Additional module in UTS 3

TOPIC 5 – MORAL SELF

Morality
Every day, people are confronted with dilemmas. Solving them requires
one to decide on what kind of action or response to make. In some instances,
it is easy for one to respond to a difficult situation, while in some cases,
choosing the best response is difficult.
A dilemma is a problematic situation in which a difficult choice must
be made. Most of the time, the consequences of any of the choices or
options are perceived to be negative and unappealing to the person involved.
The kind of responses or action taken or made when one is in a quandary
serves as a good test of a person's level of moral development.
Moral is related to the sense or a standard that determines what is
right and what is wrong. It distinguishes correct from incorrect or
appropriate. Morality refers to the system of beliefs and values that ensures
individuals will keep their obligations to others in the society and behave in
ways that do not interfere with the rights and interest of others.
Decision-making is understandably difficult, the degree of which
depending on the situation. When faced with a predicament, exercise your
best judgment on the good or appropriate action to take. Make it a point to
always choose the right action even if the situation is not "problematic." It
takes constant practice to make appropriate decision. It is also better to
start doing it at an early age so when you reach adulthood, you would have
already internalized and developed a good sense of what is right or wrong.
This way, it will be easy for you to practice moral actions as a mature and
responsible adult. An individual who has a good sense of what is right and
wrong will be an honest and upright member of the community.
Moral Reasoning
Moral reasoning refers to the judgments people make about what
courses of action are correct or incorrect in particular situations. Reasoning
is a cognitive skill, but influences moral development.

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 Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) came up with the theory of moral
development by studying the concept of moral reasoning. This theory is
shaped by and tied up to Piaget's stages of intellectual development.
Piaget's theory asserts that intellectual development proceeds in stages or
levels. The first is the sensorimotor stage in which the child learns and
develops knowledge about his/her environment by relating sensory
experiences to motor actions. It is followed by the stage in which the child
learns to use symbols like words or mental images to solve simple problems.
The third level is the concrete operation stage in which the child develops
the ability to perform a number of logical operations on concrete objects that
are present. The final level is the formal operation stage in which the
individual acquires the ability to solve abstract problems in a logical manner.
This progression is related to the development of moral reasoning.
Thus, the evolution of one's sense of right and wrong in making decisions
depends on his/her level of intellectual development. This connection
implies that advanced levels of intellectual development. This connection
implies that advanced levels of intellectual development are associated with
higher stages of moral development. A child cannot exhibit advanced levels
of moral development if he/she is still at an early stage of intellectual
development.
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning
Table 4 presents the levels of one's moral development along with the
reasons for his/her moral behavior.
Table 4. The Stages of Moral Reasoning
Level Stage Reason
Pre conventional morality 1. Pleasure/pain • To avoid pain,
orientation punishment, or
2. Cost-benefit getting caught
orientation; • To get rewards
reciprocity
Conventional morality 3. Good-child • To gain
orientation acceptance and
4. Law and order avoid disapproval
orientation • To follow rules and
avoid censure by
authorities

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Principle or post 5. Social contract • To promote the
conventional morality orientation welfare of society
6. Ethical principle • To achieve justice
7. Cosmic orientation and avoid
self-condemnation
• To be true to
universal principles
and feel oneself
part of a cosmic
direction that
transcends social
norms

Early in life, at the lowest level of development, self-preservation and

self-interest are the main reasons for one’s actions and decisions. From
there, moral social- or other- oriented motivation like the values of the people
he/she personally connects with, then gradually starts to conform with the
laws of society. The highest level of moral development goes much beyond
the self and social justice and the good of the society at large. Moral
reasoning tries to strike a balance between individual rights and the laws of
society. An even more ultimate reasons for one's actions or decisions is
observance of and adherence to universal principles and values.
Since moral reasoning depends on intellectual development, its
different levels can progress as well. Hence skills in decision making,
prioritization, reasoning, and logical thinking will help the individual in
making the best position or option, especially out of a conflict situation.
These skills can be developed through exposure to experience, making
observations, active engagement in different situations, solving problems,
and the like.
At times, you might place in a dilemma which requires you to make a
decision. You first have the harness your intellectual capacity and reasoning
ability in choosing what "best" decision to take. Strive to achieve balance so
as not to compromise your integrity. In situations in which you need to
decide on what you think is a noble cause, but which might put you at a
disadvantage you have to accept the consequences of that choice.
When you are the crossroads of making a decision, always go back to
your goals and your philosophy of life as your guide.

