode is very minimum. This current is due to
minority charge carriers. If the applied reverse voltage becomes greater than the reverse
breakdown voltage, the diode junction breaks down and current increases rapidly. Two types of
breakdowns are Zener breakdown and Avanlanche breakdown.

Fig. 4 VI -Characteristic of diode

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering, MITE Page 6

 Basic Electronics (BEE) | 22BEE13/23

Diode Parameters:

i) Forward Voltage Drop ‘ Vγ’

It is the minimum voltage required for diode forward bias or conduction. It is also called as knee
voltage or threshold voltage.

For a Silicon diode; Vγ=0.7V

For a Germanium diode; Vγ=0.3V

ii) Reverse Breakdown Voltage Vbr

It is the maximum reverse voltage above which diode junction breaks down and permanently
damage the junction.

iii) Static or DC resistance Vdc

It is the resistance offered by the diode to the flow of DC through it when we apply a DC voltage
to it.

Fig. 5 Diode Static Characteristic

Diode Approximations

Diode approximation is a mathematical method used to approximate the nonlinear behavior of

real diodes to enable calculations and circuit analysis. There are three different approximations
used to analyze the diode circuits.

i) Ideal Model
ii) Approximate Model
iii) Piecewise Linear Model

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering, MITE Page 7

 Basic Electronics (BEE) | 22BEE13/23

Ideal Model

An ideal diode is a diode that acts like a perfect conductor when voltage is applied forward
biased and like a perfect insulator when voltage is applied reverse biased. So when positive
voltage is applied across the anode to the cathode, the diode conducts forward current instantly.
When voltage is applied in reverse, the diode conducts no current at all.

Fig. 6 Diode Ideal Model

Approximate Model

In the second approximation, the diode is considered as a forward-biased diode in series with
a battery to turn on the device. For a silicon diode to turn on, it needs 0.7V. A voltage of 0.7V or
greater is fed to turn on the forward-biased diode. The diode turns off if the voltage is less than
0.7V.

Fig.7 Diode Approximate Model

Piecewise Linear model

Although a diode is a non linear device, yet for practical applications it is approximated to be a
linear device when operated under certain operating conditions. This approximation model in
which a non linear device behaves as a linear one for a particular range of voltages is called
the piecewise linear model.

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering, MITE Page 8

 Basic Electronics (BEE) | 22BEE13/23

Fig. 8 Diode Piecewise linear Model

DC Load line Analysis

DC load line is the straight line drawn on diode forward characteristic which represents the line
segment drawn using diode current Id and diode forward voltage Vd.

To draw diode DC load line, consider a simple diode circuit with DC supply and a series resistor
as shown.

Fig. 9 Diode-Resistor Circuit

Applying KVL for the circuit we get:

VDD=ID*R +VD------(1) where ID=Diode forward current

VD=Diode forward voltage drop

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering, MITE Page 9

 Basic Electronics (BEE) | 22BEE13/23

To find the coordinates of DC load line:

During forward bias, the diode drop will be zero.
Hence, ID= VDD/R ----(2)
During reverse bias, the diode current Id=0
Hence, VD=VDD -----(3)

Fig. 10 Diode DC load line

The point at which DC load line intersects with diode characteristic is known as operating point
‘Q’.

Diode applications

As discussed in previous section, Diode is a unidirectional device which allows current in one
direction. Using this property diode is commonly used to convert the alternating signal to direct
signal. The process is known as rectification.

Diode Rectifier

The process of converting an AC signal into pulsating DC signal is known as rectification. In the
design of a DC power supply, rectification, filter and voltage regulation circuits are involved.
The block diagram of a regulated DC power supply is described below. AC signal source is
stepped down using step down transformer. Rectifier converts AC input to pulsating DC.
Capacitor filter minimizes the AC ripples at the output and Zener diode voltage regulator
stabilizes the DC output voltage.

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering, MITE Page 10

 Basic Electronics (BEE) | 22BEE13/23

Fig. 11 DC Power Supply

Depending on period of conduction, rectifiers are classified into two types:

i) Half wave Rectifier

ii) Full wave Rectifier

Half wave Rectifier

Half wave rectifier converts only one half cycle of AC input into DC output signal. The circuit
consists of a step down transformer, diode and a load resistor as shown.

Fig. 12 Half Rectifier and associated waveform

The step down transformer is used to step down the input AC signal to required level (say 12V or
9V). During positive half cycle of input, diode will be forward biased. Diode allows current to
flow and output voltage will be obtained across load resistor. During negative half cycle of input,
diode will be reverse biased and current will not flow through the circuit. Output voltage will be
zero.

