GROUP PROJECT

BFC25103

MECHANIC OF MATERIALS

NAME : 1. JASMINE HAZIQIN BINTI ABDULLAH AF210023

2. MOHAMMAD ZUHAIRI BIN MOHAMMAD YUSOF CF210291

3. MOHAMMAD ZAFHARUL HASNIZAL BIN ZALUHI CF210188

4. MUHAMMAD HAZIM BIN ABDUL HISHAM CF210245

5. SADIQ BUBA AF210003

SECTION SECTION 10

SEMESTER/SESSION 2/20212022

LECTURER NAME DR SEYED JAMALALDIN SEYED HAKIM

SUBMIT DATE
 TABLE OF CONTENT

NO CONTENT PAGE
1) ABSTRACT 1
2) INTRODUCTION 2
3) BACKGROUND STUDY 4
4) DESIGN SHAER WALL 5
5) RECOMMENDATIONS 13
6) REFERENCES 20
7) APPENDIX 21
 ABSTRACT

Precast construction with wall beam system has gain many advantages in building
construction. In addition, high rise building plays an important role not only in accommodation
issue but also in safety issue of the lives during construction and living in that building.
Therefore, most of the engineers explore the safer construction methods and economical
solution for the construction of building. Moreover, wall beam system has a high resistance in
the earthquake (lateral) load since the shear wall has been used as one of the main structural
elements. Many research and testing has been done in shear wall analysis using various
methods to determine the strength, the behaviour and failure mechanism of the shear wall. In
this research work the dynamic properties and failure mechanism of scale-down shear wall
with regular openings subjected to real seismic loads on shake table test are discussed. For this
purpose, the experimental works are carried out in accordance with PGA (peak ground
acceleration), natural frequency, mode of shapes, pushover testing and failure mechanism of
the shear wall are evaluated and compared with the results from FEM software (ETABS). To
sum up, wall beam system has many advantages in construction and it can be said that it is the
most time effective construction method among the other construction methods especially if
IBS is introduced. In addition, this type of structural system can withstand the lateral loads
(earthquake) than any other types of the structure. Therefore, nowadays, this method has been
accepted as one of the most appropriate methods in tall building construction system.

1
INTRODUCTION
A shear wall is a structural panel that can resist lateral forces acting on it . Lateral forces
are those that are parallel to the plane of the wall , and are typically wind and seismic loads .
Shear walls are particularly important in large , or high rise building , or building in areas of
high wind and seismic activity . In residential buildings , shear walls are external form a box
which provides all of the lateral support for the building . Reduces lateral sway of the building .
Provide large strength and stiffness to buildings in the direction of their orientation . In building
construction , a rigid vertical diaphragm capable of transferring lateral forces from exterior
walls , floors and roofs to the ground foundation in a direction parallel to their planes .
Examples are the reinforced concrete wall . Shear walls are especially important in high rise
buildings subject to lateral wind and seismic forces . Generally , shear walls are either plane or
flanged in section , while core walls consist of channel section . They also provide adequate
strength and stiffness to control lateral displacements . The shape and plan position of the shear
wall influence the behavior of the structure condiferably . Structurally , the best position for
the shear walls is in the center of each half of the building . This is rarely practical , since it
also utilizes the space a lot , so they positioned at the ends . It is better to use walls with no
opening in them . So , usually , the walls around lift shafts and stairwells are used . Also wall
on the sides of buildings that have no windows can be used . Shear walls provide large strength
and stiffness to building in the direction of their orientation, which significantly reduces ;ateral
sway of the building and thereby reduces damage to structures and its contents . Since shear
walls carry large horizontal earthquake forces , the overturning effects on them are large .