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Parenting Styles and Practices
The physiological or biological basis of moral and intellectual
development has been discussed earlier. One other factor which affects the
individual's development is environmental influence. It is characterized by
forces outside of the individual like how he/she has been raised or reared by
his/her parents. The foundation of moral reasoning and development are laid
at home. The home is where children first learn to distinguish
right/appropriate behaviors from wrong/inappropriate behaviors. What
happens at home, especially during the growing-up years, is critical to
personality development.

Parenting Styles
In raising their children, parents use different strategies called
parenting styles. An expert on parenting, Diana Baumrind (1967), came up
with three parenting styles, namely authoritarian authoritative, and
permissive.
Authoritarian parents attempt to shape, control, and evaluate the
behavior and attitudes of their children in accordance with an absolute set of
conduct standards that usually comes from religious or respected
authorities. They use harsh discipline and punishment. Obedience becomes
a virtue. These parents do not communicate well with their children, and do
not explain the rationale behind the rules and the consequences of their
actions. They do not listen to the viewpoints of their children and may use
force to ensure compliance.
On the other hand, authoritative parents direct their children’s activities
in a rational and intelligent ways. They are supportive, loving, and committed;
support a give-and-take relationship; discuss their rules and policies with
their children; and encourage children to present their viewpoints. They offer
explanations for rules and consequences.
Permissive parents are less controlling and behave with an accepting
and non- pushing attitude towards their children's desires, actions, and
impulses. They use reasons rather than direct power. They are warm and
supportive, but tend not to enforce rules. Because discipline is lacking,
children tend to make their own rules even if they can benefit from parental
rules.
A fourth parenting style was introduced by Maccoby and Martin in
1983. They coined the term uninvolved or neglectful parents who take on a
"hands-off" stand in the affairs of their children.

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 The following classification describes the dominant behaviors parents
use in dealing their children. However, most parents combine different styles
in child-rearing
Effects of Parenting Styles
Parenting styles influence the development of children's personality.
Children exhibit distinct characteristics which they imbibe from the way their
parents raise them.
1. Authoritarian parents are demanding, and their children have less
behavioral problems which are easily prevented. However, studies show
that children reared under autocratic parents tend to become withdrawn,
fearful, and dependent. These children may suffer from low self-esteem.
They may carry these traits until adolescence or adulthood.
2. Authoritative parents have children who are independent, reliable,
rationale, and confident. These children generally feel good about
themselves.
3. Permissive parents rarely impose rues and re non-punishing. Thus, they
tend to have children who do not put structure and order in things that
they do. For those children anything goes.
4. Uninvolved parents are detached and indifferent to the needs of their
children. As such, children grow up feeling unloved and cannot follow
instructions. Some also fall prey or resort to substance abuse form of
distraction or a way to get attention.
It must be noted that the kind of parenting styles represent the dominant
practices applied by parents in dealing with their children. When you
become parents yourselves, strive to adopt the authoritative parenting style.
However, depending in certain situations, you can also practice the
authoritarian or permissive parenting styles.
It is important that when children misbehave, they are made to realize
the consequences of their behavior. On the other hand, if they behave well,
the corresponding reward or motivation should be given.

