BAKERY

Sugar
The scientific name for sugar is sucrose-or 'saccharose' which consists of
a molecule of glucose combined with a molecule of fructose. A few
thousand years ago sugar was already being used in Asia in the form of
cane syrup, whereas in Europe honey and fruit were the only form of
sweetening. Sugar is/known as saccharoseto the Greeks, saccharumto the
Romans, sukkarto the Arabs, zuccheroin Venice, sucrein France, arucar
in Spain, zuckerin Germany and sugar in England. Sugar was instrumental
in the development of confectionery and patisserie, but is also used to
season meats and savourydishes. France was the first sugar producers in
Europe and it remains the largest producer among the Eastern European
Countries, second in the world for beet sugar after Russia.

Manufacturing

Sugar is mainly refined from beet or cane and consists of extracting the
sucrose by successively eliminating the other constituent parts of the plant.
The root of the beet is sliced and soaked in warm water to remove the
juice. The juice is then treated with milk of lime and carbon dioxide. It is
then filtered off to give a clear juice. Sugarcane is shredded, crushed and
sprayed with hot water. The juice is then heated, treated with lime and then
filtered.

Both clarified cane and beet juices are then concentrated by evaporation
under reduced pressure until crystallisation is induced. The concentrated

crystallised mass is then transferred into mixers where crystal growth

continues. The crystalline raw sugar is then separated from the remaining
syrup by centrifugation. Not all of the sugar may have been extracted from
the juice at this stage so the remaining liquor may be recycled. When it is
no longer economically practical to extract any more sugar the remaining
 liquor is called molasses.

Syrups

Simple syrup is a solution of equal weights of sugar and water. Dessert

syrup is flavoured simple syrup used to moisten and flavour some cakes.
Flavourings may be extracts such as vanilla or liqueurs such as kirsch or
rum. Add flavourings after the syrup has cooled because flavoursmay be
lost if added to the hot syrup. Syrups may also be flavoured by boiling
them with lemon or orange rind. ..
Some syrups such as maple syrup and palm syrup occur naturally, but
golden syrup is a by-product of sugar refining which undergoes its own
refining process. It is used. in making cookies, brandy snaps, and flapjacks
and is used in the brewing industry. Corn syrup is produced from sweet
corn and can be light or dark. Molasses and black treacle are dark and
viscous with a strong distinctive flavour. Molasses is natural syrup drained
from sugar cane. Black treacle is a refined molasses like sugar syrup. They
are used in making gingerbread, rich fruit cakes, etc.

Types of Sugars

1) Refined Sugar or Refined Extra White Sugar

It is made from beet or cane, containing at least 99.7 % sucrose, less
than 0.06% moisture and less than 0.04% invert sugar. It has the highest
. purity and may be sold as granulated, castor (superfine), grain or lump
sugars.

2) White Sugar
It contains at least 99.7% sucrose. It is sold in the same forms as
refined sugar.

3) Brown Sugar
It is unrefined or raw cane sugar' containing 85-99.5% sucrose and other
impurities. Marketed in granulated, lump or cube form, it possesses a
distinctive flavour. There are various types - the very dark moist soft
molasses sugar and muscovado. Some commercial brown sugars
however, are refined white sugar with caramel or molasses added to
colour and flavour them.
 Various Types of Commercial Sugars
1) Granulated Sugar
Produced directly from crystallisationof the syrup, it forms fairly
coarse crystals. It is the most common variety for general use.

2) Caster (Superfine) Sugar

This can be made from crushed and sieved granulated sugar, but can be
also boiled to a small crystal size. It is used in desserts, pastries, cakes, ices and sweet dishes as well as
sweetening dairy products, drinks.
pancakes, etc.

3) Lump Sugar
This is obtained by mouldingmoistened granulated sugar when hot,
then drying it in order to fuse the crystals together.

4) Sugar Loaf
Sugar moulded into a cone shape, with the base wrapped in blue paper.
It is mainly manufactures to export to Arab countries.

5) Icing (Confectioner's) Sugar

Granulated sugar milled very finely to a powder, mixed with 3% starch
to prevent it from caking. It is used for dusting decorating or icing
cakes and buns and is included in many types of confectionery.

6) Liquid Sugar (Sugar Syrup)

It is a sugar solution prepared by dissolving white sugar in water. It is a
colourless or golden solution of cane sugar containing at least 62%
dissolved solids of which not more than 3% consists of invert sugar.

7) Invert Sugar
Sugar obtained by the action of acids and an enzyme (invertase) on
sucrose. It is used by professional pastry cooks and industries (brewing,
confectionery) in the form oiLnvert sugar solution. Invert sugar stays
smooth and resists crystallising.

8) Preserving Sugar
These are large crystals designed for jam making because of its
solubility without scum.

9) Special Jam Sugar

This is special gelling sugar containing castor sugar, natural pectin and
citric or tartaric acid.