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OBJECTIVES
1. To study and examine the advantages of shear walls
2. To investigate the applications of shear walls
3. To develop and understand about the properties of shear walls material
4. To determine the design of shear walls

METHODOLOGY
A simple methodology is proposed for the simple shear walls which is Reinforced
Concrete (RC) . The reinforced concrete are widely used shear walls for residential buildings .
The reinforcement is provided in both horizontal and vertical directions . But at the end of each
wall , bars are closely spaced and enchored . So the end zones of RC shear wall is called as
boundary elements or barbells . The wall thickness of RC shear wall is varied depending upon
many factors like thermal insulation requirements of buildings , age of building , number of
floor and others . It varies from 140 mm to 500 mm . In general , the provision of shear wall is
continuous throughout the height of building . But sometimes it is discontinued where there is
a building entrance or parking space .

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BACKGROUND OF STUDY
Shear wall is one of the most commonly used lateral load resisting in high rise building.
Shear wall has high in plane stiffness and strength which can be used to simultaneously resist
large horizontal load and support gravity load. The scope of present work is to study the effect
of lateral loading on placement of shear wall in medium rise building at different size and
alternative location . Effectiveness of shear wall has been studied with the help offive aspects
ratio plan with alternate location different models . The scope of this project is to study of shear
wall by changing location of shear wall and to study the performance . The seismic analysis
and design of buildings has traditionally focused on reducing the risk of loss of life in the
largest expected earthquake. To reduce the effects caused by these earthquakes and wind loads
different lateral loading systems are introduced in the structures. Position of shear walls in
unsymmetrical buildings has due considerations. It is very necessary to determine efficient and
ideal location of shear wall . Shear wall is a structural member used to resist lateral forces i.e.
parallel to the plane of the wall. For slender walls where the bending deformation is more,
Shear wall resists the loads due to Cantilever Action. In other words ,Shear walls are vertical
elements of the horizontal force resisting system . In building construction, a rigid vertical
diaphragm capable of transferring lateral forces from exterior walls, floors, and roofs to the
ground foundation in a direction parallel to their planes. Examples are the reinforced-concrete
wall. Lateral forces caused by wind, earthquake, and uneven settlement loads, in addition to
the weight of structure and occupants, create powerful twisting (torsional) forces. This leads to
the failure of the structures by shear. Shear walls are especially important in high-rise buildings
subject to lateral wind and seismic forces. Generally, shear walls are either plane or flanged in
section, while core walls consist of channel sections. They also provide adequate strength and
stiffness to control lateral displacements. Not all walls are created equally, and this is especially
true when it comes to windstorm engineering and coastal construction. It’s important to be able
to identify different wall types in construction plans to understand the value they bring to a
structure .

4
Design shear wall
Advantages of shear wall:
1. Shear walls provide large strength and stiffness in the direction of orientation.
2. It considerably reduces the lateral sway.
3. They are easy in construction and implementation.
4. It is efficient in terms of construction cost and minimizing earthquake damage.
5. Also, provides strength and rigidity in the direction of alignment.
6. These walls minimize the damages to structural and non-structural elements.
7. They have enough well-distributed reinforcements.
8. Also, requires less construction time.
9. These walls are thinner walls.
10. They are also lightweight.

Disadvantages of shear wall:

1. Shear walls are difficult to construct.
2. They have a flimsy appearance.
3. Also, loud banging sounds associated with the buckling of web plates.
4. It has low stiffness and energy dissipation capacity.
5. Also, requires large moment connections.

Application of Shear Wall:

1. Shear walls are designed to resist gravity / vertical loads and earthquake/wind lateral
loads.
2. These types of walls are structurally combined with the roof or the floor.
3. Other lateral walls run at right angles to provide three-dimensional stability to
structures.
4. The walls have to resist uplift forces due to air drag.
5. These walls resist the shear forces that try to push the walls up and the lateral forces of
air that push the walls in and out of the structure.
6. This shear walls structural system is extra stable.

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Forces acting on shear walls
Shear walls are designed to resist bending moment, shear, axial, and upliftforces,
especially when they are subjected to lateral actions. The lateral forces acting in the plane of a
shear wall attempts to lift up one end of the wall and push the other end down. Uplift forces
are greater on tall walls and less on low walls. Shear walls resist the shear force parallel to the
plane of the wall by cantilever action.

Axial forces in a shear wall

The axial load in a wall may be calculated assuming the beams and slabs transmitting
the loads to it are simply supported.