TOPIC 6-CONCEPT SELF

Concept Related to the Self

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 Carl Rogers, a psychologist, was the proponent of the self-theory. This
theory is regarded humanistic and is a move towards recognizing human
potential for psychological growth.
The self is made up of many self-perceptions, abilities, and personality
characteristics that are organized and consistent with one another. Rogers
(1953) contents that self-concept plays an important role in personality
because it influences human behaviors, feelings, and thoughts. Self-concept
refers to how people see or describe themselves. It is the subjective
perception of who people are and what they are like, or "the person I think I
am or the person I wish to be." People with a positive self-concept tend to
act, feel, and think constructively and optimistically. Overall, they think of
themselves in a good light. On the other hand, people who have a negative
self- concept will behave, think, and act with pessimism. They do not believe
in their ability to do things or carry out certain tasks.
A positive or negative self-concept reflects a dominant prevailing trend
of positivism or negativism in the self. Hence, if a person is labeled as having
a positive self-concept, it means that his/her prevailing behavior and general
outlook of himself/herself are on the positive side. It does not mean,
however, that the person does not have any low or negative thoughts or
ideas about oneself. It is just the prevailing positive self-image or
self-concept may also have positive or high points in his/her self-concept.
There are two kinds of selves: the real self and the ideal self. The real
self is the image or picture of the self-based on a person's actual
experiences and represents how he/she really or actually sees
himself/herself. It is what one thinks he/she is in terms of personal
characteristics and abilities. In contrast, the ideal self is the self-based on
one's hopes and wishes. It reflects how one's likes to see himself/herself to
be.
The person who knows you best- your abilities, talents, personality, and
characteristics -is you. You know your positive or high points as well as your
negative or low points. Make sure to maintain or sustain your strengths.
Likewise, strive to improve and change your weaknesses or negative points
into something positive.
See to it what you wish or desire to be will be further develop your own
personality. Your abilities and the positive aspect of your personality should
be put to good use in helping improve the lives of others and the community
at large. Be sure that your dreams and desire to enhance your personality
and abilities are rooted in your purpose to help other people and will, in the
lone run, contribute to developing good relationships.
Discrepancy in Self-Concept
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 Rogers (1935) states that there is usually a contradiction or
discrepancy between the real self and the ideal self. This difference may
result in discomfort and personality problems which can be resolved by
paying more attention to one's actual experiences, working more at positive
experiences, and paying less attention to the expectations of others.
Take the example of John who likes science. His grades in science are
considered as "average" and many of his classmates in fact have higher
grades than he has. However, he hopes and dreams of making scientific
discoveries and becoming an eminent scientist in the future. To work out the
discrepancy between John's actual science performance and his dream to
become scientist, he has to work at positive experiences. It means that he
has to put in more hours of study, visit scientific facilities, or participate in
activities like science fairs and exhibits. That way, the difference between his
actual performance in science and his desired performance becomes
smaller. It is right if the ideal self is slightly out of reach, as it is just enough
to stimulate the person to improve himself/herself. However, if the ideal self
is unrealistically difficult to reach, then it could lead to feeling of failure.
An obscure view of the self may also result due to a wide discrepancy
between the real self and ideal self. Failure to achieve the ideal self may lead
to a "drop" in self-concept. Eventually, the individual might even develop a
negative self-concept.
Positive regard is believed to be important for the healthy
development of one's self concept and for successful interpersonal
relationships. Positive regard includes love, sympathy, warmth, acceptance,
and respect which people crave from family, friends, and other significant
people. Conditional positive regard refers to positive regard received as a
result of acceptable behavior or living up to the expectations and standards
of others. For example, a teacher may reward student for passing the test.
Unconditional positive regard, on the other hand, refers to the love and
acceptance received by a person regardless of who he/she is or what he/she
does. For instance, parents may still love and respect their child even if the
child flunks an exam.
It is normally expected for people to have discrepancies between their
real selves and what they dream or wish to become. Sometimes, this
variation results in dissonance and may lead to increased anxiety levels and
discomfort. It also has implications for setting realistic goals. A more
objective view and assessment of the available options and factors that
enable one to achieve the ideal self is advised.
The development of self-concept starts from the home. You will soon
become parents. Thus, it is very important that you provide your children with

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the environment and opportunities that will enable them to develop good self-
concepts. You should make use of available support mechanisms, as well as
give and show them love, support, and respect so that they will group up with
positive self-concepts.
Self-esteem
Personality and social development refer to how a person's sense of
self or self-identity, relationship with others, and skills necessary for social
interaction evolve. Personal or self-identity explains how people describe
themselves in terms of values, goals, traits, and perceptions unique them. It
is closely related to self-esteem or how much people value themselves and
their worth as persons.
Self-esteem is the level of importance attributed to one self and one's
abilities. One may put high value or a low value on his/her worth as a person.
In many ways, self-esteem relates to a person's attractiveness and social
competence. It is likewise associated with important positive or negative
outcomes. For example, a high self-esteem is correlated with healthy social
relationships. being emotionally and socially adjusted, cheerfulness, and
overall happiness. On the other hand, a low self-esteem is associated with
negative outcomes like depression, anxiety, antisocial behavior, and poor
personal adjustment.
Self-esteem is distinct from self-concept as the latter refers to the
knowledge of oneself or the image of a person's views, perceptions, or
descriptions of himself/herself in terms of certain characteristics.
One should strive to develop a high self-esteem because it determines
his/her kind of personal and social relationships. Holding good feelings
about oneself results in flexibility and adaptability to situations and people.
On the other hand, a low-self-esteem may lead to poor social relationships.
Self-actualization
Human possess an inner drive to grow, improve, and use their potential
to the fullest. The final stage in completed growth is known as
self-actualization or self -fulfillment, a major tenet in humanistic psychology.
According to Abraham Maslow (1943), a self-actualization person has
reached the highest level or peak of his/her personal development and has
fully realized his/her potentials a human being. The self-fulfilled person is
generally happy, generous with his/her time and effort to help others, and
strives for the common good for his/her family, community, country, and
even humanity.