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering, MITE Page 11

 Basic Electronics (BEE) | 22BEE13/23

DC or Average output voltage across load, VDC= Vm/π

Peak Inverse Voltage of diode, PIV=Vm

Full Wave Rectification

i) Centre tapped Full Wave Rectifier

Fig. 13 Centre Tapped Full wave Rectifier

Centre tapped full wave rectifier uses two diodes, a load resistor and a centre tapped transformer
to step down the AC input. When the transformer secondary voltage is positive, diode D1 will be
forward biased and D2 will be reverse biased. Circuit current flows through D1 and load resistor
R. Thus output voltage will be obtained across load.

When the transformer secondary voltage is negative, diode D2 will be forward biased and D1
will be reverse biased. Circuit current flows through D2 and load resistor R. Output voltage will
appear across load. It is observed that the current direction during both half cycles will be same
and hence output voltage is positive during both half cycles.

Fig. 14 Full Wave Rectifier waveforms

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering, MITE Page 12

 Basic Electronics (BEE) | 22BEE13/23

ii) Full wave Bridge Rectifier

Fig. 15 Bridge Rectifier

The centre tapped transformer used in previous circuit is expensive and bulkier compared to
ordinary transformer. So bridge rectifier is commonly used for full wave rectification.

The circuit of full wave bridge rectifier consists of 04 diodes, a load resistor and an ordinary
transformer. When the transformer secondary voltage is positive, diodes D1 and D2 will be
forward biased. Circuit current flows through diode D1, load Resistor R and diode D2. When the
transformer secondary voltage is negative, diodes D3 and D4 will be forward biased. Circuit
current flows through diode D3, load Resistor R and diode D4.

The direction of current through load resistor will remain same during both half cycles and hence
output voltage will be positive during entire period of input.

Input and output waveform will be same as Centre Tapped Full Wave Rectifier.

DC or Average output voltage across load, VDC= 2Vm/π

Peak Inverse Voltage of diode, PIV=Vm

Table 1: Rectifier Performance Comparison

Sl. No Parameter HWR Centre Tap FWR Bridge FWR

1 Diodes 01 02 04
2 Transformer Ordinary Centre Tapped Ordinary
3 DC output Vm/π 2Vm/π 2Vm/π
4 RMS output Vm/2 Vm/√2 Vm/√2
5 Efficiency 40.6% 81.2% 81.2%
6 Ripple factor 1.21 0.482 0.482
7 PIV Vm 2Vm Vm

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering, MITE Page 13

 Basic Electronics (BEE) | 22BEE13/23

Numerical Examples

1). A crystal diode having internal resistance rf = 20Ω is used for half-wave rectification. If the
applied voltage V = 50 sin ω t and load resistance R L= 800 Ω, find :
(i) Im, Idc, Irms
(ii) a.c. power input and d.c. power output
(iii) d.c. output voltage
(iv) efficiency of rectification.

Solution:
Input Voltage, V=Vm sin ω t ;Hence Vm=50V

i) Max. Current, Im=Vm/(rf+RL)= 50/(20+800)= 61mA

Average Current, Idc= Im/ π = 19.4mA
RMS current, Irms= Im/2=30.5mA

ii) AC input power, Pac= Irms2*(rf+RL)= 0.763W

DC output power, Pdc=Idc2*RL= 0.301W

iii) DC output Voltage, Vdc= Idc*RL= 15.52V

iv) Efficiency, η= (Pdc/Pac)*100=0.301/0.763=39.5%

2).A full-wave rectifier uses two diodes, the internal resistance of each diode may be assumed
constant at 20 Ω. The transformer r.m.s. secondary voltage from centre tap to each end of
secondary is 50 V and load resistance is 980 Ω. Find : (i) the average load current (ii) the r.m.s.
value of load current.
Solution:

Max. input Voltage, Vm=√2 *Vrms=√2*50=70.7V

Max. load current, Im= Vm/(Rf=RL)=70.7/(20+980)=70.7mA
i) Average Load Current, Idc= 2*Im/ π= 45mA
ii) RMS load Current, Irms= Im/ √2= 45mA/√2= 50mA
Capacitor Filter Circuit

The output of rectifier circuit will be pulsating DC component which consists of AC ripples also.
The pulsating Direct Current (DC) contains both AC and DC components. DC components are
useful but AC components are not useful. So we need to reduce or completely remove the AC
components. By using the filter, we can reduce the AC components at the output.

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering, MITE Page 14

 Basic Electronics (BEE) | 22BEE13/23

Fig. 16 Half wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter

Whenever AC voltage is applied to the circuit throughout the positive half cycle, then the diode
lets the flow of current through it. When the flow of current gets the filter, the ac components
experience a low-resistance and dc components experience a high-resistance from the capacitor.
The DC components flow through the load resistor (low resistance path).

Throughout the conduction time, the capacitor gets charged to the highest value of the voltage
supply. As the voltage among the two plates of the capacitor is equivalent to the voltage supply,
then it is said to be completely charged. When it gets charged then it holds the supply until the
supply of i/p AC toward the rectifier achieves the negative half cycle.