Transverse moments
For continuos construction, transverse moment can be calculated using elastic analysis.
The eccentricity is not to be less than h/30 or 20mm where h is the wall thickness.

In-plane moments
Moments in the plane of a single shear wall can be calculated from statics. When several
walls resist forces, the proportion allocated to each wall should be in proportion to its stiffness.

Location/ placement of shear of shear walls

In a tall building where the shear wallid used for lateral stability, it should be located
on each level of the structure. Preferably, shear walls of equal length should be placed
symmetrically on all four exterior walls of the building to form an effective box structure.
When the shear walls in the exterior frame could not provide sufficient strength and stiffness,
the shear walls should be added to the interior frame as well.
If the shear wall is placed at the interior frame of a building, it attracts and resists higher
internal forces but may not be too effective in reducing the maximum lateral deflection of the
building. However, if a shear wall is placed at the ends of a building, the lateral deflection is
reduced considerably when compared to the later.
Architectural disposition in a building may not always give the room for optimum
placement of shear walls for good structural performance. In some areas sush as lift areas or
window/door openings, coupled shear walls may have to be used. However, the best position
or arrangement of shear centre (centre of rotation) will coincide with the centre of gravity of
the building in order to reduce or eliminate torsion (twisting) due to lateral loads.

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Fuctions of shear walls
• Shear walls must provide the necessary lateral strength to resist horizontal wind and
earthquake forces.
• They provide resistance against sliding through connections.
• They also provide lateral stiffness to prevent the roof or floor above from excessive
side away.
• When the shear walls are stiff enough, they prevent floor and roof framing members
from moving off their supports.
• Buildings that are sufficiently stiff usually suffer less structural damage due to the
presence of shear walls.

Structural action of a shear wall

In a shear wall, the primary mode of deformation is mainly due to flexure but not shear.
The mode of deformation of shear walls is such that it has maximum slope at the top and least
at the bottom which is the flexural mode shape. The structural action of a shear wall resembles
that of a cantilever beam.

Structural design of shear walls

The amount of reinforcement needed for proper detailing of a reinforced concrete wall may
be derived using strut-and tie model. If a wall is however subjected predominantly to out-of-
plane bending, the design rules and guidelines for slabs apply. In Eurocode 2, the requirements
for the following areas:-
• The requirements for fire resistance
• Bending will be critical about the weak axis
• Rules for spacing and quantity of reinforcement

Reinforment detailing of shear walls

a) Minimum and maximum area of vertical reinforcement
According to clause 9.6.2 of Eurocode 2, the minimum and maximum amounts
of reinforcement required for a reinforced concrete wall are 0.002Ac and

7
 0.04Ac outside lap locations respectively. It is further stated that where
minimum reinforcement controls design, half of this area should be located on
each face. The distance between two adjacent vertical bars should not exceed
three times the wall thickness or 400mm, whichever is lesser.

b) Area of horizontal reinforcement

According to clause 9.6.3 of Eurocode 2, horizontal reinforcement should be
provided at each face and should have a minimum area of 25% of the vertical
reinforcement or 0.001Ac, whichever is greater than 400mm.
c) Provision of links
If the compression reinforcement in the wall exceeds 0.02Ac, links must be
provided through the wall thicknees is accordance with the rules for columns in
clause 9.5.3 which are :

The diameter of the transverse reinforcement should not be less than 6mm or
one-quarter of the diameter of the largest longitudinal bar whichever is greater.
The maximum spacing is to be Sd, max

Sd, max is the minimum of :

• 20 times the diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar
• The lesser dimension of the wall i.e. the thickness
• 400mm

The maximum spacing should be reduced by a factor of 0.6 in the following

cases:
• In section within a distance equal to 4 x thickness of wall above or below
a beam or slab.
• Near lapped joints, if the diameter of the longitudinal bar is greater than
14mm. A minimum of three bars evenly placed in the lap length is
required.

Where the main reinforment is placed nearest to the wall faces, transverse
reinforcement should be provided in the form of links with 4 perm2 of the wall
area.

