Pakistan History Compiled Notes

Pakistan History
Notes
Muslim Reformers
Shah Waliullah (1703-1762):
Who:
● Lifespan: 1703-1762
● His real name was Qutb-ud-Din Ahmed
○ He was given the title Shah Waliullah due to his piety
● His family was extremely religious and pious:
○ His father, Shah Abdul Rahim, was in Aurangzeb’s court and was involved in the
writing of the Fatwa-e-Alamgiri. He also founded the Madrassa Rahimiya
○ His mother, Tallal Arshad, was a renowned Muslim scholar
● After the death of his father, he started teaching at the Madrassa in 1718
● In 1724, he went to Arabia for Hajj
○ He stayed there for 8 years as he was studying under Shaikh Abhu Tahir
● He wrote 51 books on Islam, the most famous being Hujjat Allah al-Baligha and
Izalat-Ahkfa
Motivations and Beliefs:

● He recognized the threat posed to the Mughal Empire by Marathas and other
non-Muslim invadors/rebellers and the need for foreign aid to combat this
○ His reaction to this is seen in the letters he wrote to Ahmed Shah Abdali
● Muslims were unable to understand the Quran and, by extension, Islam and its practices
○ This led to the decline of Muslims and their culture, which he tried to combat by
making the Quran publically accessible
● Islam was divided by sect, partially due to the large influence of biased scholars in the
absence of the Quran.
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○ Instead of dividing them into sects, Muslims should instead focus only on the
basic tents of Islam for unity, he believed
○ His efforts to promote unity can be seen in his books, which provided a definition
of Islam and the Rashidun Caliphates
● All political, social, and economic behaviour should be based on Islamic principles of
social and economic justice. However, it was not - Muslims had instead indulged in
immoral social evils, disregarding their religion
○ This can be seen in his promotion of social justice and appreciation of labourers
● He was the first one to promote the belief that, in order to correct society, first, the
populace must correct their own morals for meaningful social change
○ In his opinion, that would automatically lead to the correction of the emperors
Contributions:
Translation of the Quran:
● He translated the Quran into Persian
○ His sons later translated it into Urdu
● Due to this, it was now accessible to the whole population whereas earlier only
educated scholars who knew Arabic could read it
○ Thus, everyone could know of the basic commandments and implement them
into their everyday lives
As a Social Figure:
Muslims were in a shattered state and needed someone to unify them. He was that leader
● He wrote 51 books (23 in Arabic and the rest in Persian) interpreting Islam
○ This was done in an attempt to provide a unifying interpretation of Islam and the
caliphs to oppose sectarianism and unite the populace
■ The unanimously acceptable definition of Caliphs was provided in his
book Izalat al-Khafa' an Khilafat al-Khulafa
● He ensured that he was a role model for Muslims by deepening his knowledge of the
Quran, Hadith, Fiqah, and Tasawut from a young age
● He promoted:
○ Social justice and equity (adal and tawazan). especially for peasants
○ Appreciation of craftsmen for their contribution to the economy
■ In order to protect ehm and labourers from poverty, he promoted better
wages and the distribution of wealth (true comrade)

Opposition to Marathas:
● He rallied forces against the Marathas to protect Muslim sovereignty
○ He wrote to all Muslim nobles
○ He persuaded Ahmed Shah Abdali, the ruler of Afghanistan, to intervene
● Due to this, the Marathas were defeated at the Battle of Panipat
Importance:
Accessibility:
● He made Islamic works accessible to a large chunk of the population by translating the
Quran into Persian
○ Thus, this helped eradicate the non-Muslim policies as Muslims had direct access
to the book which affirmed or denied them
● His books also provided the common people an interpretation of Islam and its principles
Inspiration for the Future:

● He left behind institution and books which spread his message even after death:
○ The 52 books he wrote
○ The Madrassa Rahimya, which became a central institute of Islamic knowledge
and taught people such as Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi
Identification of Problems:
● He realized and promoted the rhetoric that the Mughal empire was declining due to a
neglect of Islam
○ This could be seen in the administrative deficiencies caused by carefree rulers
and the ambitious populace who exploited others to take advantage of this
● He realized how sectarianism was destroying the unity of Muslims and took steps to
provide a central interpretation of Islam
Promotion and Protection of Unity:

● He worked to oppose sectarianism, writing books providing interpretations of the caliphs
what were acceptable to all
● He united the community against the Marathas by emphasizing the importance of Jihad
○ This prevented the collapse of the Mughal Empire to this opposing force
Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi (1786-1831):

Who:
● He was born in Rai Bareli in 1786
○ He died in 1831 during the Battle of Balakot
● He moved to Delhi in 1806, where he enrolled in the Madrassa Rahimya
○ Here, he studied under Shah Waliullah’s sons for two years
● In 1811, he joined Amir Khan’s forces, where he learned to use European weaponry
● In 1821, he left for Hajj
The Jihad Movement:

● At the time, Punjab and NWF were ruled by Ranjit Singh.
○ As Muslims were oppressed there and Azaan was banned, India was declared
Dar-ul-Harb
○ These very places were toured to enlist Mujahideen
● In 1826, he established his headquarters near Peshawar (at Nowshera) and sent an
ultimatum to Ranjit Singh, which was ignored.
○ Due to this, in the same year, he defeated Ranjit Singh in Ankora
● In 1827, he was made the Imam of his army
○ This was done in order to unite his army and combat the Sikh saying that the
army was un-Islamic
● In 1830, he fought his second battle at Hazro (and won), following which he captured
Peshawar
○ He then declared Peshawar an Islamic state and started taking Zakat
● While preparing to attack Attock, he encountered 35,000 Sikhs near Akora
○ While battling them, one of his generals, Yar Muhammad Khan, betrayed him,
due to which he had to move his headquarters to Panjtrar
● Due to campaigns by Yar Muhammad against him, he moved his capital to Balakot to
avoid Muslim infighting
○ There, he was betrayed by local leaders, who showed the Sikh forces a path
through the mountains
○ This led to the Battle of Balakot (1831), during which Barelvi and 600 mujahideen
perished
Reasons for Failure of the Jihad Movement:

● The army had a lack of funds, weapons, training, and experience
○ This was made worse by the fact that most soldiers were farmers, scholars,
artisans, or blacksmiths with no military background
● Lack of unity:
○ His army was extremely diverse, due to which there was a lot of infighting

○ This was made worse by the Sikh attempts to instigate them by suggesting that
they were un-Islamic
● The ‘Islamic’ System he implemented dissatisfied the populace who lived under it:
○ Under it, Zakat and Ushr were spent on the movement instead of the poor
○ Harsh and unnecessary punishments were implemented on little crimes
● The two betrayals he faced caused military defeats

● The freedom of Muslims could only come as a result of armed struggle against the
foreign and non-Muslim forces who were oppressing them
○ His Jihad is proof of this
● People should reject the quest of worldly wealth and instead unite for the cause of
improving the moral and intellectual lives of Muslims in the face of non-Muslim
oppression
○ In order to do this, he gathered an army of 80,000 from various cultural
backgrounds
● Once Muslims were free from foreign rule, Islam and its followers could be rejuvenated
and purified of the non-Muslim beliefs that had crept into it
○ This can be seen in his liberation of some areas of Punjab and NWFP from the
tyrannous Ranjit Singh
Importance:
● He promoted unity by gathering a force for a common cause
○ This willingness of scholars to die for this cause also inspired those who were not
able to join it
● He freed oppressed Muslim states
○ The defeat of Ranjit Singh in the Battle of Ankora in 1826 is an example of this
● His movement was unprecedented - it was the first time Muslim forces in India had ever
attempted to free themselves for foreign oppressors
○ Due to this, it was an inspiration for all Muslims and is even viewed by some as
the predecessor of the Pakistan Movement
● It was an inspiration for future movements also because of how pure it was - it was not
led in order to give a particular person power but rather to provide religious and social
freedom to everyone

Haji Shariat Ullah (1781-1840):
Who:
● He was born in 1781 in Faridpur in East Bengal
● His family was poor, with his father being a farmer
● In 1799, he went to Arabia on pilgrimage, where he stayed for 19 years
● He started the Faraizi movement
The Faraizi Movement:

● Seeing the low position of Muslims in the subcontinent and the oppression by Hindu
landlords, the Faraizi movement was started for the reasons listed below
○ It focused on the most depressed section of Muslims in India - the farmers and
artisans
○ The people who joined his movement were known as Farauz
● People were told:
○ To discard un-Islamic practices and traditions
○ Fulfill the tenets of Islam to their fullest
○ Not to sing and dance at wedding ceremonies
○ Seek forgiveness from Allah
● Due to its popularity, the Hindu landlords got alarmed
○ They drove him out of Bengal and imprisoned him ni Nawabganj
○ He died in 1940

● He recognized that Muslims had strayed from Islam due to the entrance of non-Muslim
traditions and superstitions
○ These needed to be purged in order to return to fulfil one's faraiz properly
○ It is important to pray for past sins and follow other basic commandments
○ In order to revive Islam, emphasis was placed on praying for sins and learning
from them, leading a righteous life free of past mistakes in the future
○ He believed that the low position of Muslims and the economic oppression by
Hindu landlords was due to the lack of Islam from their everyday lives
● He wanted to restore the lost pride of Muslims by politically reviving them
○ While once, the Mughal empire and the status of Muslims had stood tall and
proud, they were now hardly able or willing to follow their basic commandments
● He wanted to free Muslims from Hindu and British zamindars
○ They were economically subjugated farmers who hardy had any rights