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 Figure 5. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
In 1943, Abraham Maslow formulated the hierarchy of needs. It
explains that individuals’ actions are directed towards goal attainment. The
hierarchy is composed of five stages or human needs and usually illustrated
in a pyramid (figure 5). The levels are sequentially satisfied according to the
most basic needs found at the bottom of the pyramid, progressing onto the
higher-level needs.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs contends that people have to satisfy first
their basic needs (D1ologicaly and physiological) before moving towards
satisfying their social and personal needs. The rate of achieving higher-level
needs may vary among individuals. However, it is possible for one to
proceeds to the next higher-level need even if he/she is still in the process of
fully satisfying a lower-level need.
At the first level are the physiological needs for survival comprised of
food, water, shelter, clothing, and sleep. People would first be concerned
with satisfying these needs over the others. After satisfying these needs,
they can advance to the second level or safety and security needs. This
stage involves health and wellbeing, property, social stability, and protection
from harm, among others. It is necessary for everyone, but more especially
for those who live in dangerous areas. Addressing love and belongingness
needs make up the third stage. Adults and adolescent who are starting to
look for serious relationships are particularly concerned with satisfying the
needs at this level. It also includes the need for friendship, intimacy and a
sense of connection with others. During middle and late adulthood, people
are especially concerned with achieving their goals and establishing their
careers, thus the needs at the fourth level focus on esteem needs. It
contains items such as achievement, competency, approval, recognition, and
respect from others. The final level or the highest needs, as mentioned
earlier, are self-actualization needs. Included in this level are morality,
realization of the purpose in life, meaning, inner potential and the like. This
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level aims for the full development of one's unique potentials. Only a few
individuals reach this level because the process of achieving
self-actualization is difficult and challenging.
Maslow also classified these needs into two general categories:
deficiency needs and growth needs. Deficiency needs refers to the
physiological (sleep, food) and psychological (safety, love, esteem) needs.
On the other hand, growth needs are those at the higher level (desire for truth,
beauty, and justice).
Characteristics of Self-actualized Person
Studying highly productive and exceptional personalities, Maslow
(1971) described the characteristics of self-actualizing or self-actualized
individuals. Some of the personalities he studied include Martin Luther King,
Jr., Eleanor Roosevelt, and Albert Einstein. A number of his findings on the
traits of self-actualizing persons are as follows:
a. They have reached a high level of moral development and are more
concerned with the welfare of loved ones.
b. They are open, honest, and have the courage to act on their
convictions, even if it makes them unpopular.
c. They have an accurate, concrete, and realistic- rather than a
romanticized- view of people and life, and yet they are positive about
life.
d. Life is always challenging and fresh to self-actualizing individuals.
They are natural and spontaneous in their actions and feelings. They
likewise experience moments of great joy and satisfaction.
Using the term "self-actualizing" rather than "self-actualized" means that
attaining self-actualization is a continuous and lifelong process of
improvement. While only few individuals reach this level, everyone has a
self-actualizing tendency. It is important that at any level or stage in the
hierarchy of needs, individuals strive to move towards self-actualization.