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Design example of shear walls
Design a 225mm thick shear wall of 3.6m height at the ground floor of the building.
The shear wall is carrying a 200mm thick sab on the first floor of the building. The action
effects on the shear wall are as follows:-

Vertical loads
Dead load Gk = 300 kn/m
Live load Qk = 55 kn/m
Vertical load due to on-plane bending and wind Wk = ± 650 kn/m
Vertical load due to in plane bending and imperfections Gkh = ± 60kn/m

Maximum moment out-of-plane, floor imposed load as leading action M = 40 kn/m

Maximum moment out-of-plane, floor imposed load as accompanying action M = 35 kn/m
Fck = C25/30 : fyk 500 N/mm2
Check slenderness of wall at ground floor
Effective length, lo = 0.75 x (3600-200) = 2550mm
ᵞ = 3.46 x lo/h = 3.46 x 2550/225 = 39.213
Limiting slenderness, ᵞlim = 20 ABC/n0.5
Where ;
A = 0.7
B = 1.1
C = 1.7- rm
Where;
rm = M01/M02 = say = -0.25
C = 1.7 – (-0.25) = 1.95
n = Ned/Acfd

Where;
Ned (assuming wind is the leading variable action) = 1.35 Gk + 1.5Qk1 + 1.5₼0Qki
= 1.35 (300 + 60) + 1.5(650) + (1.5 x 0.7 x 55) = 486 + 975 + 57.75 = 1518.75 kN/m
Acfd = (225 x 1000) x (0.85 x 30/1.5) = 3825 kN
Therefore, n = 1518.75/3825 = 0.397
ᵞlim = 20 x (0.7 x 1.1 x 1.95)/0.3970.5 = 47.66

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Therefore as ᵞ < ᵞlim wall is not sleder and therefore no secondary moments.

Combinations of actions
(a) At ULS, for maximum axial load, Wk is leading variable action
Ned = 1.35 Gk + 1.5Qk1 + 1.5₼0Qki
= 1.35(300 + 60) + 1.5(650) + (1.5 x 0.7 x 55) = 486 + 975 + 57.75 = 1518.75 kN/m
MEd = M + e!NEd ≥ eoNEd
Where
M = moment from 1st order analysis = 35kNm/m
e! = lo/ 400 = 2550/400 = 6.375mm
eo = h/3 ≥ 20mm = 20mm
MEd = 35 + (0.006375 x 1518.75 ) ≥ 0.020 x 1518.75
MEd = 35 + 9.68 ≥ 30.375 = 44.68 kNm/m

(b) At ULS, for minimum azial load , Wk is leading variable action

NEd = (1.0 x 300) – (1.35 x 60) – (1.5 x 650) + (0 x 55) = -756kN/m (tension)
MEd = 35 + (0.006375 x 756) ≥ 0.020 x 756
= 35 + 4.82 ≥ 15.12 = 39.82 kNm/m

(c) At ULS, for mximum out of plane bending assuming Qk is leading variable action
Ned = 1.35 (300 + 60) + (1.5 x 55) + (1.5 x 0.5 x 650) = 1056 kN/m
MEd = 40 + ( 0.006375 x 1056 ) ≥ 0.020 x 1056
MEd = 40 + 6.732 ≥ 21.12 = 46.732 kNm/m
or
Ned = (1.0 x 300) – (1.35 x 60) – (0 x 55) – (1.5 x 0.5 x 650) = -268.5 kN/m (tension)
MEd = 40 + (0.006375 x 268.5) 41.71 kN/m

Design load case

Consolidate (c) into (a) and (b) to consider two load cases :
Ned = 1518.75 kN/m
MEd = 46.732 kNm/m (out of plane)
and
Ned = -756 kN/m (tension)
MEd = 46.732 kNm/m (out of plane)

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Design : cover above ground
Cnom = Cmin + ∆cdev
Where;
Cmin = max (Cmin,b ; Cmin,dur)

Where;
Cmin,b = diameter of bar = 20mm vertical or 10mm lacers
Cmin,dur = for XC1 = 15mm
∆cdev = 10mm
Cnom = 15 + 10 = 25mm to lacers (35mm to vertical bars)