Importance:
● He united the Bengali people, increasing their political strength
○ Now that they were aware of their rights, they could fight for their social and
political status more effectively
● He encouraged Muslims at a time when they were demoralized and downtrodden
● He brought about a spiritual revival in East Bengali Islam
○ Impure practices were removed
Minor Characters:
Mian Mohsin-ud-Din Ahmed (1819-1860):
● He was Haji Shariatullah’s son
● He continued to work on the position of Muslims in East Bengal by:
○ Dividing the area into circles which had their own Khalifas who were responsible
for the social and spiritual welfare of the people
○ He, alongside the peasants, opposed the Hindu and British landlords’ excessive
taxes
○ When his opposition to taxes faced backlash, he took an even harsher line by
threatening Jihad
Titu Mir (1782-1831):

● His real name was Syed Mir Nisar Ali
● In 1822, he went on pilgrimage to Makkah
● When he returned in 1827, he decided to become a Bengali freedom fighter against the
oppression of the Hindu and British landlords
● He lead the Tariqah-i-Muhammadiya, a religious reform movement
● He declared himself king and gathered at least 5000 men
○ They BUILT A BAMBOO FORT at Narkelbaria in 1831 and fought against
the British forces sent to poose it (400 men total)
○ They were finally defeated later in a 5 days’ battle against British cavalry and
cannons
Potential Questions:
Four Marks:
Who was Shah Waliullah/what did he do:

Who was Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi/what did he do:
Who was Haji Shariat Ullah/what did he do:
Who was Mian Mohsin-ud-din-Ahmed:
Who was Titu Mir:
Seven Marks:
Why did Shah Waliullah attempt to revive Islam:
Why did Barelvi start the Jihad Movement:
Why did Haji Shariat Ullah start the Faraizi Movement:
What was the Importance of Shah Waliullah/why did they have such a major impact:
What was the importance of Barelvi/his Jihad Movement/why did he have such a major impact:
What was the importance of Haji Shariatullah/his Faraizi Movement/why did he have such a
major impact:
Ten/Fourteen Marks:
Was ____________ more important for the revival of Islam in the subcontinent during the 17th
and 18th century?

Aurangzeb and the Mughal
Empire
Aurangzeb (1618-1707) and His Policies:
Who:
Four Mark Question:
● Lifespan: 1618-1707
● He assumed power as the Mughal Emperor in 1658 after defeating Dara Shiko and
imprisoning his father
● He was deeply religious, appointing a council of theologians to produce the
Fatwa-al-Alamgiriya, a book of Islamic law
● He ruled for nearly fifty years, dying in 1707
Rise to Power:
● In 1657, his father fell ill. Seeing an opportunity to seize power, a struggle arose between
his four sons
○ While Shah Shuja and Murad had coins of themselves minted, Dara Shiko was the
most popular
● By 1658, his father recovered and told them not to fight
● Aurangzeb responded by defeating the imperial army (led by Dara Shiko) and
imprisoning his father, thus taking power
Policies:
Intolerance to Hindus:
● Persecuted Hindus of North India
● Added Jizya tax
● He destroyed Hindu temples such as those in Khandela, Udaipur, Chittor, and Jodhpur as
they were "associated with imperial enemies"
○ https://sci-hub.se/https://doi.org/10.1093/jis/11.3.283
○ On the other hand, he did finance the building of a few
● Semi-autonomous Hindu states such as that of the Rajputs were crushed
Constant Warfare:
● Instead of negotiation with rebels, preferred to crush them
○ This led to him being away from the capital from extremely lengthy periods of
time. For example, the Marathan war occupied his attention for 26 years.
● He expanded the empire to the north, fighting a tough campaign against the Pathan
tribes in the NWF.
○ Due to this, the empire reached its peak size during his time
Austere Measures:
● Censors were introduced to regulate public morals
● The consumption of alcohol was banned
● Singing and dancing at court was banned
● The maximum length of beards was established
Economic:
● Taxation was very high due to:
○ The expensive military campaigns he carried out
○ His building of extravagant palaces such as the Pearl Mosque
● On top of this, Hindus had to pay Jizya tax in replacement for military service
● Traders, however, were benefited by the abolition of some local taxes
● The mansabdari system was introduced, under which nobles were given the right to
collect taxes and relay them back to the emperor
○ They were required to keep armies
Negative Impacts of His Policies:

● It is thought by many that he sowed the seeds of downfall in the Mughal Empire due to
the:
Constant Warfare:
● These diverted his attention causing him to be away from the capital for years at the end
during a time when the communication technology was extremely limited
○ Thus, he found out about rebellions and important events quite some while after
they occurred
○ Furthermore, it also took time for his orders to reach the capital, placing strain
on the administration
● The weapons and military provisions required also placed a strain on the treasury
Bad Economic Measures:

● Taxes increased due to the:

○ Constant warfare
○ Lavish spending on unnecessary buildings such as the Pearl Mosque
● Dissatisfied both Hindu and Muslim citizens alike
○ Hindus had it even worse due to the Jizya tax
Religious Intolerance:
● Hindus were not treated very kindly:
○ Their temples were destroyed
○ Jizya tax was implemented
○ Semi-autonomous Hindu states such as that of the Rajputs’ were crushed
● Due to this, he lost the support of a large chunk of his population, the Hindus
○ This divided his empire, making it harder to govern
Loss of Rajput Support:

● The Rajputs were a semi-autonomous state in the Mughal empire:
○ Its members were extremely brave warriors with high positions in the army
○ They had political sway, as seen by the fact that Aurangzeb married their
daughter
● In order to prevent them from usurping him, their status as a semi-autonomous state
was removed
○ This weakened his military as he no longer had the support of these brave
warriors
○ It also led to rebellions by these dissatisfied and powerful people
Vastness of the Empire:

● During his time, the empire reached its peak size. This had some drawbacks, namely:
○ His military had to be spread sparsely, weakening it
○ Resources were strained as they had to be shared across the empire
● Communication between different parts of the empire was also difficult due to the fact
that most news was carried by slow horsemen in comparison to the instant
communication technology we have today
○ Thus, it took quite some time for the administrators to find out about important
events such as rebellions
○ It was made even worse by the fact that Aurangzeb was often away from the
capital

Austere Reforms:
● In the intention of working on the morals of the populace:
○ Censors were introduced
○ Forms of entertainment such as alcohol and dancing in court were banned
● These were extremely unpopular in the citizens of the empire, leading to dissatisfaction
The Decline of the Mughal Empire:

Succession:
Weak Successors:
● Following Aurangzeb, most of the emperors cared more to pleasure their own selves
than lead the nation
○ Their extravagant lifestyles (such as open wallets for involvement with money,
music, art, and alcohol) also placed a strain on the economy
○ They did not exhibit authority or confidence either, making rebellions more likely
● They also left most of the administration to the ministers and nobility, who, as we shall
see below, presented quite a problem
Lack of a Law of Succession:

● There was no definitive law of succession in the empire due to which each death of an
emperor was followed by wars and infighting in the quest for their next leader
○ This was terrible for the stability of the empire in an already uncertain time
○ These were extremely costly and led to the deaths of many princes and soldiers
● Due to this, Aurangzeb tried to avoid it by dividing the empire amongst his three sons
○ This was unsuccessful, however - wars broke out amongst them to prove their
superiority
Administrative:
Vastness of the Empire:
● Due to the size of the empire, it was difficult to communicate with the limited
technology they had.
○ Thus, it took months for orders to be relayed
○ It also took time for vital information, such as that of rebellions, to reach the
emperor’s ears
Corruption and Oligarchies:

● The power of the nobility grew due to their:
○ Increasing wealth, political sway, and power-hungriness
○ The weak rules giving more and more of their power to them
○ The absence of the emperor due to the constant warfare
● It became extremely difficult for the emperor to control them - in fact, sometimes they
were even assassinated by power-hungry nobles.
○ Some nawabs even broke away from the Mughal empire, such as those in Oudh
and Bengal
○ Some zamindars also had a lot of wealth and private armies alongside a hunger
for power
● During Aurangzeb’s time, the mansabdari system was introduced.
○ However, due to the lack of a strong leader to control them, they mansabdars
grew more and more corrupt, reducing the funds of the emperor
■ Powerful princes also refused to pay taxes
○ These mansabdars were also allowed to keep their own armies, which they often
used to advance their own power
○ The common people were also dissatisfied at this unfair system
Economic Problems:
● Government spending and taxation had to increase due to:
○ The failure of the mansabdari system
○ The lavish spending of the emperors
○ The military expenses due to the constant warfare against external and internal
forces
○ The costly wars of succession
● Again, this made the people even more discontent
Aurangzeb’s Policies:
● See Above
● Mention his intolerance to Hindus, lavish spending, and constant warfare
Military:
Declining Military Expertise:
● Due to the empire’s initial success, the Mughals became overconfident in their military
strength and stopped investing in it.
○ Due to this, they were more susceptible to foreign invasions which could
otherwise have easily been stopped
● Soldiers were also untrained and inexperienced due to:
○ The demise of experienced soldiers in the constant wars

○ The lack of time to train high-quality soldiers due to the pressing need for them.
● A naval force was not introduced, either
Foreign Invasions and Rebellions:

