Prepared by:

Shirlamaine Irina M. Calagui

NON- MENDELIAN
INHERITANCE
BEYOND
MENDELIAN
GENETICS
Phenotypes were
easy to recognize
 Mendel’s model of
inheritance assumes that:

• a single gene controls each trait

• each gene has only two (2) alleles
• there is a clear dominant-
recessive relationship between
the alleles

Most genes do
not meet these
criteria
PART 1 Incomplete and
Codominance
Multiple Alleles

Polygenic traits
PART 2
Pleiotropy

Lethal Genes

Gene interaction
PART 3
Sex linked
 Dominance relationship

PART 1 ✓Incomplete
✓Codominance

Prepared by: Shirlamaine Irina M. Calagui

 Complete Dominance
• Trait
Shape seed
Result in
• Alleles 3:1 ratio
R – round
r – wrinkled 3 round, 1 wrinkled
“blending”
Incomplete Dominance
What is it?
A case in which one allele is not
completely dominant over another.
Result in
Incomplete Dominance
Trait:Snapdragon petal color
Alleles:
CR – red
CW – white

Result in
All pink snapdragons
CR CW
Incomplete Dominance
Cross: CRCW x CRCW

Result in
1:2:1 ratio
 Incomplete Sample problem
Dominance
When a homozygous egg plant that produces purple fruit (PP) is
crossed with a homozygous plant that produces white fruit (pp), its
offspring are all violet. What would be the phenotypic ratio of the
fruit produced by a cross between one purple and one violet
eggplant?
• Alleles • Cross
P – purple PP x Pp
p – white
Pp – violet
 Incomplete Dominance Solution
Cross: PP x Pp What would be the phenotypic ratio of the fruit
produced by a cross between two violet eggplant?

P P
Conclusion
P PP PP Phenotype:
2 purple: 2 violet
p Pp Pp Phenotypic ratio: 2:2 (1:1)
 Codominance "co" means
together
What is it?
A condition where
phenotype of the
heterozygote includes
the phenotype of both
homozygotes.
 Codominance
What is it?
A condition where
phenotype of the
heterozygote includes
the phenotype of both
homozygotes.
Codominance

Speckled Chicken
BW
 Codominance Sample problem
(RW)
If a white flower (WW) is
crossed with a red and white
flower (RW), what are the
genotypic and phenotypic
ratios of the offspring?

Alleles https://biologywise.com/codominance-explained-with-examples

W – White Cross
RW – Red and White WW x RW
Codominance Solution
What are the genotypic and
Cross: WW x RW phenotypic ratios of the offspring?

W W
Conclusion
R RW RW Phenotypic ratio:
2 red and white: 2 white
W WW WW Genotypic ratio: 2:2 (1:1)
Dominance does not alter the way
in which the genes are inherited, it
only influences the way in which
they are expressed as a phenotype.
 5
Identify
4
3
X
2
1
Incomplete
dominance
 5
Identify
4
X 3
2
1
Ratio? 1:2:1
 ✓ Multiple alleles
PART 2 ✓ Polygenic traits
✓ Pleiotropy
✓ Lethal genes

Prepared by: Shirlamaine Irina M. Calagui

 Two alleles
dominant recessive

Some traits…
…more than two alleles
MULTIPLE ALLELES
What is it?
Involves more than just the typical
two alleles that usually code for a
certain characteristic in a species.
 MULTIPLE ALLELES
Dominance pattern:

allele 1 allele 2
R
M >M>m d
1
Restricted Mallard Dusky

3
 MULTIPLE ALLELES
Allele Phenotype
C Full color

cch Chinchilla pattern

ch Himalayan pattern

c Albino
 Blood groups
https://www.omanobserver.om/moh-starts-
blood-plasma-therapy-for-covid-19-patients/

Anti-B Anti-A

Anti-A and
None Anti -B
 Blood groups
https://www.omanobserver.om/moh-starts-
blood-plasma-therapy-for-covid-19-patients/

Anti-B
X Anti-A

Anti-A and
None Anti -B
 Phenotype
Genotype
(blood group)
A A A
I I or I i A

B B B
I I or I i B

AB A
I I B

O ii
I = isoagglutinogen
 MULTIPLE ALLELES
Sample problem

Sheldon has blood type B and his mom has

blood type O. When Sheldon marries Amy
who has the blood type AB, what will be the
theoretical percentage of their children with
blood type B?
 MULTIPLE Solution
ALLELES
Sheldon's mom = Type O (ii)
Sheldon = Type B
Sheldon's dad = ?