Design using charts

For compressive load :
d2/h = (25 + 10 + 16/2) / 225 = 0.19
interpolate between charts for d2/h = 0.15 and d2/h = 0.2 as shown below

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NEd /bhfck = (1518.75 x 103) / (225 x 1000 x 30) = 0.225
MEd /bhfck = (46.732 x 106) / (2252 x 1000 x 30) = 0.030

Gives : Asfyk /bhfck = 0

Therefore, minimum area of reinforcement required

As,min = 0.002Ac
As,min = 0.002 x 225 x 1000 = 450 mm2/m
As,min = 450 mm2/m = 225 mm2/m each face
Maximum spacing = 400mm c/c, minimum diameter of rebar = 12mm diameter

Try H12 @ 300 c/c on each face

For tensile load and moment

Working from first principles, referring to the figure below and ignoring contribution from
concrete in tension,

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NEd = (ϭst1 + ϭst2) x As/2
MEd = (ϭst1 + ϭst2) x As/2 x (d-d2)
So ϭst1 + ϭst2 = 2NEd /As
And ϭst1 + ϭst2 = 2MEd /((d-d2) As)
2ϭst1 = 2NEd /As + 2MEd /((d-d2) As)
As = NEd / ϭst1) + MEd /(d-d2) ϭst1
ϭst1 = fyk / Ys = 500/1.15 = 434.8
As = ( 756 x 103/ 434.8) + (46.732 x 106)/ ((182-43) x 434.8) = 1738.7 + 773 = 2512mm2
ϭst2 = 2NEd /As - ϭst1 = 601.9 – 434.8 = 167MPa

By inspection all concrete is in tension zone and may be ignored.

Use 7H16 “ 175 c/c on both sides for at least 1m each end of wall (Asprov = 2814mm2).

Horizontal reinforcement
As,hmin = 0.001Ac or 25% As,vert
= 225mm2 or (0.25 x 2814) = 704mm2/m
This therefore requires 352 mm2/m each side
Use H10 @ 200 (393mm2/m) both sides

13
RECOMMENDATION ON SHEAR WALL STRENGTHEN
1) Using Alternative Strategies to Enhance the Seismic Performance of Reinforced Concrete-
Block Shear Wall Systems

In the article made by Marwan T. Shedid ; Wael W. El-Dakhakhni, M.ASCE ; and Robert
G. Drysdale seven reinforced concrete-block shear walls with aspect ratios of 1.5 and 2.2 two-
and three-storey high were tested under displacement-controlled cyclic loading. The response
of rectangular, flanged, and end-confined walls, designed to have the same lateral resistance
when subjected to the same axial load, is discussed. In general, high levels of ductility
accompanied by relatively small strength degradation were observed in all walls with a
significant increase in ductility and displacement capabilities for the flanged and end-confined
walls compared to the rectangular ones. For both aspect ratios evaluated, the drift levels at 20%
strength degradation were 1.0, 1.5, and 2.2% corresponding to the rectangular, the flanged, and
the end-confined walls, respectively. The ductility values of the proposed flanged and end-
confined walls were, respectively, 1.5 and 2 times those of their rectangular wall counterparts
with the same overall length and aspect ratio. In addition to the enhanced ductility, a saving of
more than 40% in the amount of vertical reinforcement was achieved using the proposed
alternative strategies while maintaining the same lateral wall resistance. Existing design clauses
were used to predict the wall capacities using the American and the Canadian masonry codes
and showed excellent agreement. This will facilitate adoption of the new construction
categories with minimal modifications to existing code clauses. The test results indicate that
higher ductility than the currently endorsed values by North American codes should be used
for rectangular walls. Moreover, higher values should be expected when the proposed strategies
are adopted which would significantly reduce the seismic demand on reinforced concrete-block
shear wall construction.

2) Strengthening Plywood shear wall using bolted connection

From the experimant made by Donald Anthony Jones, 1996 the clamp on the shear wall
shows that it will increase strength and energy absorbtion. The reinforcemet clamp show that
it can increase the stiffness and energy dissipitation of shear wall.