10) Vanilla Sugar

It is nothing but castor sugar to which at least 10% natural extract or
essence of vanilla has been added.
 Cooking with Temperatures
The cooking of sugar should be carried out progressively, in a heavy-based
pan made of un-tinned copper or stainless steel that must be absolutely
clean and without traces of grease. Cooking begins over low heat until the
sugar is dissolved. The heat is then increased and the sugar is constantly
watched as the different stages of cooking, which correspond to specialised
uses, follow very closely to each other. When a cooking stage is reached,
the pan must be removed quickly from the heat. A few drops of cold water
can be added to lower the temperature of the syrup. The degree of cooking
is measured manually with a sugar (candy) thermometer which can read
temperatures upto20QoC (4000P)

The Different Stages of Cooking Sugar

1) Coated (100°C, 212°F)

Absolutely translucent syrup about to come to boil.When a skimmer is
dipped in it and withdrawn, the syrup coats its surface. It is used for
fruits in syr~p.

2) Small Thread or Small Gloss (101°C, 214 OF)

Professional chefs test the consistency of this sugar by plunging the
fingers first in cold water and then quickly in the syrup. On parting the
fingers carefully, short threads will form about 2-3mm wide, which
break easily. It is used for almond paste.

3) Large Thread or Large Gloss (102-103'oC, 215-217°F)

The thread obtained between the fingers is now stronger and about
O.5cm wide. This syrup is used in recipes requiring sugar syrup and for
butter creams, icings and frostings.

4) Small Pearl (103-105 DC, 217-221 OF)

A few minutes after the large thread stage round bubbles form on the
surface of the syrup. When a little is collected on a spoon and taken
between the fingers, it forms a wide solid thread. It is used in jams and
torrone (a type of nougat).

5) Large Pearl or Souffle (107-109 °C, 224-228 OF)

The thread of sugar between the fingers may reach a width of 2cm.
When one blows on the skimmer after plunging it in the syrup, bubbles
are formed on the other side. It is used in jams, sugar coated fruits,
g laces and icings.
 6) Small or Soft Ball (116-118 DC, 241-214 OF)
When a little syrup is removed with a spoon and plunged into a bowl of
colds water, it will roll into a soft ball. If one blows on the skimmer
dipped into the syrup, bubbles break loose and blow away. It is used in
jams and jellies, soft caramels, nougats and Italian meringue.

7) Large or Hard Ball (121-124°C, 250-255 OF)

After several boilings, the previous operation is repeated and a harder
ball is obtained. If one blows through the skimmer, snowy flakes are
formed. It is used in jams, sugar decorations, Italian meringue, fondant
and caramels.

8) Light, Small or Soft Crack (129-135 DC, 265-275 OF)

A drop of syrup in cold water hardens immediately and will crack and
stick to the teeth when chewed. It is used mainly for toffee.

9) Hard Crack (149-150 DC, 295-300 OF)

The drops of syrup in cold water become hard and brittle (like glass),
but not sticky. The sugar acquires a pale straw-yellow colourat the
edges of the saucepan. It must be watched carefully to avoid turning it
into caramel. It is used for boiled sweets and candies, spun sugar
decorations, icings, sugar flowers and candy floss.

10) Light Caramel (151-160°C, 302-325 OF)

The syrup, which now contains hardly any water, begins to change in 0
barley sugar, then into caramel. Yellow at first, it becomes golden then
brown. It is used in the caramelisation of creme caramel, sweets, and
nougatineand for flavouringsweet dishes, puddings, cakes and biscuits
(cookies) and icings.

11) Brown or Dark Caramel (blackjack) (161-170 °C, 326-338 OF)

When it turns brown, sugar .Ioses its sweetening power. Extra sugar is
. addedto preparations with a basis of dark caramel. As the last stage of
cooked sugar before carbonisation (sugar burns and smokes at 190°C,
375°P), brown caramel is mainly used for colouringsauces, cakes and
stocks.
 FashtoningSugar

In addition, there are several methods of fashioning sugar for making

confectionery and decorating pastries and cakes. These types of sugar are
- used to construct centre/display pieces or pieces montee s. Flowers,
ribbons, shells, baskets, etc. can all be fashioned out of sugar.

1) Spun Sugar (sucre file or angels' hair)

Sugar is cooked to nearly 155°C, the pan is taken off the heat and left
to cool for 1-2 minutes. Two forks are dipped into the syrup and then
flicked quickly back and forth above a greased rolling pin. The threads
obtained are then collected and used to decorate cakes or make a veil or
nest. The strands should be used within an hour or they will melt.

2) Poured Sugar (sucrecoule)

Sugar is cooked to cracking point, possibly colouredand then moulded
into cups, pompoms, little bells and other decorative shapes.

3) Fashioned, Drawn or Pulled Sugar

Sugar is cooked so that it loses its transparency. Colourings are added
at 140°C and the syrup is heated to 155°C. It is then cooled, poured
onto a greased marble slab or other cold surface and kneaded, pulled or
moulded into flowers, candies, etc. with a satin finish. These should be
stored in an airtight container.

4) Rock Sugar (sucrerocher)

It is cooked to nearly 125°C, emulsified with royal icing and then used
to give a rocky effect. It keeps well when exposed to air.

5) BrownnSugar
Sugar is cooked to nearly 145-150°C, which may be coloured and blown
like glass.