TOPIC 7- RESPONSIBLE SELF

Gardner's Theory of Multiple intelligences

As it was mentioned that general mental or cognitive abilities
contribute to the kind of person one is and one can be. Charles Spearman
(1940) believed that intelligence consist of a general mental ability or

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intelligence quotient (1Q, also called g factor) and domain-specific abilities.
IQ is a standardized measure that represents a person's reasoning skills.
It has been accepted in the psychological community that intelligence
is not necessarily a single and generalized characteristic, but is comprised of
different specific traits. Thus, researchers have attempted to identify and
measure further the different components of intelligence. One of the most
famous works in this field is Howard Gardner's theory of eighty intelligences.
Gardner's theory asserts that reach person possesses a certain specific
intelligence where he/she is most probably good or skilled at. Following are
the specific intelligences espoused by Gardner (1983):
1. . It is characterized by the ability to think in
words and use language to express meaning. Usually, people with this
kind of intelligence, have occupations as authors, journalist, speakers,
or poets.
2. . It refers to the ability to carry out
mathematical operations, the ability to handle long chains of reasoning
and the sensibility and capacity to discern logical or numerical
patterns. Most people with this skill become scientists, engineer,
accountants, or mathematicians.
3. . It implies the ability to think in images,
pictures, or three- dimensional figures, as well as the capacity to
perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and perform
transformation on one's initial perceptions. People with this skill often
work as architects, artist, sailors/navigators, or sculptors.
4. . It is ability to be physically adept at
manipulating objects, controlling one's bodily movement, and handling
objects skillfully. Most people with this type of intelligence include
surgeons, crafts people, artisans, dancers, or athletes.
5. . It refers to the sensitivity to pitch,
melody, rhythm, and tone, the ability to produce and appreciate rhythm,
pitch, and timbre; and the appreciation of the forms of musical
expressiveness. People with musical intelligence usually end up as
composers, musicians, or sensitive listeners.
6. . It refers to the ability to understand and
interact effectively with others, as well as the capacity to discern and
respond appropriately to the moods, temperaments, motivations, and
desires, and intelligence often work as teachers or mental health
professionals.
7. . It is characterized by the ability to
understand oneself; the knowledge of one's own strengths,
weaknesses, desires, and intelligences; as well as the understanding of
one's own feelings and the ability to discriminate among them and
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 draw upon them to guide behavior. People with this intelligence
eventually become theologians, psychologist, or persons with detailed
and accurate self-concepts.
8. Naturalist intelligence. It is described as the ability to observe
patterns in nature and understand natural and human-made systems;
sensitivity to the differences among diverse species; and ability to
interact subtly with living creatures. Most often, people with naturalist
intelligence work as farmers, botanist, ecologists, landscapers, or
environmentalists.
Contributors to Intelligence
Two factors, heredity and the environment, contribute tom intelligence,
and personality. Heredity refers to the genes one inherits from his/her
parents, which provide the upper and lower limits of his/her intelligence. The
environment involves the experiences and the psychological and physical
exposure of the individual to the various influences around him/her. The
home, school, and community as well as the things happening therein are
examples of one's environment.
One cannot say that heredity is more important factors than
environment, or that environment is more important than heredity. It has
been resolved that heredity and environment both interact to contribute to
intelligence and personality.
Motivation
Motivation is the force that moves people to behave, think, and feel the
way they do. Motivated behavior is energized, directed and sustained. It may
be said that aside from heredity and environment, motivation is also a
significant influence in personality development. Psychologists approach the
concept of motivation by putting forward theories that seek to explain the
levels of motivations of individuals, some of which are as follows:
a. . According to this theory, the motivation for sex,
achievement. aggression, and other behaviors is rooted in the
organisms' evolutionary past. Thus, if a species is highly competitive, it
is because such competitiveness has improved its chances of survival,
and it is then passed down through genes from generation to
generation.
b. . This theory explains that organisms are driven
by physiological needs. A need energizes one's drive to eliminate or
reduce the deprivation. For example, one feels hungry, hunger is the
motivator for him/her to look for food and eat it to reduce the drive and
satisfy the need. This theory stresses the idea that as drive becomes
stronger, the individual becomes more motivated to reduce it. However,
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 people tend to behave in ways that increase, rather than reduce, the
drive; thus, this theory did not hold much for a comprehensive
framework.
c. . The Yerkes-Dodson Law states that
performance is at highest under conditions of moderate arousal rather
than high or low arousal. With a low arousal, one might be too lazy or
unwilling to perform the task. With a high arousal, one might not be
able to concentrate on performing the task. For example, when taking
an exam with a very high arousal, a student may not be able to
concentrate. On the other hand, if the arousal is too low, he/she may
not work fast enough to finish the test. Thus, moderate arousal is often
the best in dealing with tasks. At times, the level of arousal is preferred
because one spends more time to solve it even if the process takes
longer. In contrast, a task to push a button exactly at a specified time
requires a high level of arousal.
The personal characteristics of an individual may also influence
level of motivation. Some individuals seek stimulation in their lives
and enjoy the thrill of engaging in risky behaviors. Sensation-seeking
is the motivation to experience varied, novel, complex, and intense
feelings and experiences. The characteristics of high-sensation
seekers as found by Zuckerman et al (1972) include the following:
1. Motivated to engage in sports like mountain climbing, parachuting,
hang gliding, scuba diving, car and motorcycle racing, and downhill
skiing
2. Attracted to vocations or occupations involving exciting experiences
like firefighting, emergency room work, or air traffic control; desk jobs
are dissatisfying to them
3. Drink heavily, smoke, use illicit drugs
4. Have a short-term hedonistic attitude towards intimate relationships