● The multiple invaders (listed below), were terrible for the empire:
○ They were a strain on the economy in two ways:
■ They plundered cities, taking home riches
■ They instigated military spending
○ They also undermined the control of the emperor, becoming so powerful that it
was not the Mughals but only each other that prevented them from expanding
further
■ It was the Afghans which prevented further Maratha expansion during
the Battle of Panipat in 1761
● Persians:
○ Nadir Shah, the leader of the Persian army, invaded the Mughal empire in 1738
○ While he did not take control of it, he did exploit it for spoils of war (even taking
the glorious Peacock Throne), straining the economy further
○ The weakness of the empire was also highlighted for future invaders
● Marathas:
○ The Marathas, guerilla fighters who diverted much of Aurangzeb’s attention,
became quite a problem in the south
○ In 1737, they defeated the Mughal army and plundered Delhi
○ By 1760, they were the most popular force in India
● Afghans:
○ In 1747, Ahmed Shah Durrani, an Afghani general, invaded Kabul, Peshawar and
Lahore
○ By 1756, he controlled Punjab, Kashmir, and Multan
● As mentioned before, some nobles also rebelled and broke away from the empire
The Arrival of the British:

● The British were easily able to take advantage of Mughal weaknesses due to their
military expertise
○ They were backed by one of the leading powers in the world at the time who
were able and willing to invest in it due to India’s substantial wealth
● Thus, they were the last straw for the empire, rolling over the weakened Mughals and
declaring the land their own

Potential Questions:
Four Mark:
Who Was Aurangzeb?:
● See above
Who was Nadir Shah:

● Nadir Shah was the Shah of Iran and leader of the Persian army
● He invaded the Mughal Empire in 1738
● He defeated Muhammad Shah at Karnal in 1739
● He entered Delhi in 1739, looting the city and royal treasury, even taking the Peacock
Throne
Who was Ahmed Shah Durrani:

● He was a general of the Afghani army
● In 1747, he attacked Kabul, Lahore, and Peshawar
● By 1749, he took control of Punjab; in 1756, he took control of Kashmir and Mulat
● He defeated the Marathas at Panipat in 1761
What were the Marathas:

● Marathas were skilled guerilla warriors in the South of India
● Aurangzeb fought a war against them for 25 years
● In 1737, they plundered Delhi
● By 1760, they were the most powerful force in India
Seven Marks:
How was Aurangzeb Responsible for the Decline of the Mughal Empire:
● See above
10/14 Marks:
Was _____ the most important reason for the decline of the Mughal Empire after Aurangzeb:
● See heading ‘The Decline of the Mughal Empire’

British Expansion in India
The East India Company:
What:
● The East India company was a private group of merchants in Britain
○ They were backed by Queen Elizabeth, who gave them permission to set up shop
in 1600
● The East India Company entered India during their third voyage in 1608, docking at Surat
in Gujrat
● In 1612, the Mughal Emperor, Jahangir, allowed them to set up a factory and trading
port in Surat
○ In 1615, Sir Thomas Roe went to the court of Jahangir, and secured permission
for the company to set up more factories. Thus, factories were set up at
Ahmedabad, Broach and Agra by 1623
● By the end of the 17th Century, the East India Company claimed full sovereignty over
Madras
Why the EIC Entered India:

Economic Reasons:
● Trade:
○ Import to Britain:
■ India had spices which were in high demand in Europe as preservatives
and for taste
■ Indian products such as cotton and silk textiles were highly sought after.
For example, Mughal pajamas were extremely comfortable.
■ Raw materials were needed for industrialization
○ Export to India:
■ Cheap, low quality industrial goods which could easily be mass produced
could and sold to the large market in India for above market price.
● However, it would still be cheaper than the hand-made goods in
India such as their woven cotton textile
● Fame of Indian Wealth:
○ India was known as the ‘Golden Sparrow’ due to the enormous wealth of the
British
○ The Mughal Emperors possessed many of the world’s largest and most famous
diamonds, including the Koh-i-Noor
■ This, and other expensive gemstones, decorated the Peacock Throne
upon which the emperor sat, one of the most evident symbols of Mughal
wealth
○ Around 1700AD, the Indian GDP accounted for ~25% of the world’s wealth
● Alternative to Indonesia:
○ The Dutch Empire had largely driven India out from the spice-rich Indonesia,
where they had established a monopoly
■ After the Amboina Massacre in 1623, during which the Dutch executed
British, Japanese, and Portugese traders, India was largely excluded from
trade in the area
○ Initially, the British had tried their luck in Sumatra, but, being unsuccessful there,
they turned their eyes towards the Mughal Empire
Political Reasons:
Initially, the British goals in the area were largely economic. However, seeing the declining
Mughal Empire, they started to get more politically involved, too.
● The Decline of the Mughal Empire:
○ After Aurangzeb, his successors were increasingly ineffective, spending more and
more time in leisure and less in actual ruling
○ Due to this, power was centralized, with many more rebellions. The economy
declined, too
○ This made India much more prone to invaders such as Ahmed Shah Abdali. This
power vacuum attracted Britain, due to which they used their superior
technology to annexe the area
● Competition with other colonizers:
○ At the time, there were many European powers involved in the area such as the
British, Dutch, French, and Portuguese
○ Because trade was so profitable, the British wanted to gain a monopoly in the
area in order to get an edge over their European competitors
○ Due to this, they kicked the Portuguese (who initially had a very strong influence
in Jahangir’s Court), French, and Dutch out of the Indian spice trade
● Strategic Importance of India:
○ India had year-round warm water ports which could be used as routes to the rest
of Asia and establish regional influence in the area
○ It could be used as to buffer Russia from having access to the warm-water
Arabian Sea
● Colonialism:

○ The British, by making a new colony, wanted access to vast land and suitable
climate for cultivation of crops, which they would use the cheap Indian labour to
take advantage of
○ The British thought their culture superior and wanted to spread Christianity in
the area
Bengal:
Black Hole Tragedy
● In 1756, the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud Daulah, was convinced by the French to attack
the EIC base in Calcutta.
○ This was done as the British wouldn’t stop fortifying the city due to the Seven
Years War, a global conflict fought between Britain (and its allies) and France (and
its allies)
● Once he did so, he trapped all British POWs in a small, airtight room overnight.
○ Most of them died.
● This was known as the Black Hole Tragedy
Battle of Plassey:
● In 1757, Robert Clive arrived with a force of ~3000 EIC soldiers, and fought with the
Bengalis in the Battle of Plassey
○ The Nawab was aided by some French troops
● On 23rd June, at ~8:00, the battle began
○ After 3 hours, there was little progress. However, during rain, Nawab
Siraj-ud-Daulah’s gunpowder was drenched, due to which his artillery was
rendered ineffective
■ The British were not affected since they had protected their artillery with
tarp
○ Mir Mardan Khan, the leader of the cavalry, thinking that the British Army’s
artillery had been rendered ineffective, too, decided to charge. However, he was
killed and his men driven back
○ Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah then pleaded to Mir Jafar to help him, who promised his
services but immediately sent a message to Clive to attack
■ Furthermore, throughout the fight, he and his batallion lingered, not
participating in the fight
● Largely due to the conspiracy of Mir Jafar and others in Nawab’s court, the British
managed to retake the area

○ The Nawab fled but was later captured by Mir Jafar’s brother and executed by his
son
● Mir Jafar was placed as the Nawab of Bengal
○ They exploited Bengal and forced him to give them many ‘gifts’
○ They caused the Great Bengali Famine of 1770. This forced the British to
intervene
Battle of Buxar:
● In 1764, Mir Jafar’s son, the Nawab of Oudh and Shah Alam II rose together to try to
defeat the British
○ This battle was called the Battle of Buxar. The British army was led by Hector
Munro
● Although they outnumbered the British (~40,000 to 7,072) they were still not able to win
○ Shah Alam's army was the first to surrender
● As a result, the EIC increased their influence on Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Oudh
○ Due to this, British came under virtual control of East India
Robert Clive:
● He was vital in the establishment of the British in India, winning:
○ The Battle of Arcot, which gave British control of the Carnatics
○ The Battle of Plassey (and later Buxar) which gave the British control of Bengal,
Bihar, Orissa, and Oudh
○ The Battle of Pondicherry, which gave him control of the French port at
Pondicherry
● He was made the Governor of Bengal after the Battle of Plassey
○ However, an investigation into his behaviour resulted in the realization that he
had ‘plundered India’, following which he was removed
● The disgrace of being sacked, coupled with his opium addiction, caused him to commit
suicide in 1773
Titu Mir:
● He was a Bengali freedom fighter who Built a bamboo fort in Bengal

British Government and the EIC:
Why the British Government took control of the EIC:
Beneficial Trade:
● 10% of British revenue came from India
○ India’s huge population would provide them with a huge market for British
goods. They could also increase the raw materials coming from India to power
their factories.
● Seeing this, the British government was extremely attracted to direct control of India.
Why take a slice of the income when you could take the whole pie chart?
● “What is England now? – A sink of Indian wealth, filled by nabobs and emptied by
Maccaronis! A senate sold and despised! A country overrun by horse-races! A gaming,
robbing, wrangling, railing nation without principles, genius, character or allies.” Horace
Walpole, a British Parliamentarian, 1773
Strategic Importance of India:

● They wanted to protect it from Soviet Expansion
● They wanted to colonise it due to the vast irrigated lands available there and the
population to which Christianity could be spread to
● Other political reasons for the EIC’s involvement in India can also be mentioned
Mismanagement of India by the Eic:

● Corruption
○ The EIC had special slips that exempt them from taxes. They used to sell these to
local merchants
○ They traded prohibited goods
○ While this isn’t really a point, it is also interesting to note that they had given
massive bribes to the British Parliament
● Great Bengal Famine 1770
○ The EIC forced farmers to grow cash crops
○ There was an untimely drought
○ This lead to an immense food shortage
○ ⅓ of Bengal died
○ This led to massive shortfalls in land revenue, with the EIC being left with debts
of £1.5m and a bill of £1m unpaid tax owed to the Crown. Due to this, they asked
the British Government to bail them out in 1773

