Course Objectives:

 1. To provide basic knowledge in transduction

principles, sensors and transducer technology and
measurement systems.
 2. To provide better familiarity with the Theoretical
and Practical concepts of Transducers.
 3. To provide familiarity with different sensors and
their application in real life.
 4. To provide the knowledge of various
measurement methods of physical and electrical
parameters

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After completion of the course the student is able to:
 2. Identify suitable sensors and transducers for real

time applications.
 3. Translate theoretical concepts into working models.
 4. Design the experimental applications to engineering

modules and practices.

 5. Design engineering solution to the Industry/Society

needs and develop products.

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 Syllabus:
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION MEASUREMENT
 Relative velocity – Translational and Rotational velocity

measurements – Revolution counters and Timers -

Magnetic and Photoelectric pulse counting stroboscopic
methods. Accelerometers-different types, Gyroscopes-
applications.
 Density measurements – Strain Gauge load cell method

– Buoyancy method - Air pressure balance method –

Gamma ray method – Vibrating probe method.

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 The velocity of an object is the rate of change of
its position with respect to a frame of reference,
and is a function of time. Velocity is equivalent to
a specification of an object's speed and direction
of motion (e.g. 60 km/h to the north). Velocity is a
fundamental concept in kinematics, the branch of
classical mechanics that describes the motion of
bodies.

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 Linear Velocity: Rate of changes of linear displacement
expressed in meters/sec (m/s)
 Angular Velocity: Rate of change of angular
displacement (rotational speed) expressed in
radians/second (rsd/s) or revolutions per minute (rpm).
 Relative Velocity: Relative velocity is measured in a
frame where an object is either at rest or moving with
respect to the absolute frame. The measurement of
rotational (angular) velocity is probably more common
than that of translational velocity. Since translation
generally can be obtained from rotation by suitable
gearing or mechanisms.

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 The relative velocity is the velocity of an object or
observer B in the rest frame of another object or
observer A.
 Vab=Va−Vb

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 We consider here devices for measuring the
velocity of translation, along a line, of one point
relative to another and the plane rotational
velocity about a single axis of one line relative to
another.

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 The measurement of rotational(angular) velocity
is probably more common than that of
translational velocity. Since translational generally
can be obtained from rotation by suitable gearing
or mechanisms, we consider mainly the
calibration of rotational devices. For angular and
linear velocities, perhaps the most convenient
calibration scheme uses a combination of a
toothed wheel, a simple magnetic proximity
pickup and an electronic EPUT (events per unit
time) meter.

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 When continuous reading and an electric output
signal are not required, a Varity of mechanical
revolution counters (with or without built-in
timers) are available. They are generally supplied
with variety of rubber-tipped wheels which
transmit by friction the motion to be measured to
the counter input shaft.

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 It consists of a worm gear coaxially attached to
the driving shaft which provides the speed source.
 A spur gear is connected with its rotating axis

perpendicular to the axis of the worm gear.

 Pointer indicates number of revolutions.
 The dial of the pointer is attached on the frame.

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 ADVANTAGES OF REVOLUTION COUNTER AND TIMER
 It gives average rotational speed with respect to time.
 Ideal for measuring speed of engine shaving low operating speed.
 Assembly is sturdy and the mechanism lasts for longer duration
without maintenance.
 Ideal for heavy duty machinery.

DISADVANTAGES OF REVOLUTION COUNTER AND TIMER

 Cannot give instantaneous velocity of driving shaft.
 Impose a load on the shaft on which they are connected, As
aresult they absorb power.
 The counter and timer can not be started simultaneously.
 Not ideal for high speed operations and low power engines as it
may show errors.

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 The arrangement of Fig. 4.69, using magnetic pickups
(or photocells and light sources with slotted wheels or
black-and-white targets) and discussed under
Calibration, is often used for measurement since the
equipment needed is quite widely available in industry
today. Tachometer encoders are another possibility. If
an analog signal (varying dc voltage) proportional to
speed is desired, electronic frequency-to-voltage
converters can be connected to the pickup output
terminals.

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 Rotational velocity may be conveniently measured
by using electronic stroboscopic lamps which
flash at a known and adjustable rate. The light is
directed onto the rotating member which itself
usually has spokes, gear teeth, or some other
feature enabling "lock on." If not, a simple black-
and-white paper target can be attached. The
frequency of lamp flashing is adjusted until the
"target“ appears motionless.

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 ADVANTAGES OF STROBOSCOPE
 In this arrangement no load is imposed on the shaft.
 It is suitable in those conditions where making contact
with shaft is not possible.
 DISADVANTAGES OF STROBOSCOPE
 Accuracy is low, since it is not possible to stabilize the
variable frequency oscillator give fixed frequency.
 It can not be suitable in those condition where
ambient light is greater than a particular level.

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Acceleration: Rate of change of the velocity of an object with respect to time
Linear Acceleration : Rate of changes of linear velocity expressed in meters/sec
(m/s2)
Angular Acceleration : Rate of change of angular velocity expressed in
radians/second (rad/s2)
An accelerometer is a device used for measurement of acceleration.
It provides a direct measure of acceleration.
Displacement and velocity can be determined by integrating the output of
accelerometer.
Accelerometers are commercially available in a wide variety of ranges and types to
meet diverse application requirements.
They are manufactured small in size, light in weight, rugged, and robust to operate
in harsh environment. They can be configured as active or passive sensors.
 Transducers directly sensitive to relative acceleration
are rare. Figure shows one type commercially
available. When the shaft rotates at constant speed,
eddy current generated in the rotating conductive disk
are constant and proportional to speed. These
currents produce a magnetic field which links the two
pickup coils. But no coil voltage is produced because
the field is steady. When the shaft accelerates, a
changing magnetic field causes coil output voltages
which are proportional to acceleration.

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Active or Passive Accelerometers
Deflection or null-balance types Accelerometers
Mechanical or electrical types Accelerometers
dynamic or kinematic types Accelerometers
The majority of industrial accelerometers can be classified as either deflection type
or null-balance type.
Those used in vibration and shock measurements are usually the deflection types.
whereas those used for measurements of motions of vehicles, aircraft, etc. for
navigation purposes may be either type.
In general, null-balance types are used when extreme accuracy is needed.
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In this basic accelerometer, the seismic
mass is
suspended by a spring or cantilever inside
a rigid frame.
The frame is connected to the vibrating
structure;
as vibrations take place, the mass tends to
remain fixed so that relative displacements
can be picked up.
 While gyroscopic instruments have been used in limited
numbers and applications (gyrocompasses in ships and
aircraft, turn-and-bank indicators in aircraft,etc.) since
around World War I, developments during and after World
War II brought them to an extreme degree of refinement,
and their use is now common in military and commercial
applications.5 In most of these applications, the gyro is
used to measure the motion of some vehicle, either as a
permanent part of a vehicle measurement-control system
or as a test instrument temporarily attached to gather
data.

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 The density, or more precisely, the volumetric mass
density, of a substance is its mass per unit volume.
The symbol most often used for density is ρ (the lower
case Greek letter rho). Mathematically, density is
defined as mass divided by volume:
= /

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 A load cell is a
transducerthatmeasuresforce,andoutputsthisforceasan
electricalsignal.Mostloadcellsuseatodetectmeasuremen
ts.
 Straingaugeloadcellsusuallyfeaturefourstraingaugesina

Wheatstonebridgeconfiguration,whichisanelectricalcircu
itthatbalancestwolegsofabridgecircuit.
 Theforcebeingmeasureddeformsthestraingaugeinthisty

peofloadcell,andthedeformationismeasuredaschangeine
lectricalsignal.

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