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3) Steel plate shear walls with infill plates strengthened by GFRP laminates

The studies by F. Nateghi-Alahi, M. Khazaei-Poul, 2011 the nonlinear behavior of the

composite steel plate shear walls, in which steel infill plates was strengthened by the fiber
reinforced polymers (FRP), is experimentally investigated. Tests are designed to evaluate the
effect of Glass-FRP layers, the number of GFRP layers and the orientation of GFRP layers on
the stiffness, shear strength, cumulative dissipated energy and other major seismic parameters
in the composite steel plate shear walls. Experimental models are scaled as one-story steel shear
panel models with hinge type connections as boundaries at four corners. In the first test,
unstiffened steel infill plate is used for the testing as a reference test. However, in the next four
tests, strengthened steel infill plates were used with different numbers and orientation of GFRP
layers. Each test was performed under fully reversed cyclic quasi-static loading in the elastic
and inelastic response zones of the specimens, in compliance with the ATC-24 (1992) test
protocol. The experimental results indicated that by strengthening the infill steel plates yield
by laminates strength, ultimate shear strength and cumulative dissipated energy can be
significantly increased.

4) The wall–frame interaction effect in steel plate shear wall

From S.A.A. Hosseinzadeh a, Mohsen Tehranizadeh, 2014. The overall behavior of steel
plate shear wall (SPSW) dual systems comprises the contributions of the infill plate tension
field and boundary frame moment resisting actions. In the literature, a moment frame acting as
SPSW boundaries (SPSW boundary frame) is treated as the same frame acting alone (bare
frame). However, due to an interaction effect between the infill wall and the boundary frame,
the actual behavior of SPSW boundary frame is different from the behavior of the same bare
frame. In the present paper, a number of code designed single and multi-story SPSWs and the
corresponding bare frames are numerically analyzed (a) to study the influence of infill walls
on the behavior of boundary frames and (b) to evaluate the effectiveness of infill walls. Results
show that the presence of infill walls can significantly improve the performance of moment-
resisting frame systems, especially for multi-story ones, in terms of strength, stiffness, ductility
and energy dissipation capability. In turn, the better performance of the SPSW system than the
corresponding bare frame is not only due to the contribution of the infill wall, but also due to
the improvement in the performance of the frame resulted from the wall–frame interaction.
5) Improving steel plate shear walls using Low Yield Point steel

15
 In the jurnal of Case Studies in Construction Materials stated that High Performance Steel
Plate Shear Wall (HPSPSW) were properly determined using numerical and paramedical
approaches. The properties of HPSPSW and LYP (Low Yield Point) steel (LHPSPSW) were
measured. In so doing, 27 numerical models were analyzed and evaluated. The numerical
results indicated that the SPSW has a higher stiffness, ultimate strength, and energy absorption
than HPSPSW. Also, it was shown that LHPSPSW exhibits higher properties compared to
SPSW and HPSPSW in both elastic and inelastic zones. It was also concluded that using LYP
in HPSPSW enhances the seismic parameters of the system (stiffness, energy absorption,
ultimate strength). From the study result gain are By using LYP in HPSPSW the ultimate
strength will be increased from 13 % to 44 %. This increase in the ultimate strength is achieved
when the infill plate stress on the HPSPSW and LHPSPSW is the same.
6) RC shear walls strengthened with CFRP strips

From studies made by Sinan Altin a , Özgür Anil a, Yag˘mur Kopraman a , M. Emin Kara,
2012. The purpose of the study was to investigate the hysteretic behavior of shear deficient
reinforced concrete (RC) walls that were strengthened with carbon fiber reinforced polymer
(CFRP) strips. Totally, ½ scale five specimens with 1.5 aspect ratio walls were constructed.
One of them was tested without any retrofitting as a reference specimen and four of them were
retrofitted specimens with CFRP strips. All of the specimens were tested under cyclic lateral
loading. CFRP strips with different configurations were tested like X-shaped, horizontal and
parallel strips or combinations of them. All of the CFRP configurations were symmetrically
bonded to both sides of the shear wall and were anchoraged to the wall. The research focuses
on the effect of using CFRP strips for enhancing strength and increasing ductility of the non-
seismic detailed shear walls. Test results shows that all of the CFRP strip configurations
significantly improves the lateral strength, energy dissipation and deformation capacity of the
shear deficient RC walls. The specimen that was strengthened with X-shaped CFRP strips was
failed with premature shear failure. The specimen that was strengthened with horizontal strips
was showed flexural hysteretic behavior and plastic hinge was developed at the wall base.
CFRP strips were controlled shear crack propagation and resulted in improvement of
displacement capacity.