Pitt’s India Act:
Regulating Act of 1773:
● In 1773, the British government passed an Act of Parliament which required the EIC to
provide good government to stop the situation that resulted in the famine
In 1784, the British government passed the Indian Act (also called the Pitt's India Act) and took
direct control of Indian possessions. While the EIC still continued to trade, it lost most of its
administrative powers
Terms:
● The directors were left in control of commerce and as political executants
● A Board of Control was set up, the President of which was the virtual minister of India
○ The dispatches to India by the directors could be vetoed, altered, and dictated by
the board
○ It had 6 members - Secretary of State (Board President), Chancellor of the
Exchequer, and Four Privy Councillors
○ This essentially subjugated the private directors to the British government
● There was to be a parliamentary inquiry before each 20-year renewal of the company’s
charter
● Civil and military officers were to disclose all their property in Britain and India within
two months of their entry into the company
● The Governor-General’s was appointed and their council’s strength was reduced to three
members.
○ One of the three would be the Commander-in-Chief of the British Crown’s army
in India.
○ The Governor General was given more power in matters of war, revenue, and
diplomacy. They were given control of three presidencies
○ However, due to the haziness between the company’s and government’s powers,
the Governor was forced to make many sporadic decisions in favour of one or the
other.
■ Due to this, the act was considered a failure
● The governors of Bombay and Madras were also deprived of their independence
○ However, it was said that further conquest was not supported. This was later
changed with the rise of Napoleon
● Source:
○ https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-Company-Bahadur#ref486099
○ https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/ncert-notes-pitts-india-act-1784/

Other Measures:
● A police force and legal system were set up on British lines
● A professional civil service was introduced in which Indians were not allowed to apply
Mysore Wars:
Personalities:
Haider Ali:
● He was born in 1722 and died in 1782
● Due to his military prowess, which he continuously proved in battles such as the Carnatic
Wars and the Capturing of Bangalore (1758), he rose up the ranks of the army, garnering
more and more troops
○ Eventually, in 1759, he was awarded the title ‘Nawab of Mysore’ due to his
military achievements
● He was exiled from Saringapatam by Khande Rao
○ He rallied an army, which he used to surround Saringapatam and defeat Khande
Rao
○ He declared himself ruler of Mysore and eventually Sultan
● He upgrading Mysore’s military, and expanding south, fighting the Marathas
○ He was also the prime source of opposition to the British
Tipu Sultan:
● Tipu Sultan (1750-1799) was Haider Ali’s son and succeeded him as the ruler of Mysore
● Due to his military valour, he was known as the ‘Tiger of Mysore’
● He reformed Mysore’s administration, pioneering rocket artillery and introducing new
coins, calendars, and revenue-collecting systems
● He led the Mysore army after his father died in the Second Mysore War
First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-9):

Marathas:
● Seeing Haider Ali’s expansion, the Marathas invaded his lands.
● However, he convinced them to return all territory by signing a treaty under which he
paid them substantial sums of money
Nizam of Hyderabad:
● Before the war, the Nizam of Hyderabad had entered an alliance with the British

○ Due to financial necessity under which he gave up the Northern Sirkars in return
for some British troops
● He allied with the Marathas to invade Mysore
○ However, by the time he did so, a Maratha-Mysore peace treaty had already
been achieved.
○ Instead, the Nizam of Hyderabad allied with Haider Ali to invade the Carnatics
(the Eastern Coast), where Haider Ali had a long-standing conflict with Nawab
Muhammad Ali of the Carnatics
Conflict and Resolution

● A Mysorean force allied with the Nizam of Hyderabad entered the Carnatics
○ However, upon several defeats, Nizam of Hyderabad abandoned Haider Ali and
formed an alliance with the British again in 1768
● Due to some British expansion in Malabar (Mysore’s Western Coast), Haider Ali
retreated from the Carnatics to deal with them
○ Upon dealing with them, he returned to the Carnatics
● He marched all the way to Madras before negotiating a peace treaty (the Treaty of
Madras) with the British in 1769
○ All captured territories were returned and they promised to aid each other
during war
■ This was never followed, however
Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-4):

Marathas:
● After the First Mysore War, the Marathas again invaded Mysore
○ This time, he asked for British help, but they procrastinated giving it as:
■ They were also in an alliance with Nizam Muhammad Ali (of the
Carnatics), who, as discussed before, had a long-time conflict with Haider
Ali
■ The Marathas extended to them for help, too
○ Eventually, they didn’t send any aid. This breach of the treaty insulted Haider Ali,
who joined hands with the French
● After the Marathan Peshwa (leader) Madhavrao’s death, his brother, Naryanrao,
succeeded him in 1772. He was overthrown by Raghunauth Rao, who made a treaty with
Haider Ali
○ Some territory was traded for money

Britain and France:
● In order to seek vengeance for their defeat in the Seven Year’s War, the French aided the
American Revolution.
○ This enraged the British, who tried to punish them severely by expelling them
from India
● They occupied Mahe, which was under Hyderabad’s jurisdiction
○ This port was very important to him as it allowed him to access the outside world
Conflict and Resolution:

● Haider Ali formed an alliance with the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1980 in
response to the capture of Mahe
● After some rapid initial successes, he captured the whole of the Carnatics
● However, the tides began to turn after:
○ The Nizam of Hyderabad again was convinced to join the British
○ More forces were sent by Warren Hastings, some of them led Sir Eyre Coote
○ Haider Ali died in 1782
● The war was continued by his son, Tipu Sultan
● Eventually, a peace treaty was reached under which all captured territories were
returned according to the Mangalore Treaty in 1874
Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-2):

Build-up:
● Relations between France and Britain in Europe deteriorated substantially
● Tipu Sultan formed an alliance with France, who helped him improve his military
● The British improved their relations with the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas
● Lord Cornwallis was appointed Governor-General of India
○ He issued a list of British allies which did not include Tipu Sultan

● Tipu Sultan declared war on Travancore (an ally of the British) in 1789
○ In 1790, the British retaliated, declaring war on Tipu
● Tipu Sultan’s army was heavily defeated, with the British advancing all the way to
Seringapatam
○ There, the Treaty of Seringapatam was signed in 1972, under which Tipu gave up
half his empire and paid heavy indemnities

Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1798-9):
Build-up:
● Lord Wellesely, who was appointed as Governor-General of India, was anxious to defeat
Tipu for once and for all
○ He formed an alliance with the Nizam of Hyderabad again
○ The Marathas’s neutrality was assured after they were told that they would be
given half of the empire when Mysore was annexed
● Tipu Sultan formed an alliance with Napoleon of France
○ The British saw this as an act of aggression and used it as an excuse to

● In 1799, Mysore was attacked from four sides and quickly forced to retreat to their
capital, Seringapatam
● Seringapatam was defeated during the Battle of Seringapatam, during which Tipus
Sultan was killed
○ This defeat was aided by the betrayal of his general, Mir Sadiq
● The land was divided between the British and the Marathans/Hyderabad (both of which
were in subsidiary alliances with the British
○ This led to the British controlling Southern and Eastern India completely
Further Expansion and Rise of British Authority:

● In 1799, the Nawab of Oudh was defeated and large amounts of his territory taken by
the British
Marathas:
The Marathas were quite a formidable force in India who controlled Delhi, the capital of the
Mughal Empire
First Anglo-Maratha War:

● As mentioned before, Raghunatrao overthrew his nephew to become peshwa
○ However, Narayanrao’s wife gave birth to Madhavrao. Nana Phadnavis and 11
other Maratha chiefs attempted to install him as the Peshwa
● Under the treaty of Surat, the British agreed to help Raghunatrao retain his status in
return for some land and collecting the revenue of some areas
○ When Nana Phandnavis allied with the French and gave them a port, the British
sent forces which were defeated

■ The British feared that the French might overthrow the Marathas and use
the Mughal Emperor’s power to promote french
● After this, a new treaty was made under which the British gave Raghunatrao pension but
refused to help him in his cause
○ The Bombay Presidency, however, took offence to this, and gave Raghunatrao
shelter while planning an attack to reinstate him
● The British sent a force to aid the Bombay Presidency, but this arrived too late
○ It then had some conflicts with the Marathas, following which the Treaty of
Salbai was signed since the Marathans were too powerful to be defeated at the
current time
Subsidiary Alliances:
● In 1782, the first Marathan war was ended by signing a subsidiary alliance with the
Marathas.
○ A subsidiary alliance is an alliance that basically meant giving up one's
sovereignty to the British.
○ They would have to give them land and money in return for protection.
● The rulers who did not sign it were most likely to be defeated in battle; the rest became
British puppets.
Second Anglo-Marathan War:

● Ragunratho died in 1783 for unknown reasons. The British continued to support his son,
Baji Rao
● In 1802, Baji Rao was defeated by Holkar, ruler of Indor (a part of the Maratha empire)
○ https://historyunderyourfeet.wordpress.com/2020/11/24/holkars-of-indore-yash
want-rao-holkar/
○ Baji Rao fled to India and signed the Treaty of Bassein, under which he gave up
land for an army force
■ This disgusted many Marathan Chieftains
● The Sindhia and Bonsale clans fought against the British and were decisively beaten,
losing even Delhi (mentioned below)
○ Holkar, too, joined in
○ Eventually, they were all defeated in various battles, causing each of them to sign
a treaty for peace in exchange for the loss of land

Annexation of Delhi 1803:
● In this year, during the second Maratha War the British entered Delhi virtually
unopposed and took the emperor, Shah Alam II, into ‘protective custody’
○ To do so, they had to defeat the Sindhia forces of the Martha Empire
● Thus, the Mughal Emperor lost all of his military power and was now emperor in name
only
○ This assuaged the British fears that the French would use his power for their own
interest
● Following this, they started to take more interest in the administrative affairs of India, as
discussed below
Third Anglo-Mysore War:

