CE 335 Çinicioğlu

Two-Dimensional Flow

CE 335
Soil Mechanics

CE 335 Çinicioğlu
Two-dimensional flow of water through soil
• The flow of water through soils is described by Laplace
equation. The two dimensional form of the equation is
2 H 2 H
kx  kz 0
x 2 x 2
H  the total head
kx kz hydraulic conductivities in the x and y directions

Laplace equation expresses the condition that the changes of hydraulic

gradient in one direction are balanced by changes in the other directions.
The assumptions in Laplace equation are :
• Darcy’s law (v=ki=k.DH/L) is valid.
• The soil is homogeneous and saturated
• The soil and water are incompressible.
• No volume change occurs.

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CE 335 Çinicioğlu
Two-dimensional flow of water through soil
• If the soil is isotropic (kx=kz=k), then Laplace Equation
becomes
2 H 2 H
 0
x 2 z 2
• The solution for this differential equation requires the
knowledge of the boundary conditions.
• However, for soils the boundary conditions are generally
complex.
• Therefore it is very difficult to obtain an analytical or
closed form solution.
• Therefore, it is necessary to use approximate solution
methods such as flownet sketching, finite difference,
finite element, or boundary element methods.

CE 335 Çinicioğlu

The concept of flow net

• In a region of soil through which water flow is taking place
and where the material is isotropic, flow will occur at any
point in the direction of the maximum gradient at that point.
• The slope is smooth analogous to isotropic condition. If it
was textured, it would be analogous to anisotropic
condition.

Highest
gradient

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CE 335 Çinicioğlu
The concept of flow net
Constant
• If, as a result of obtaining the head lines

solution to Laplace equation, a line

can be drawn through the point
such that the head everywhere
along the line is the same, the f
maximum hydraulic gradient at the
point will occur in a direction
normal to the constant head line. Flow lines

• Therefore the flow will therefore be Constant

at right angles to the constant head head lines
lines.

f
Flow lines

CE 335 Çinicioğlu

The concept of flow net

• A line of constant head representing a solution to Laplace

equation is called an equipotential line.
• A path followed by a particle of water is called a flow line.
Constant head Equipotential
=
lines lines

Flow lines

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CE 335 Çinicioğlu

The concept of flow net

• The velocity of flow (v) is normal to the lines of constant total head
(equipotential lines) and in the direction of the flow lines.

CE 335 Çinicioğlu

The concept of flow net

• A flow line represents the flow path that a particle of water is expected to take in
steady state flow.
• Flow lines and equipotential lines are orthogonal to each other.
• The head loss between two equipotential lines is called a potential drop or head
loss.
• Since the flow lines are normal to equipotential lines, there can be no flow across
flow lines.
• The rate of flow between any two flow lines is constant. The area between two
flow lines is called a flow channel. Therefore the rate of flow is constant in a flow
channel.

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CE 335 Çinicioğlu

Flownet sketching

• A flownet is a graphical
representation of a flow
field that satisfies Laplace
equation and comprises a
family of flow lines and
equipotential lines.

CE 335 Çinicioğlu
Flownet sketching
A flownet must meet the following criteria:
• The boundary conditions must be satisfied.
• Flow lines must intersect equipotential lines at right angles.
• The area between flow lines and equipotential lines must be
curvilinear squares. A curvilinear square has the property
that an inscribed circle can be drawn to touch each side of
the square.
• The quantity of flow through each flow channel is constant.
• A flow line cannot intersect another flow line.
• An equipotential line cannot intersect another equipotential
line.
An infinite number of flow lines and equipotential lines can be
drawn to satisfy Laplace equation. However, only a few are
required to obtain an accurate solution.

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CE 335 Çinicioğlu

Flownet sketching – Isotropic soils

1. Draw the structure and soil mass to scale.

CE 335 Çinicioğlu

Flownet sketching – Isotropic soils

2. Identify impermeable and permeable boundaries.
1. The soil-impermeable boundary interfaces are flow lines because
water can flow along these interfaces.
2. The soil-permeable boundary interfaces are equipotential lines
because total head is constant along these surfaces

Soil-permeable boundary
interface – equipotential line line

Soil-impermeable boundary
interface – flow line

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CE 335 Çinicioğlu

Flownet sketching – Isotropic soils

3. Sketch a series of flow lines and then sketch an appropriate

number of equipotential lines such that the area between a pair of
flow lines and a pair of equipotential lines (cell) is approximately
a curvilinear square. You would have to adjust the flow lines and
equipotential lines to make curvilinear squares.

CE 335 Çinicioğlu

Example 1: Draw the flownet for the flow condition under the dam.

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CE 335 Çinicioğlu
Solution: Equipotential line
Flow line

Flow lines should intersect the equipotential lines at right angles,

and vice versa.

CE 335 Çinicioğlu

Solution (cont.):

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CE 335 Çinicioğlu

Example 2: Draw the flownet in the backfill behind the retaining

wall. Between the retaining wall and the backfill there is
a vertical drainage blanket.

CE 335 Çinicioğlu
Solution:
In the drainage blanket the pressure is atmospheric. Therefore along the blanket the
equipotential lines are spaced at equal intervals (he=ht).
The bottom impermeable layer is also a flow line, therefore the equipotential lines
should connect at right angles to it.
The top permeable layer is an equipotential line, so flow lines should intersect at right
angles.