Once the rectifier reaches to negative half cycle, the diode acquires reverse biased & stops letting
the flow of current through it. Throughout this, the supply voltage is low then the voltage of a
capacitor. Thus the capacitor releases all the stored current through the RL. This stops the o/p
load voltage from falling to nil. The charging and discharging of the capacitor.

Zener Diode

A Zener diode is a special type of diode designed to reliably allow current to flow "backwards"
(inverted polarity) when a certain set reverse voltage, known as the Zener voltage, is reached.
Zener diodes are manufactured with a great variety of Zener voltages and some are even
variable. Some Zener diodes have a sharp, highly doped p–n junction with a low Zener voltage,
in which case the reverse conduction occurs due to electron quantum tunnelling in the short
space between p and n regions − this is known as the Zener effect, after Clarence Zener. Diodes
with a higher Zener voltage have a more gradual junction and their mode of operation also
involves avalanche breakdown. Both breakdown types are present in Zener diodes with the Zener
effect predominating at lower voltages and avalanche breakdown at higher voltages.

Zener diodes are widely used in electronic equipment of all kinds and are one of the basic
building blocks of electronic circuits. They are used to generate low-power stabilized supply rails
from a higher voltage and to provide reference voltages for circuits, especially stabilized power
supplies. They are also used to protect circuits from overvoltage, especially electrostatic
discharge.

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering, MITE Page 15

 Basic Electronics (BEE) | 22BEE13/23

Fig. 17 Zener Diode Symbol

Zener Diode Characteristics and Parameters

Fig. 18 Characteristics of Zener Diode

A graph of current through vs the voltage across the device is called the characteristic of Zener
diode. When the Zener diode is under forward bias condition, it acts like an ordinary diode.
When a forward voltage is applied, current flows through it. But due to higher doping
concentration, higher current flows through the Zener diode. When Zener diode is reverse biased,
after the Zener breakdown voltage Vz, significant amount of current starts flowing through the
Zener diode. The voltage remains at the Zener breakdown voltage value, but the current through
the diode increases when the input voltage gets increased. Due to the unique property of Zener
diode, the depletion region regains its original position when the reverse voltage gets removed.
The Zener diode doesn’t get damaged despite this massive amount of current flowing through it.
This unique functionality makes it very useful in voltage regulator applications.

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering, MITE Page 16

 Basic Electronics (BEE) | 22BEE13/23

Zener Diode Voltage Regulator

Zener Diodes can be used to produce a stabilised voltage output with low ripple under varying
load current conditions. By passing a small current through the diode from a voltage source, via a
suitable current limiting resistor (RS), the zener diode will conduct sufficient current to maintain
a voltage drop of Vout.

Fig. 19 Zener Diode Voltage Regulator

Resistor, RS is connected in series with the zener diode to limit the current flow through the
diode. The stabilised output voltage Vout is taken from across the zener diode. The input voltage
Vin is unregulated DC voltage which may be taken from the output of capacitor filter circuit
after rectification.

With no load connected to the circuit, the load current will be zero, ( IL = 0 ), and all the circuit
current passes through the zener diode which in turn dissipates its maximum power. Also a small
value of the series resistor RS will result in a greater diode current when the load resistance RL is
connected and large as this will increase the power dissipation requirement of the diode so care
must be taken when selecting the appropriate value of series resistance so that the zener’s
maximum power rating is not exceeded under this no-load or high-impedance condition.

The load is connected in parallel with the zener diode, so the voltage across RL is always the
same as the zener voltage, ( VR = VZ ).

There is a minimum zener current for which the stabilisation of the voltage is effective and the
zener current must stay above this value operating under load within its breakdown region at all
times. The upper limit of current is of course dependent upon the power rating of the device. The
supply voltage VS must be greater than VZ.

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering, MITE Page 17

 Basic Electronics (BEE) | 22BEE13/23

One small problem with zener diode stabiliser circuits is that the diode can sometimes generate
electrical noise on top of the DC supply as it tries to stabilise the voltage. Normally this is not a
problem for most applications but the addition of a large value decoupling capacitor across the
zener’s output may be required to give additional smoothing.

Series Resistance, Rs= (Vin-Vz)/ Iz -----------(1)

Iz= Current through Zener

Vz= Zener Break down Voltage

Zener Current, IZ= IS-IL ----------------(2)

IL=Load Current
Load Current, IL= VZ/ RL---------------(3)

Numerical Example:

A 5.0V stabilized power supply is required to be produced from a 12V DC power supply input
source. The maximum power rating PZ of the zener diode is 2W. Calculate maximum current,
value of Rs, Load current IL and Zener current at full load if RL=1KΩ.
Solution:

i) Maximum Current, I= Power/ Voltage= 2W/5V= 400mA

ii) Resistance, Rs= (Vin-VZ)/I= (12-5)/400mA =17.5Ω
iii) Load Current, IL= VZ/RL= 5/1K= 5mA
iv) Zener Current at full load, IZ= I-IL=400mA-5mA= 395mA

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~***************~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering, MITE Page 18