● Background:
○ After the Second Anglo-Mysore War, the Marathas were on a steady decline
■ New military techniques were implemented half-heartedly
■ The death of Yashwantrao Holkar, ruler of the Holkars mentioned
previously, led to quite a lot of confusion in 1811
■ The rebellion of chiefs in the south
● Treaty of Poona:
○ A British envoy, Gangadhar Shastri, was murdered, and a Marathan minister,
Trimbak Dengle, was accused of the crime
○ The British took advantage of this by forcing the Peshwa, Baji Rao II, to sign the
Treaty of Poona, in which he admitted Trimbak Dengle’s guilt and gave up some
land
○ He was also told to disband his cavalry but he only pretended to do so and
started military preparations
● In a campaign against Pindari robbers, General Hastings invaded the area, starting the
conflict
○ The Peshwa and his forces retaliated and were defeated.
○ After this, the Pindaris were told to attack the British, which they did. However,
the British raised a force of 120,000 men and surrounded and defeated them
● The Peshwa then fled but was captured and pensioned. Now, the British were virtually in
control of India

Administrative Policies:
After taking over Delhi, they started taking interest in the administrative affairs of India.
However, they did not declare themselves rulers so that the public would not panic, which could
lead to rebellions
Social Reforms:
● Language:
○ The official language was changed into English in 1835
○ Until then, Persian had been used as the main language
○ This brought people into contact with British books
● Education:
○ Co-educational, English schools were introduced in which Christianity was taught
○ This was implemented due to the British (especially Thomas Babignton Macaulay
the British PM’s) belief that British culture was superior to Indian culture
● Laws against local religious customs were implemented, such as suttee and parda
○ Suttee was a Hindu culture in which widows were burned to death after their
husband died
■ This was first done in Bengal in 1829 and then implemented throughout
the country by Lord Bentinck
■ According to some accounts, there was actually little opposition to this
○ Parda was a religious veiling
● Female infanticide:
○ This was declared to be murder in 1795
○ However, this quite difficult to enforce
● Upper classes had to become Anglicized
Technological:
● Railways and roads were made for multiple reasons:
○ Trade
■ Railways allowed for the cheap transport of raw materials to the ports for
export
■ They allowed for the quick transfer of manufactured goods for sale
throughout India
○ Gain of Support:
■ It allowed for the British to travel the country and propagate their ideas
and culture in order to help them gain support
■ It allowed Indians to travel as families to other parts of India

○ Allowed for the quick transport of food to affected areas during times of famine
and drought
○ Aided the swift movement of soldiers, thus helping Britain maintain and extend
their power in India
○ Exploring other points of India to see potential markets
○ Making India look modern
● Telegraphs were also introduced by 1856
○ This proved quite useful in the War of Independence
Economic:
● Lower classes lost businesses as, due to the fact that British goods had no duty on them,
they were preferred by the local population-crippling local industries like the handloom
industry with imported textiles from Britain
○ People were also forced to grow raw wool, which had to be supplied to the
British. Skilled sewers were forced to work in factories
Charter Act of 1833:

● EIC’s reign was extended for 20 years
● It redesignated the Governor-General of Bengal to Governor-General of India
● Merit was to be the basis for government employment. Competitive examinations would
take place in England in English
○ Due to the fact that took place in England in English, only one Indian was able to
join it
Annexation of Sindh:
Invasion of Afghanistan:
● By the early 19th century, the British were concerned about Russian expansion.
● Therefore, they annexed Afghanistan to protect it
○ At first, they had hoped that Ranjit Singh would aid them in this by assuring him
that Afghanistan would remain independent
○ However, when he didn;t extend his support, the British went ahead on their
own
● In 1841, a rebellion in Afghanistan meant that all but 1 of their 4000 troops in the area
were killed
● Therefore, to restore their lost honour, and for other reasons, they looked towards Sindh

Why the British annexed Sindh:
● To restore lost honour
○ After their humiliating defeat in Afghanistan, their reputation had taken a blow
which they aimed to recoup
● To protect it from Ranjit Singh
○ Ranjit Singh had been extending his kingdom, which worried the British
● Trade
○ This would open up access to new markets
Invasion:
● However, they could not invade without an excuse.
○ Sindh was ruled by Amirs who had signed a subsidiary alliance with Britain in
1809.
■ They had been a bit hostile to the British during their campaigns in
Afghanistan, for which the British wanted to punish them. This could
potentially be used as a reason for the British annexation of Sindh
○ Thus, they provoked the Amirs to such an extent that they attacked the British
Residency in Sindh in 1843
■ This was done partially by seizing and destroying the desert fortress of
Imamgarh
● The British (led by Sir Charles Napier) took the whole of Sindh in response in 1843
○ The outcome of this expansion was essentially decided in 1843 in the Battle of
Miani, where 2800 British troops defeated 20,000 followers of the Sindhi Amirs
● The resident, Sir James Outram, criticized this action and so started a famous
controversy.
○ The governor-general Edward Law, earl of Ellenborough, was recalled, but Sindh
remained British.
○ Source: https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Miani
Sir Charles Napier:

● He was born in 1782 and studied in Cambridge
● In 1842, he was given full civilian and military control of India
● He led the British army during the annexation of Sindh
○ Later, he said of it: “We have no right to besiege Sindh, yet we shall do so, and a
very advantageous useful human piece of rascality it will be.”

Annexation of Punjab and NWF:
● Punjab, NWF and Kashmir were under the control of Ranjit Singh.
○ During his lifetime, they did not attack those areas as he was a very capable
military leader who was capable of crushing them.
● After his death in 1839, Kharak Singh became the ruler.
○ Rebellions ensued as he was incompetent.
○ His cousin, Dilip Singh, was the next ruler.
○ Punjab became disunited due to this.
● 1846- Gulab Singh, ruler of Jammu, helped the British take over Lahore in the battle of
Aliwal.
○ They rewarded Gulab Singh with the ability to purchase Kashmir.
● They annexed Punjab and NWF in 1848-9 during the Second Sikh War.
Scientific Border:
● NWF was annexed in order to fin a ‘scientific and natural frontier of British India’
○ It was based on natural geography
○ It played a part in defending British territory from outside forces
○ It would help them with their relations with Tribal Territory, safeguarding
Northern India from the non-stop tribal raids and warfare
● The border was drawn in 1893 and called the Durand Line after an agreement with
Afghanistan’s Amir Abdur Rahman
Doctrine of Lapse (1852):

● In 1852, the Doctrine of Lapse was passed. It stated that:
○ If a ruler died without an heir, Britain would take control of his land.
○ If a ruler was found incompetent, Britain would annex it.
○ Lord Dalhousie introduced this.
● Due to this policy, Satara, Nagpur, Oudh, Jhansi and more were annexed.
○ Titles and pensions of some Indian princes were also confiscated. This meant
that a lot of enemies were made.
○ Notable confiscations: From Nana Sahib, Nawab of Oudh, Rani of Jhansi, and
Bahadur Shah II
Analytical Questions:
Why was Britain able to Conquer India?
British strengths:
● Trading Bases:
○ Three trading bases far away from each other, due to which if one fell, the others
would still remain
○ These
● Military
○ They had an excellent army which had modern weapons
■ They were able to defeat three combined forces at Buxar due to this
○ Due to the fact that they had the largest empire in the world, they could easily
avail external reinforcements, such as while they were taking over Lahore
○ They had capable military generals
■ Dalhousie, Clive, Sir Charles Napier, Warren Hastings
● They were rich and resourceful
○ Due to the British’s global empire, they had a lot of money which could be
invested in the EIC
○ Furthermore, the EIC was also prevented from failing by the British Government,
which was only possible due to the large amount of money it had
● Strategies:
○ They were able to create craters amongst Indians. Due to this, they were able to
use Indians against Indians
■ Gulab Singh helped them annex Lahore
■ The Nizam of Hyderabad was used to defeat both the Mysores and
Marathas
■ There are many more examples of this
○ Their usage of subsidiary alliances
■ Most princely states were annexed using this
Indian Weaknesses:
● Lack of Unity:
○ Due to the cultural differences, there was a lack of unity
○ For example, if the Mysores, Marathas, and Nizam of Hyderabad had joined
together to oppose the British, they may have been able to repel them for good
■ However, any efforts to do so were plagued by mistrust, which led to all
of their undoings
● Lack of good leadership:
○ Their leaders were disinterested and selfish
■ For example, the later Mughal emperors were extravagant and hardly
involved in ruling

■ The Marathas also faced their undoing largely due to the selfishness of
Ragunrathao and his son, Baji Rao II
● Lack of Supplies:
○ Unlike the British, they did not have a global supply of food and military support
○ Indian weapons and military were outdated to
■ Due to this, they were not able to oppose the British that well. This can
be seen especially in the third Anglo-Maratha war and how many armies
were unable to defeat smaller British forces
● As some rulers benefited from British rule, they did not raise opposition.
○ The British would either give them money via trade or prop up their failing
empires
○ This is why some signed subsidiary alliances
How successful was the Indian resistance?