d. . The contemporary view of motivation emphasizes

that cognitive factors determine motivation level. An example is a
student's motivation to do well in class. One's confidence in his/her
ability to do well and the expectations for success may help the person
relax, concentrate, and study better. Thinking too much about not
performing in class and the fear of failure may lead to anxiety, and
consequently, not performing well. One's conscious effort and ability to
control his/her behavior like setting a study plan or avoiding going to
parties will improve performance, as well as the ability to use the
information-processing abilities of attention, memory, and
problem-solving.

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 The two aspects of cognitive approach to motivation are intrinsic and
extrinsic motivations. The former refers to internal factors like
self-determination, curiosity, challenge, and effort. The latter involves outside
factors such as rewards and punishment. As such, some students study
hard because they are internally motivated to exert a considerable amount of
effort and achieve a high quality of work. Other students study hard because
they want to have good grades or avoid parental disapproval. Some
psychologists contend that many successful individuals are both intrinsically
and extrinsically. .…………………………………………

Individuals have a choice to be highly motivated, especially when it

comes to school performance. Select which sources will you help sustain
and maintain your motivation level. Likewise, you should be able to enjoy the
activities that you do, but avoid engaging in risky behaviors like taking illegal
drugs, drinking liquor, or smoking.

Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence, measured by emotional quotient (EQ), is
the type of intelligence that refers to the abilities to perceive, appraise,
understand, and express emotions accurately and appropriately; the
use of emotions and emotional knowledge to facilitate thinking, and
the regulation of one's emotions to promote both emotional and
intellectual; growth. EQ is the emotional counterpart of IQ.
From the aforementioned definition, it may be noted that
emotional intelligence has an intellectual component, especially in
using emotions to facilitate thinking or logical reasoning. As an
example, consider the following scenario: In a class, the teacher asks
the question, "in which geographical region is the Philippines located?"
Paul sees Jane raising her hand but he blurts out, "Southeast Asia!"
One will readily think that Jane might be angry because Paul gets the
credit. It may thus be said that Paul has a high 1Q but a low EQ.
Reasoning
People make decisions every day. Some decisions have important and
critical consequences, like choosing a course, a job, or even a spouse. On the
other hand, there are also decisions with less critical; consequences such
what food to cook for lunch, or what brand of ice cream to buy. Making a
decision involves or selecting the best option that will give the "best"
consequences. Reasoning, a cognitive or intellectual skill, is one way to
determine if a choice is the "best" from among several option. Reasoning is a