A B C
IBIB IBi IAIB

Testcross Sheldon's parents

 MULTIPLE Solution
ALLELES
IB IB IA IB
A i IBi IBi C i IA i IBi
IBIB x ii i IBi IBi IAIB x ii i IA i IBi

IB i
B i IBi ii
IBi x ii i IBi ii
 MULTIPLE Solution
ALLELES
IB IB IA IB
A i IBi IBi C i IA i IBi
IBIB x ii i IBi IBi IAIB x ii i IA i IBi

IB i Sheldon's blood type is B.

B i IBi ii Thus, the only possible
IBi x ii i IBi ii genotype is IBi.
MULTIPLE ALLELES Solution
Cross: Sheldon x Amy what will be the theoretical
percentage of their children
IBi x I A IB with blood type B?

IB i
Conclusion
IA IA IB IAi
AB A There is a 50% chance
IB IBIB I Bi that their child will
B B have blood type B.
 XAA
height

Three or more genes

AABbcc
Gene A Gene B Gene C
https://www.firstforwomen.com/gallery/entertainment/siblings-with-major-height-
differences-106979
POLYGENIC
INHERITANCE “many”
What is it?

Refers to a single characteristic that

is controlled by more than two genes.
 POLYGENIC
INHERITANCE
https://sites.psu.edu/siowfa12/2012/10/01/eye-color-
genetics/

https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/genetics/human-skin-color-variation

https://knowmoregrowmore.com/keep-corn-ears-tipping-back/
https://www.tiege.com/blogs/news/safe-sunbathing-best-time-to-
https://mottpoll.org/reports-surveys/healthy-eating-children- get-vitamin-d-from-the-sun
parents-not-following-recipe
POLYGENIC
INHERITANCE

https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/genetics/human-skin-color-variation

3 genes
Gene Trait
(e.g. color, height, shape)

...are they correlated?

PLEIOTROPY
Multiple
What is it? effects
One gene influences more than one
trait.
Flower color
Gene A Seed coat color
Axil pigmentation
PLEIOTROPY

e.g. Marfan syndrome, Phenylketunuria

 PLEIOTROPY

Beta-globin
gene mutation
(sickle cell anaemia)

https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-3-genetics/34-inheritance/pleiotropy.html
 Multiple alleles
one gene, many alleles
 Multiple alleles
one gene, many alleles
Polygenic
one trait, many genes

AaBBccDd
 Multiple alleles
one gene, many alleles
Polygenic
one trait, many genes
Pleiotropy
one gene, many traits
Lethal Genes
What is it?

are alleles that cause the death of the

organism that carries them.
 Achondroplasia
Lethal Genes
A – achondroplasia
a - normal

Aa Achondroplasia

AA Death

https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-achondroplasia
 Lethal Genes Sample problem

Achondroplasia is a type of dwarfism caused by the presence

of a dominant allele (A). However, the presence of two
dominant alleles is lethal. Cross two individuals with dwarfism
(Aa x Aa) and get the phenotypic ratio.

• Alleles • Cross
A – achondroplasia Aa x Aa
a – normal
AA – lethal (death)
 Lethal Genes Solution
Cross: Aa x Aa
A a

A AA Aa
(lethal) (dwarf)

a Aa aa
(dwarf) (normal)

Phenotypic ratio – 2:1

https://www.pathwayz.org/Tree/Plain/LETHAL+ALLELES
 5
Identify
Mother Father
4
3
X 2
Baby? 1
Possible blood types:
type A and type B
 5
Identify
4
3
2
1
Polygenic
inheritance
 5
Identify
4
3
https://www.biologycorner.com/APbiology/inh
eritance/11-6_lethal_alleles.html
X https://www.biologycorner.com/APbiology/inh
eritance/11-6_lethal_alleles.html
2
1
Manx cat 2:1 There is an allele that is
lethal when homozygous.
 ✓Gene interaction
PART 3 ✓Sex-linked traits

Prepared by: Shirlamaine Irina M. Calagui

INTERACTION BETWEEN
TWO GENES Modified
What is it? ratio

Interaction between two genes which

result in phenotype ratios different
from those of independent assortment.
 INTERACTION BETWEEN TWO
GENES
Types:
Novel phenotype Epistasis
New phenotypes result. One gene mask the effect of
another gene.