16
7) Various way to strenghten reinforced concrete shear wall

Longmin Jiang , Hongjun Li, , Lei Liu , c , Jindan Zhang , 2014 summerizing the way that can
be done to strengthening the reinforced concrete shear wall. The way are:
• Enlarging section strengthening. This kind of reinforcement is simple, adaptable, and
has proven experience in the design and construction. It can improve the structural load
bearing capacity by enlarging the section of concrete structure, and can be safely
operated. But it has negative effects for construction workers since it needs long time
of wet construction work, and would reduce the clearance of buildings.
• Steel-encasing strengthening. In the steel-encasing strengthening, shaped steels or
steel-plates are externally bonded with concrete by many ways such as latex cement,
epoxy resin injection or welding. This method can greatly improve the compressive
performance and bending property of structural components. It is reliable and easily
operated with less work on site, but a large amount of steels are required, and it will be
obviously affected when used in high temperature with no protection.
• Steel-bonded reinforcement. In steel-bonded reinforcement, steel-plates are bonded on
the surface of components by an adhesive to improve the structural deformability and
load-bearing capacity. It shows to be more rapidly operated, lightweight, compact, and
economical compared with other kinds of strengthening methods. But it required an
ambient temperature of not exceeding 60 degrees and a relative humidity of not more
than 70%, and no chemical corrosivity is necessary
• Steel-encasing strengthening with slotting. In the steel-encasing strengthening with
slotting, it is through the on-site construction to improve the existing ductility of shear
walls. Firstly, open a vertical slit in the walls at the middle-high part of the shear walls
limb, and then wrap steel plates in each separated walls. The encased steel plates can
bind internal concrete of shear walls effectively, and slow down and stop concrete
crack. But its construction technology is complex.
• Carbon fiber reinforcement. Since the tensile strength of carbon fiber material is ten
times higher than that of ordinary steel, carbon fiber fabric can be bonded using high
performance structural adhesive on the surface of component, so as to strengthen the
structure and improve the seismic performance of structural components

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8) Strengthening of reinforced concrete structures with external steel shear walls

From Tarkan Görgülü , Yavuz Selim Tama b, Salih Yilmaz , Hasan Kaplan b , Zeki Ay,
2011. The strengthening of reinforced concrete (RC) structures with external steel shear walls
was investigated in this study. The proposed technique allows the strengthening of in-service
RC structures in parallel to reducing the construction costs and leading to faster and more
workable solutions. The experimental program includes three-dimensional RC models, which
exhibited some of the structural deficiencies commonly encountered in existing RC structures.
The related tests were conducted under the imposed reversed cyclic lateral sway. Accordingly,
performance of the proposed strengthening technique is found to be adequate for improving
the seismic capacity of existing RC structures. Additionally, base shear capacity and stiffness
of the strengthened model were significantly improved. The studies can be conclude that in
addition to improving the performance of the structural system, the proposed strengthening
method offers advantages with respect to construction technique as well as serviceability of the
structures during the construction works. Since the technique is applicable from the outer
sections of the structures, the services and the functions of the structures are not affected to any
significant extent and the construction is completed in a short period of time. Finally, loss of
living spaces, architectural function failures and repair.