Successes:
● Nawab Siraj ud Daulah was able to defeat them at Plassey in 1756
● Haider Ali won the first Mysore war in 1767
● In 1783, Tipu Sultan drew the second Mysore war
● Titu Mir created a kingdom for a short while
● Ranjit Singh was such a capable military leader that his kingdom was not/barely attacked
during his lifetime
Failures
● 1757- Battle of Plassey
○ Robert Clive became the governor of Bengal and a puppet ruler was established
there
○ This increased their military revenue and gave them a permanent foothold in
India
● 1764- Battle of Buxar
○ Trading rights in Oudh achieved
● 1799- Fourth Mysore War
○ Mysore, the prime point of Indian resistance, was defeated
● 1803- Delhi annexed
○ The Mughal Emperor lost his military and executive power
● 1818- Marathas defeated
○ Southern India was completely defeated
● 1843- Annexation of Sindh

○ Expansion into Eastern India
● 1846- Lahore annexed
● 1849- Punjab and NWF annexed
○ Eastern India completely defeated
● 1852- Doctrine of Lapse introduced
○ The fact that they were able to implement such a policy shows their dominance
http://www.san.beck.org/2-10-Marathas1707-1800.html
1757- Battle of Plassey

1764- Battle of Buxar
1767- First Mysore War
1773- Regulating Act
1780-3- Second Mysore War
Haider Ali died in 1781
1784- Pitts India Act
1790-2- Third Mysore War
1799- Fourth Mysore War
1803- Delhi annexed
1818- Marathas defeated
1831- Titu Mir and his Bamboo Fort

1843- Annexation of Sindh
1846- Lahore annexed
1849- Punjab and NWF annexed
1852- Doctrine of Lapse introduced

War of Independence 1857
Reasons:
Political:
British Expansion:
● Local Nawabs and their populace were angered when their lands where annexed by the
British.
○ This sudden change of leadership was not liked
● The expansionist policies of Lord Dalhousie, which reached their climax when he
established the Doctrine of Lapse, were also disliked
○ Under this policy, territory could be confiscated if its ruler was incompetent or
died without a direct heir
○ Several Nawabs and Princes were angered when they lost their pension/land:
■ Nana Sahib, the ruler of Kanpur, lost his pension since he was Baji Rao’s
adopted son
■ Rani Laxmi Bai's (who was married to the Maharaja of Jhansi) adopted
son, Damodar Rao, was deprived of his title and Laxmi Bai was not
allowed to be his regent, instead being told to exit the castle and being
given a pension. This is the reason for her famous slogan: “"Main apni
Jhansi nahi doongi”
■ Other states siezed included Oudh, Sitara, Jaitpur, and Baghat
○ The Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah II, was also deprived of his title and told to
exit his castle, which angered the Muslim populace
● Due to this:
○ Local rulers felt the need to protect their land
○ The British were seen as greedy imperialists
Invasion of Afghanistan:
● After their failed invasion of Afghanistan, doubt was cast as to how powerful the British
actually were
○ Due to this, there were rumours that the War of Independence would be able to
bring British rule to and end, an exact century after they had established their
foothold in the subcontinent during the Battle of Plassey
● Indian soldiers were unhappy to fight in it, creating disloyalty amongst soldiers
○ Hindus were unwilling to leave india to fight

○ Muslims soldiers were reluctant to fight against their Muslim brothers in
Afghanistan
Economic:
Land Policy:
● During the Mughal era, lands were transferred from generation to generation without
any exchange of paperwork
○ However, under the new British policies, documentary proof of ownership of
land was required
● Many farmers were expelled from their lands when they were unable to present papers
○ This destroyed rural economies and left many citizens unemployed and agitated
Destruction of Local Industries:

● Local industries were discriminated against:
○ Heavy tariffs were imposed against them. This was destructive towards the
traditional handicrafts made and many artisans and small zamindars suffered
because of this.
○ Indian textiles were banned in Britain in 1720 due to their immense popularity
■ After Britain industrialized and started mass-producing these goods,
demand for them fell, hurting the local handloom industry
● Local Industries were also unable to compete with British products
○ They were cheaper as they could easily be mass produced
● Instead, British products were cheaper
Mistreatment of Indians:
● Heavy taxation was imposed on people already struggling to make money
○ This was not helped by the fact that they lost the patronage they received from
the Princes when the Princely States were annexed
● There was resentment at the lack of opportunities Indians received in the ICS, which
contributed to the unemployment created by the disbanding of armies and destruction
of industries/seizing of land
● Exploitation of resources
Socio-Religious:
Religious Changes:
● The British imposed various reforms without thought to local opinion.
○ For example, suttee, infanticide and parda were banned and widows were
allowed to remarry.
○ These were considered unwanted interference into Indian local customs
● The propagation of Christianity
○ It was the only religion taught in schools
○ If one was not Christian, they could not inherit land
○ Missionaries, many
○ Due to this, many thought that if the British were allowed to rule, they would not
be allowed to practice their own religions
Westernization:
● Western technology and education was introduced. These were unwanted interference
○ The schools were western and co-educational. The teaching of the bible was
compulsory in them
○ Western technology was introduced (e.g railways, roads and telegraphs)
● Indians did not like the fact that English had replaced Persian as the official language
○ Muslims saw it as an attack on their culture
Military:
Disbanding of Armies:
● When places were annexed, the smaller armies of those states were disbanded and not
accepted into the British Army
○ This created mass unemployment
Discrimination:
● Higher ranks were reserved for British officers. Indian officers were considered inferior
and were given lower salaries
○ This is despite the fact that they were excellent fighters who had proven their
valour time and time again
● Lower wages for the Indian soldiers
Introduction of the Enfield Rifle:

● One had to bite the greased cartridges to open them
● As there were rumours that the grease was made out of pig/cow fat (both animals which
were banned for consumption in Islam and Hindu respectively), discontent grew
○ This became the trigger for the War of Independence

Events:
Meerut:
May 1857, the start of the war
● Mangal Panday killed a superior officer while on parade, thus starting the revolt. He was
imprisoned and publicly executed
● 85-90 men refused to use the gun in another contingent. They were stripped of their
uniform and imprisoned. In response to this, their comrades stormed the jail the free
them
● Following this, they sacked Meerut and killed their superior officers
● They then marched to Delhi and captured it, killing any British officer they found
○ Bahadur Shah II was freed and declared leader of the revolt. He was a symbol of
unity
● The revolters then took over Mathura, Kanpur, Ihani, Allahabad and Lucknow. They now
effectively ruled the upper province of modern-day Uttar Pradesh, then known as
‘United provinces of Agra and Oudh’
Delhi:
● Sir John Lawrence came and defeated the revolters there after a four-month long siege.
● He was helped by 2000 reinforcements from Gulab Singh. Some say that these were
pivotal and the battle could not be won without them.
● Bahadur Shah II surrendered but his two sons and one grandson were brutally
murdered. Their heads were presented to him as a lesson
○ He was then exiled to Rangoon, where he died in 1862
○ Bahadur Shah Zafar was quite a famous poet who produced some of his best
works while in exile
Kanpur:
● Sepoys led by Nana Sahib captured the land and imprisoned British officers. At first, he
had promised that he would give them a safe passage out if they surrendered. However,
he killed them all; not just the men, but the women and children too.
● The British retook this region
● He, with the help of Tattya Topi, took the region again.
● He was wrecked again by the British. He disappeared after this.
Nana Sahib:
● Nana Sahib (1824-?) was a Marathan aristocrat

● He was the adopted son of Baji Rao. As he was adopted, he was denied leadership of
Kanpur and his pension was removed due to the Doctrine of Lapse
○ He sent an envoy to plead his case but it failed. Due to this, he had a personal
vendetta against the British
● He led the revolt at Kanpur
● He disappeared in 1857 once the British had recaptured Kanpur
Jhansi:
After Lucknow fell in September, this was the main centre of opposition
● The Rani of Jhansi (Laxmibai) had a personal vendetta against the British for not letting
her rule
● With the help of Tattya Topi, she defeated the British and took control of the region
● She also trained an army of women.
● She was defeated soon afterwards, partly because one of her generals betrayed her in
battle. She died while fighting on the battlefield disguised as a man.
After pockets of opposition were eliminated, and the war officially ended in August 1858.
How successful was the War of Independence?
Successes:
● Kanpur
● Jhansi
● Meerut
● Initially Delhi
● It became a source of patriotic symbolism later
Failures:
● Everything was retaken
○ Meerut
○ Delhi after a four-month long siege
○ Kanpur, twice
○ Jhansi, due to a betrayal
○ All other pockets of opposition, including Lucknow
● After this, the British were able to tighten their noose on India

Reasons for the failure of the WoI:
Lack of Unity:
● All were fighting were different causes
○ Hindus- establishing Hindu rule
○ Muslims- re-establishing the Mughal empire
○ Leaders- personal vendettas
● The British soldiers, however, were determined and fighting for the same cause
○ They took advantage of the fact that the rebellions were in different pockets to
defeat the Indians separately instead of facing a united force all at once
Lack of Coordination:
● Due to a lack of communication, revolters were not sure what was going on in other
parts of India
● The British were well organised and coordinated
○ They even spread rumours about Indian defeat to make people lose hope
Resources:
● Indians had no weaponry, food, money, material or reinforcements
○ There was no arrangement for the training of soldiers, either
○ They fought only with primitive weapons and what they had captured
○ Local merchants were also unwilling to finance them
● The British, however, had practically unlimited money and resources
○ If there were any shortfalls, new troops could be shipped from across the sea
Leadership:
● Novices were in charge of armies
○ There were only a few good leaders: Nana Sahib, Bakht Khan, and Tattya Topi
■ Rani of Jhansi was capable but not good
● The Indian’s lack of a common leader also meant that they were not unified under one
person
● They had excellent generals
○ John Nichols
○ General O’ Neil
○ Henry Lawrence