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mental process that involves using and applying knowledge top solve
problems, make plans or decisions, and achieve one's goals. People should
be able to develop this skill as it is helpful in many ways, especially in the
quest of life goals. Reasoning is two types: deductive and inductive.
Deductive reasoning begins with making a general assumption that is
known or believed to be true, and then drawing specific conclusions based
on this assumption. It is reasoning that helps one make a particular
conclusion from a general assumption. For example, a general assumption
that only a person who is drunk will gleefully walk under a strong rain even if
he/she is dressed in expensive suit and shoes. Thus, if you see a man doing
this, you will conclude that he must be drunk. The formula is: If an
assumption or statement is true, there is only one conclusion to make.
Inductive reasoning is the process in which a conclusion is
determined based on a number of true facts or premises. Given the same
examples above, instead of assuming that the man is walking under the rain
because he is drunk, asking him some specific questions such as, ""Did you
have a drink e a drink today?" "Do you have a job?" "Do you have children?"
"Are you married?" "Are you cick2" "Did you have lunch today?" will minimize
the possible reasons for his manner, and possibly lead to the correct
conclusion. This means that one has to know all the facts first before
coming up with conclusions. Researchers use inductive reasoning when they
use past experiences or observing top forms a general hypothesis. A
hypothesis is a statement that must be tested by gathering data. It is an
expectation of what is going to happen. The data will confirm or negate the
hypothesis or the expectation. Take this case as an example: a male patient
has been referred by Doctor A to Doctor B. the patient mentions that he
experiences pains in the stomach, and that the food he eats is tasteless; thus,
Doctor A recommends that the patients be treated for a liver infection.
Since these are symptoms of a liver problem, Doctor B concludes that
Doctor A has the correct diagnosis. However, Doctor B overlooks the fact
that these are also the same symptoms of a gall bladder problem.
Biased reasoning refers to the act of jumping top conclusion before
even knowing all the facts. Sometimes, people tend to look for information
that confirms their decisions and beliefs. It is because they want to prove to
themselves and to others that they are correct. Confirmation bias is the
tendency to look for information that supports one's decision and beliefs
while ignoring disconfirming information.
At some point in your life, you have to make decisions. Normally, you
will opt for the choice that will give you satisfaction, address your needs, and
prove to be the most beneficial. Day-in and day-out, everyone is confronted

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with big and small decision-making sharpens the individual's ability to arrive
at the "best" decisions. Both intellectual and emotional abilities are
necessarily tapped in decision-making.

TOPIC 8- ASSESING FOR SELF-IMPROVEMENT

Assessment
Perhaps one of the closest experiences you have wit assessments is
taking a written test and going through interview with academic officials
before enrolling in the school of your choice. You had to go through these
processes for the school to evaluate your future performance in the course
you have chosen to know how successful you will be in that course. Perhaps,
you were also given feedbacks on how you fared in the test on interview.
Assessment is a process that determines the presence or absence, as
well as the extent or level, of characteristic or behavior in a person. With an
assessment, one gets a better view or understanding of people's behavior,
including that of oneself.
Assessment takes place as early as the beginning of life in the womb.
Using some tests, the doctors are able to determine how "normal" the unborn
baby is and if the baby has genetic or chromosomal defects. As a result of
the assessment, the doctors may suggest interventions to correct the
defects or mitigate their effects. When a baby is born, he/she is subjected to
the Apgar test, considered to be the most important assessment in one's life.
The Apgar score, rated on a scale along 5 critical behavioral components, is
used to determine a baby's general health and overall wellness.
In doing an assessment, tools are used. They are also called measures
or data-gathering tools. Test are type of tools. The data or information
derived from a tool provides the basis for knowing or determining the
presence or absence of a behavior or characteristics. It should be noted.
however, that a tool measures only a sample of the behaviors or
characteristics being studied. Thus, it is important that care be exercised in
interpreting the data or information gathered from these tools. Hence, for
example, if one wants to study and determine students’ attitudes toward
schooling, then a toll that measures this attitude should be used, and not one
that measures another characteristic such as, for example, self-concept.
Measurement deals only with the administration of the tool and
determining the numerical values of the data gathered from a tool. An
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example of this is assigning scores to test papers after checking the
answers and classifying them according to some set of criteria. Assessment,
in contrast, includes the processes of measurements, analyzing and
interpreting the scores or the numerical values of the data. In some cases,
interventions may even be recommended if necessary. Assessment gives a
broader picture of the behavior or characteristic of an individual under study.
Psychological assessment refers to the use of specied testing
procedures to evaluate the abilities, behaviors, and personal qualities of
people. It describes the extent to which a person is similar to or different
from others. Examples include how many more test questions they can
answer correctly than other people of the same age; or if they are more
anxious that others: or whether their performance is similar to that of a
scientist or a pianist. Results from psychological assessment contribute to a
better understanding of a person.
Assessment tools are important in getting information about the
behaviors of people. Feedbacks, reports, or narratives from others are not
enough to determines someone's behavior. Rather, these data should be
backed by test results. Assessments contribute to building profiles,
determining intervention, developing programs, and making personal and
professional decisions.

REFERENCE
Brawner, D. G., & Arcega A. F. (2018). Understanding the Self. South Triangle, Q.C: C & E
Publishing.

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