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RECOMMEDATION ON FIXING CRACKING AT SHEAR WALL

1) Epoxy injection concrete crack repair

Strong penetration, low viscosity, age, water resistance, and acid and alkaline resistance
are some of epoxy injection concrete crack repair's main characteristics. It doesn't contain
volatile solvents, and when it hardens, it doesn't shrink. In order to prevent premature oxidation
and corrosion of the steel bar, it has exceptional toughness and impact resistance to close the
cracks after curing. This separation of the steel bar and air in the component allows for this.
Putting a connection between the concrete on either side of the crack makes the concrete on
both sides of the crack work together, creating a waterproof and leak-stopping effect.
Application of epoxy injection concrete crack repair: repair of loosening and other defects
of reinforcing glue, FRP anti-corrosion, structural surface coating anti-corrosion, construction,
and concrete bridges, homes, water conservation, pavement, and other projects. For the aim of
reinforcing and fixing cracks in concrete and brick-concrete components, it is appropriate for
pouring into and bonding to the cracks.
Matters needing attention in construction of epoxy injection concrete crack repair are :
• use high quality sealant and potting compound.
• crack surface treatment should be thorough to ensure the tightness of crack closure.
• Grouting nozzles must be arranged at the forks of cracks, and the number of grouting
nozzles for each crack shall not be less than two;
• In the process of fissure grouting, vertical fissures should be grouted from bottom to
top, and horizontal fissures should be grouted from low end to high end.
• When injecting glue from the bottom to the top, pull out the adjacent injection nozzles
above, and when the glue comes out, plug into the injection nozzle, keep the pressure
of the injection machine above 0.4 MPa, so that the glue is fully filled with cracks.

2) FRP composite strengthening

Key characteristics of FRP composite strengthening include: saving space, ease of

construction, lack of site-fixed facilities, easy assurance of construction quality, essentially not
increasing the size or weight of the building, corrosion resistance, good durability, and others.
Wide range of uses for FRP composite strengthening, including the ability to reinforce
wood, steel, and concrete components

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Refferences
1. Marwan T. Shedid ; Wael W. El-Dakhakhni, M.ASCE ; and Robert G. Drysdale, 2010,
Alternative Strategies to Enhance the Seismic Performance of Reinforced Concrete-Block
Shear Wall Systems
2. Donald Anthony Jones, 1996, Performance of bolted wood to concrete connection and
bolted connection in Plywood Shear Walls
3. F. Nateghi-Alahi, M. Khazaei-Poul, 2011, Experimental study of steel plate shear walls
with infill plates strengthened by GFRP laminates
4. S.A.A. Hosseinzadeh a, Mohsen Tehranizadeh, 2014, The wall–frame interaction effect in
steel plate shear wall systems
5. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 2020, Improving the behavior of high performance
steel plate shear walls using Low Yield Point steel
6. Sinan Altin a , Özgür Anil a, Yag˘mur Kopraman a , M. Emin Kara, 2012, Hysteretic
behavior of RC shear walls strengthened with CFRP strips
7. Longmin Jiang , Hongjun Li, , Lei Liu , c , Jindan Zhang , 2014, Research Summary of
Strengthening RC Shear Walls
8. Tarkan Görgülü , Yavuz Selim Tama b, Salih Yilmaz , Hasan Kaplan b , Zeki Ay, 2011,
Strengthening of reinforced concrete structures with external steel shear walls.
9. How to control cracks in shear walls https://www.horseen.com/solution/how-to-control-
cracks-in-shear-walls?page=10

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APPENDIX

MINUTE MEETING 1 BFC 20903 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

Project Title: Shear Walls in Building

Date : 20 May 2022
Location : Whatsapp
Time : 8.00 p.m

Meeting Objective
I ) To distribute project tasks among project members

Meeting Agenda
I ) Each member filled their name on biodata for report
II ) Each member discuss and give their idea about Shear Walls in Building
III ) Giving task for every member group

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MINUTE MEETING 2 BFC 20903 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

Project Title: Shear Walls in Building

Date : 2 June 2022
Location : Google Meet
Time : 10:30 p.m

Meeting Objective
I ) To suggest the suitable techniques for the project topic
II ) To make sure all members can submit before the deadline.

Meeting Agenda
I ) Every member to makesure that their part must be synchronized with each other
II ) All the completed works submitted to assigned member to compile

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