Support and Traitors:
● They had a lack of support from local rulers and Nawabs. Due to this, it never assumed
the shape of a national struggle
○ This was partly because they did not help the Sikhs in the 1840s. They were, in
fact, part of the armies which annexed Sindh, Punjab and NWF
● The British had support from local rulers who depended on Britain for power
○ There were several traitors such as Gulab Singh who sent the British
reinforcements
○ The Ammunition Depot was also blown up at Delhi so that the rebels could not
use it
Effects:
Proclamation of 1858:
● The British said that they would
○ Not interfere in the religious beliefs of the people
○ Pay due regard to ancient property rights and customs
○ Abide by all treaty obligations
○ Agree to no further territorial acquisition
○ Guarantee the right to appointments in public service
■ However, in practice, they hardly followed any of this
British Rule:
● The governor-general was replaced with a viceroy, who was responsible with the running
of India. He had over 1000 ICS members to help him administer the country
○ The first viceroy was Lord Kenning
● A Secretary of State for India was appointed, who was responsible for the government of
the nation
● Only puppet rulers were allowed to rule
● The EIC was abolished and Queen Victoria replaced Bahadur Shah II as the royal family
of India
● They ran India in such a way that was only beneficial for the British. For example, duty
was completely abolished on foreign goods.
Effect on Muslims:
● They stopped investing in the welfare of the people
○ However, later, they thought that it was Muslims who were responsible for this
and so they restarted it for all communities except Muslims
● Due to this, they started neglecting Muslims
○ Stopped recruiting them in the army and instead chose Sikhs, Pathans and
Gurkas over them
■ There were also now more Europeans in the army- the ratio went from
1:5-1:2
○ Muslims rejected anything British because they thought it was unIslamic
■ Educations and jobs etc
● This may have been a plan to prevent them from holding office
■ Result: Muslims lacking in every field
■ They did not accept the fact that they were no longer rulers.
● The Hindus found power by adapting
○ This division was created on purpose as it is easier to take control of a
fragmented land rather than a united one
○ It was easier for them to adapt, because someone else always ruled over them
anyways
Rise of Opposition:
● The lack of opportunities for Indians led to wide-spread criticism in local newspapers.
○ In response to this, the British passed the Vernacular Act of 1878, which
censored newspapers
■ Under it, publishers could be told not to print any material and their
papers could be confiscated
■ Many editors were jailed
■ It was withdrawn by Lord Ripon after much opposition
○ That same year, they passed the Arms Act which prevented Indians from owning
weapons
● In 1907, a Sikh in Germany gave a scathing speech on British rule
● Nationalist ideas rose
○ In 1866, Bose founded a society for the promotion of nationalist feeling
○ In 1867, the yearly Hindu Mela was started
○ Political groups started to spring up, the most important being the Indian
National Congress (1885)

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan
Who:
● He was born in Delhi in 1817 to a wealthy family which took great care to ensure that he
received a high-quality education
○ By the age of 18, he was skilled in Arabic, Persian, Mathematics and Medicine. He
loved Literature.
● In 1838, his father died, due to which he had to find a job
○ He joined the East India Company as a clerk in 1838
○ In 1841, he was made a Munshi
○ In 1858, he was made the Chief Judge of Muradabad
○ In 1876, he retired, following which he focused on the Aligarh Movement
● He was a famous author, writing books and essays such as:
○ Athar al Sanadeed, a book on archaeology, in 1847
● When the WoI broke out in 1857, he was a chief judge who saved the lives of many
women and children during the fighting
○ For this, he was offered an estate, which he refused to accept
● He passed away in 1898 of old age
Overall Assessment:
Beliefs (general):
● The poor status of Muslims was because they were treated as second-class citizens by
the British and Hindus
● The Muslim community had to accept that the British were their new rulers
○ Muslim position could be improved if they adopted a more positive approach
towards the British. Otherwise, the Hindus would continue prospering and they
would continue declining
● He wanted to see an improvement in the Muslims’ economic, social, political and
religious fortunes
● The political awareness of Muslims had to be raised in order to make them aware of
their threat to their position from the Hindu’s cooperative approach to the British
Aligarh Movement:
● Started by Sir Syed

○ This movement consists of his social and educational contributions for Muslims
in the subcontinent, many of which were based in Aligarh
● Included in this movement are:
○ The establishment of the MAO College
○ The Scientific Society at Ghazipore, which translated scientific texts into Urdu
○ And his other educational efforts
Aims:
● Improve relations between the Muslims and British by removing British doubts about
Muslim loyalty and Muslim doubts about British intentions
● Improve the social and economic position of the Muslims by encouraging them to
receive Western education and take up posts in civil service and army
● Increase the political awareness of Muslims in order to make them aware of the threat
to their position from the Hindus and their policy of cooperation
Importance:
● He worked tirelessly to restore relations with the British, particularly after the WoI when
they were convinced that Muslims were not trustworthy.
○ His writings helped change their view of Muslims and reduce their doubts of
Muslim loyalty.
● He played a major role in bringing about a Muslim revival.
○ Because of the Aligarh Movement, Muslims came to value education and
developed a greater feeling of self-worth
○ The educational institutes he set up taught many future Muslim leaders such as
Liaquat Ali Khan
● As Hindus were working to take advantage of Muslim’s bad relations with the British, he
presented the Two-Nation Theory and argued against the INC in order to emphasise the
threat of their rhetoric to Muslims.
○ This led to increased political awareness amongst Muslims
○ This is why Sir Syed can be called ‘The Father of the Pakistan Movement’
Clearance of Misunderstandings:
Why did Sir Syed try to remove the misunderstandings between Muslims and
British?:
Improvement of Muslims:
● He believed that in order for Muslims to advance, they needed to repair their relations
with the British and accept:
○ The Western education being offered
○ Accept jobs in the civil service under the British government
● If this was not done, they would lag behind, watching Hindus advance while they
suffered
War of Independence:
● Muslims were not guilty for the WoI and thus were being wrongly prosecuted
● Instead, he believed the British government’s actions instigated. This view was
presented in his pamphlet “The Causes of the Indian Revolt”, which highlighted:
○ The lack of representation of Muslims in government posts
○ The mismanagement of the Indian army
○ Forcible conversions to Christianity
Religious Differences:
● He believed that Muslims and Christians misunderstood each other’s religion, which was
a cause of hostility
○ He tried to clarify this by explaining the nature of Islam and Christianity and how
the two religions weren’t as far apart as presented
● He also wanted to do away with the belief that the British were foreign invaders who
wanted to convert everyone to Christianity
How did he try to improve relations between Muslims and British?:

● He wrote the Loyal Muhammadans of India, which highlighted the efforts some Muslims
made to save British lives
Explanation of the word ‘nadarath’:

● The Muslims referred to the British with this term, which the British took as an insult
○ He said that it came from the Arabic word ‘nasir’, which meant
‘helper/benefactor’
■ It actually probably came from Persian, the meaning being 'unavailable'
as the British were unavailable for help. However, as this is Pak Studies,
we ignore this
War of Independence:
● He penned a pamphlet ‘Asbab-e-Baghwat-e-Hind’ (Essay on the Causes of the Indian
Revolt which shifted the blame of the revolt from Muslims to British mismanagement.
As said before, it highlighted:

○ The lack of representation of Muslims in government posts
○ The mismanagement of the Indian army
○ Forcible conversions to Christianity
● This pamphlet converted to English and distributed in the British parliament, where it
was highly read
○ While some took it as an insult, it was certainly kept in mind during the making of
future policies
● He also wrote ‘The Loyal Mohammadens of India’ in 1859
○ This highlighted Muslim efforts to aid British women and children during the War
of Independence
Religious Reconciliation:
● Christian Attitude to Muslims:
○ He defended Muslims in his essay ‘Loyal Mohammedans on India’
■ In this, he was angered by British disrespect to Indians and suggested that
they should be consulted during the making of policies
○ He wrote essays on the Prophet to clarify misconceptions the British had and
accusation that he was a warmonger etc.
■ This was catalyzed by his reading of a negative account of the Prophet’s
life a fellow scholar wrote - “The Life of Muhammad” by Sir William Muir
● Muslim Attitude to Christians:
○ He wrote a book (Tabyin ul Kalam) in which he pointed out the similarities
between Christianity and Islam
○ He wrote “Ahkam-e-taam-e-Ahle-Kitab:, in which he told Muslim ulemas that it
was fine to have their lives adjusted educationally and socially by other followers
of the book (Christians)
● He established the British Indian Association to increase cooperation between the two
parties
Educational Status of Muslims

Why did Sir Syed try to improve the educational status of Muslims?:
Position of Muslims
● He believed Muslims needed proper access to modern research in order to prosper
○ This is why he founded a translation society
○ He also established a Muslim school in order to teach them
● This was necessary to have capable future leaders and for the general status of Muslims
in society
Competition with Hindus:
● He didn't want to see the Hindus progressing in every field through acceptance of
western education, instead he wanted the Muslims to compete with them
○ If Muslims remained uneducated, they would never prosper. He knew that with
education came political, social and cultural reforms that would solve their
problems.
Relations with the British:

● He wanted to improve Muslim relations with the British, which had been soured by the
War of Independence
● By gaining Western education, Muslims could prove themselves politically, thus
removing misconceptions about themselves
How did Sir Syed improve the educational status of Muslims?:

Promotion of Education:
● He set up the Tahzib ul Akhlaq
○ This contained articles from prominent scholars which emphasized the
importance of education.
○ It played an important part in bringing about an intellectual revolution amongst
Muslim thinkers
● He created the Mohammedan Education Conference in 1886
○ Its aim was to raise education standards amongst Muslims
○ It had many committees and sub-committees across the nation and played a
major role in establishing a political platform for Muslims in the days before the
Muslim League.
○ This centralized educational sources so that now, Muslim all over India could avail
them even if they didn’t have access to the schools he set up
Access to Research:
● In 1863, Sir Syed founded the Scientific Society at Ghazipore. It converted scientific
writings from English, Arabic and Persians into Urdu, thus making them more accessible
to Muslims
● He also taught English in his schools so Muslims could read books directly from the
source