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CE 335 Çinicioğlu
Flow rate from a flownet
• The head loss between two consecutive equipotential lines is
constant. Therefore the head loss (Dh) between each
consecutive pair of equipotential lines is
Total head loss across
The number of
DH
equipotential Dh  the flow domain
(head) drops Nd

DH  8m
N d  18

CE 335 Çinicioğlu

Flow rate from a flownet

• From Darcy’s law, the flow through each flow channel for
an isotropic soil is
Dh b DH b
Dq  Aki   b 1 k  k Dh  k
area L L Nd L
width of
the cell length of
the cell

Since each cell is a square, b/l = 1. Therefore

DH
Dq  k
Nd

This is valid per flow channel

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CE 335 Çinicioğlu

Flow rate from a flownet

If the number of flow lines is Nf,, then the total quantity of flow is
Nf
q  N f Dq  k DH
Nd

Nf 9 • The ratio Nf / Nd is called

the shape factor.
• Finer discretization of the
flow net by drawing more
flow and equipotential
lines does not significantly
change the shape factor.
• Both Nf and Nd can be
fractional.

CE 335 Çinicioğlu
Example 3: If the hydraulic conductivity of the isotropic homogeneous
soil layer is 5x10-6m/s, determine the quantity of seepage
under the sheet pile wall.

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CE 335 Çinicioğlu
Solution: 6
k  5 10 m / s

 
Nf 9
q  k DH  5 106 m / s  8m   2 105 m3 / s
Nd 18

The result is m3/s

because of the depth
of the problem into
the plane of drawing
(1m).

CE 335 Çinicioğlu
Flownet – Hydraulic gradient
The hydraulic gradient over each square can be found by dividing
the head loss by the length, L, of the cell
Dh
i • L is not constant. Therefore
L hydraulic gradient is not
constant.
• The maximum hydraulic
gradient occurs where L is a
minimum.
Dh
imax 
Lmin
• Usually, Lmin occurs at exit
points or around corners.
• Exit points are critical for
quick condition.

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CE 335 Çinicioğlu
Flownet – Static Liquefaction
Flow at point B is directed upward. Therefore, the vertical effective
stress at that point is
 z   z  i w z
  Gs  1 then    0
if i  ic   z
 w e 1

When i=ic, the structure

will fail as a result of
static liquefaction /
piping.

It is absolutely essential
to ensure that the critical
hydraulic gradient
cannot develop.

CE 335 Çinicioğlu
Example 4: If the saturated unit weight of the soil is 19kN/m3

a) check if there is a risk of static liquefaction behind the

sheet pile.
b) What is the maximum depth of upstream water table
that would provide a factor of safety of 1.5 against
quick condition?

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CE 335
Solution: ic 



19kN / m3  9.8kN / m3
 0.94
 Çinicioğlu

(a) w 9.8kN / m 3

DH 8m Dh 0.45m
Dh    0.45m i   0.2
Nd 18 L 2.3m

(b)
2.3m
ic 0.94
i   0.63
F .S . 1.5
Dh  iL  0.63 2.3m  1.45m

DH  Dh.N d  1.45m  18  26.1m

CE 335 Çinicioğlu
Flownet – Static Liquefaction
• There are several preventive measures against static
liquefaction, such as increasing the effective stresses at the
Increasing
exit point, thus the effective
stresses at
the exit point

 z   fill   z  i w z

• Increasing the length of the flow path, thus

Increasing the length of
Nd increases therefore Dh decreases. flow path

So, exit hydraulic gradient

decreases.
Dh
 imax
Lmin

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CE 335 Çinicioğlu
Flownet – Pore water pressure
The calculation of the pore water pressure at an arbitrary point such as point A:
• Select a datum, such as the downstream water level.
• Determine the total head at A:
H A  DH   N D  A Dh  8m  16.5  0.45m  0.575m
Number of
equipotential drops • Subtract the elevation head of the point
Head loss per
up to the point (can equipotential line from the total head.
be fractional)
 hp  A  hA   he  A 
 0.575m  (10m)  10.575m
• The porewater pressure is

 
u A   w hp 
A
A
 9.8kN / m3 10.575m 
103.6kPa  u A

CE 335 Çinicioğlu
Example 5:
The section through a long cofferdam is shown, hydraulic
conductivity of the soil being 4x10-7m/s.
a. Draw the flownet and determine the quantity of seepage entering
the cofferdam.
b. The saturated unit weight of the soil being 20kN/m3, determine
the factor of safety against boiling at the surface AB.
c. Determine the values of effective vertical stress at C and D.

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CE 335 Çinicioğlu

Solution: (a)

Nf 5
N d  11
Nf 10
q  kH  4 107 m / s  5.5m   2 106 m3 / s per meter
Nd 11

CE 335 Çinicioğlu

Solution (cont.): (b)

Loss in total head between adjacent equipotentials
DH 5.5m
Dh    0.5m
Nd 11
Exit hydraulic gradient The critical hydraulic gradient
Dh 0.5m   20kN / m3  9.8kN / m3
ie    0.71 ic    1.04
Ds 0.7m w 9.8kN / m3

F.S. against boiling

i 1.04
F .S.  c   1.5
ie 0.71

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CE 335 Çinicioğlu

Solution (cont.): (c) Total, elevation, and pressure heads at C:

 he C  2.5m  ht C  5.5m  8.6  0.5m  1.2m

 hp C   ht C   he C  1.2m   2.5m   3.7m
 C  w  3.7m  9.8kN / m3  36kPa
uc  h p

 
 C   C  uC  2.5m  20kN / m3  36kPa  14kPa

CE 335 Çinicioğlu

Solution (cont.): (c) Total, elevation, and pressure heads at D:

 he D  4.5m  ht D  5.5m  3.7  0.5m  3.65m

 hp D   ht D   he D  3.65m   4.5m   8.15m
 
u D  h p  w  8.15m  9.8kN / m3  80kPa
D

D  
   D  uD  3m  9.8kN / m3  7m  20kN / m3  80kPa  89.4kPa

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