Complementary genes Duplicate genes

Recessive homozygotes of Either gene, when dominant is
both gene mask the other gene. epistatic to the other.
 INTERACTION BETWEEN TWO
GENES
Ratios:
Novel phenotype Epistasis
Ratio Ratio
9:3:3:1 9:3:4 or 12:3:1

Complementary genes Duplicate genes

Ratio Ratio
9:7 15:1
 INTERACTION BETWEEN TWO
GENES Sample problem

In Drosophila, the recessive gene eyeless (when

homozygous) prevents the expression of eye color
genes present in genome. The fly could either have
dominant purple eye or recessive red eye.
Determine the interaction and show the phenotype
and phenotypic ratio of two purple-eyed fly
heterozygous for the two gene locus using punnett
squares. What type of gene interaction is this?
 INTERACTION Solution

BETWEEN TWO GENES

In Drosophila, the recessive gene eyeless (when homozygous) prevents the expression of eye color
genes present in genome. The fly could either have dominant purple eye or recessive red eye.
Determine the interaction and show the phenotype and phenotypic ratio of two purple-eyed fly
heterozygous for the two gene locus using punnett squares. What type of gene interaction is this?

• Alleles • Parent cross

A – eye color B – Purple color AaBb x AaBb
a – eyeless b – red color

• Interaction
aa>B>b
Epistasis
 Epistasis
Remember:
Parent cross
AaBb x AaBb
Alleles
A – eye color
a – eyeless
B – purple color
b – red color
Interaction
aa>B>b
 Epistasis
Remember:
Parent cross red color red color
red color red color
AaBb x AaBb
Alleles
A – eye color
a – eyeless red color purple color red color purple color
B – purple color
b – red color
Interaction
aa>B>b red color red color eyeless eyeless

Phenotypic ratio
9:3:4 red color purple color eyeless eyeless
INTERACTION BETWEEN TWO
GENES Sample problem

One locus determines the type of pigment

produced by sweet pea, purple coloration is
dominant over white. Another locus allows
pigment to be produced, colour is dominant
over colorless. Determine the interaction and
identify the type of gene interaction.
 INTERACTION Solution

BETWEEN TWO GENES

One locus determines the type of pigment produced by sweet
pea, purple coloration is dominant over white. Another locus
allows pigment to be produced, colour is dominant over colorless.
Determine the interaction and identify the type of gene
interaction.
• Alleles
A – puple B – pigment/colour
a – white b – colorless
• Interaction Complementary
aa/bb>A/B
genes
SEX-LINKED
GENES
What is it?

The genes that are present on the X

or Y chromosomes.
 SEX-LINKED GENES
X Y

What are the odds of X XX XY

getting a male? A female?

X XX XY
50/50
SEX-LINKED GENES
Heterogametic Homogametic
 SEX-LINKED GENES

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/68082#
What-is-DHT?

http://www.emdocs.net/managing-hemophilia-in-the-
ed-all-bleeding-stops-eventually/
SEX-LINKED GENES
 SEX-LINKED Sample problem
GENES
A woman carrier for the X-linked gene for hemophilia, a recessive trait, is
married to a normal man. What is the probability (p-ratio and g-ratio) of
producing an offspring that has the hemophilia disease.

• Alleles
H – normal XX – female
h – hemophilia XY – male
• Parent cross
XHXh x XHY
SEX-LINKED GENES
Cross: XHXh x XhY

XH Y
Conclusion
Phenotypic ratio
XH XHXH XHY
2:1:1
Genotypic ratio
Xh XHXh Xh Y 1:1:1:1
Identify
Identify
Men with red-green color blindness
inherited the genes for it from?
Thank you!
SIGMCalagui