Opening of Schools:
● Opened two schools:
○ One in Ghazipore in 1864
○ One in Muradabad in 1859
● In 1875, he opened the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental School in Aligarh. It was later
changed to the MAO College in 18777 and the Aligarh University in 1930.
○ This college offered both Western and Indian education, though Islamic
education was also provided.
○ It was set up on the English public school system which he observed during his
travels to the nation
○ It became much more than an educational revolution; it became a symbol of
Muslim unity that produced many of the future leaders of Pakistan
Political Services:
Why did Sir Syed try to improve the political status of Muslims in the
subcontinent?
Democracy:
● He believed that a traditional democracy would not work in India as Muslims would not
have enough representation and thus would continually be oppressed
○ Thus, reserved seats for Muslims which were filled via separate electorates were
needed
Participation:
● Muslims should protect their interests and counter INC propaganda by participating in
politics themselves
○ They should do this in Muslim parties which would not manipulate them to
anti-Muslim causes
Two-Nation Theory:
● He was the first person to present the Two-Nation Theory, which suggested that
Muslims and Hindus were two different nations living in one country
○ Due to this, they should be treated differently
How did Sir Syed try to Improve the political status of Muslims:
Two Nation Theory:
● At first, he thought that everyone living in India was Indian and that Urdu was their
language
● However, after the Hindi-Urdu controversy in 1867, in which Hindu organizations
protested that instead of Urdu, Hindi should be the national language, his opinion
changed
○ They disliked Urdu because it was established during the time of the Mughals
and thus associated it with that empire.
● Due to this, he realized that in reality, there were two different nations living in one
country and should, therefore, be treated differently.
○ He discussed this idea for the first time in 1868 with Lord Shakespeare
● He also started defending Urdu literature, founding ‘Anjuman-e-Tariki-e-Urdu’, which
worked for the protection of Urdu
INC:
He countered the growing influence of the INC
● When Congress was formed, it originally was supposed to represent the views of all
communities in India.
○ However, it soon became apparent that it was a Hindu-dominated body working
to establish Hindu superiority
● This party asked for democracy.
○ Sir Syed opposed because there were four times as many Hindus as there were
Muslims and they would thus win every election, with Muslims having no
representation at all
● They also asked for competitive examinations for appointment in the government office.
○ This would not work because Muslims were generally uneducated and would
thus have an unfair disadvantage, so he asked for seats to be reserved until the
Muslims got sufficient education
United Patriotic Alliance:

● He created the United Patriotic Alliance
● He encouraged Muslims to join this instead of Congress.
○ He believed that if they joined the Congress they would take advantage of them
due to their lack of education

India in the Early 20th Century
Formation of the Indian National Congress:
● In 1883, the Indian Association suggested the formation of a body that represented
Indian views to the British
● The same year, Allan Octavian hume wrote a letter to the graduates of Calcutta
university calling on them to take the lead in setting up a national political organization.
○ He followed up this letter by setting up the Indian National Union (which had
branches in several cities) with the approval of Viceroy Lord Dufferin
● In December, the first conference was called in Bombay.
○ At the same time, a second conference was held in Calcutta
● In 1885, it officially became the Indian National Congress.
● In 1886, it stated that its aim was to promote the welfare of citizens and India by
educating the public and convincing the British government to end unfair practices
● At its beginning, the INC was keen not to offend the British; it followed the Queen’s rule
well.
Why the INC was set up:

● The British created the INC as a safety valve to release the frustration of Indians, who
would now have a political platform in which to vent instead of revolting
● It was set up so that Indians would have a platform to present their views to the British
● They wanted to promote the welfare of Indians via education and legislature
● It was set up to make British rule more wide-spread and accepted
How Successful were the British in setting up the INC?:

Successes:
● It declared its loyalty to the Queen and stated that its ambition was to make British rule
should be more widely accepted
● It provided Indians a platform to present their political views
● Gave Indians a place in the government
○ Due to this, they could now avert revolutions by dealing with problems
diplomatically.
Failures:
● It became a nationalist, Hindu majority party by the 20th century
● It opposed the partition of Bengal
○ Declared 16th October 1905 a day of mourning
○ Protested and attempted an assassination
● They started the Swadeshi movement
● Played a pivotal role in partition
● Gained a large role in the Indian Civil Service
● Later, they also started to demand self-rule which meant they wanted maximum
representation in the government and wanted to make policies. As a result, the British
began to ignore the Indians and the INC.
Partition of Bengal 1905:

● In 1905, India’s largest and most populous province was partitioned overnight by the
Lord Curzon, the British Viceroy of India
○ In West Bengal, 42 out of the 54 million people were Hindus, and in East Bengal,
18 out of the 31 million people were Muslims
● East Bengal consisted of four areas: Dhaka, Chittagong, Mymen Singh, and Assam
● Bihar and Orissa were separated into separate provinces
Why Bengal was parted:

Geographical considerations
● This area was extremely large and wide
○ It was 189,000 square miles
○ Some Eastern areas were difficult to access due to poor transport and
communication, partially due to the rivers and forests in the area
○ This made it difficult for a single governor to keep a check on the status of the
entire province and implement their reforms effectively
● It was also the most densely populated province, with 85 million people at the time.
○ This made it difficult to please everyone
○ It meant that the province required a lot of resources.
○ Due to the sheer amount of potential criminals, law and order was also difficult
to maintain, die to which violence was rampant
Economic considerations
● There was a huge economic disparity between the East and West
○ The East was extremely lacking in infrastructure such as communication and
transport. In fact, some areas lacked basic facilities and were virtually
inaccessible
○ On the other hand, the West was extremely urbanised
○ In order to promote trade from Port Chittagong in East Bengal, the partition of
Bengal was necessary
● The economy of the East was completely controlled by the West
○ The economy of the East depended on agriculture. If your crop failed, you had to
take a loan from West Bengal
○ Due to this, they were able to exploit East Bengal. As the farmers were all
indebted to them, they, the consumers, were able to decide the selling price of
raw materials from West Bengal
Social:
● Cultural Differences:
○ The people of East Bengal spoke a different language than those from West
Bengal
○ West Bengalis considered themselves superior to their Esat Bengali counterparts
● Muslim Development:
○ At the time, Muslims were severely underdeveloped
■ Most were uneducated farmers
○ The partition of Bengal presented the opportunity to provide them a province of
their own
○ This would also help improve their relations with Muslims, which would help
them politically
Political
● Countering the growing influence of the INC:
○ The rising popularity of the INC concerned the British, who felt they might
become an unstoppable force
○ By giving muslimst a separate province, they hoped Muslims would be
encouraged to become a political entity themselves
○ Improving their relations with Muslims would also subjugate a part of the
populace, stabilizing British rule
● According to the Hindus, this was a part of their “Divide and Conquer” policies
○ This was seen as an attempt to divide the populace on sectarian lines to prevent
them from uniting against their colonial oppressors
Reaction to the Partition

Muslims:
They reacted positively as:

● This signified that the British were ready to develop Muslims
● It was a chance to develop free of the oppression of Hindus
○ In this new province, they wouldn’t have to compete against the Hindu capitalists
who had a large head start
● They had gotten a majority state, which was an opportunity for political, social and
economic development
○ Education- the Curzan Hall College was established there in 1908
Hindus:
They reacted negatively and performed every type of boycott and protest possible
● Protest marches and anti-partition speeches, articles, and papers
○ 16th October 1905, the day when the partition came into affect, was declared a
“Day of Mourning” and a national tragedy
● Assassination attempts
○ Against the future viceroy Lord Minto
○ Derailed a train containing the governor of Bengal
○ Muslim leader- Nawab Salimullah
● Swadeshi movement
○ People were told to stop using British products in favour of local products
○ British cloth was burned
● Titles were returned and government jobs were resigned
● British schools and colleges were boycotted
● British reaction to this:
○ In response to this, the British passed the Press Act of 1906 which censored
newspapers.
○ They also arrested hundreds of protesters and editors of Anti-British magazines
(Including Bal Ganga Dhar Tilak)
○ They developed the Muslim League
Why did they react like this?

● Fear of domination:
○ The Hindus in East Bengal feared that, now, they would be dominated by the
Muslim-majority populace
○ Thus, they feared that their position of superiority would become one of
inferiority
● They were worried over the economy of East Bengal, which was where they got raw
materials

○ Before, they were controlled via debt.
○ Now, they wouldn’t be in control of the area via economic subjugation
● Religious concerns:
○ They declared that this was an assault on Hindu religion as India had been
divided on communal lines
○ They feared that the British were trying to divide Mother India
● Lawyers feared that the new province would have separate courts, thus affecting their
practice
Reversal of the Partition of Bengal (1911):

● On 12th December 1915, King George V announced the reunification of Bengal
● Due to this, Muslims ditched all efforts to cooperate with the British. It had been proven
that they could not be trusted. Therefore, they started working for self-rule
○ They now shared a common goal with the Congress, which partially resulted in
the Lucknow Pact
Reasons:
● It was reversed due to Hindu pressure- they, in fact, threatened to boycott the upcoming
tour of King George V.
● The Swadeshi movement
● Assassination attempts
Muslim League:
Simla Deputation:
● The Simla deputation was a Muslim deputation to the Indian Viceroy, Lord Minto, who
was currently on vacation in Simla
● It had 35 members
● It was headed by Sir Agha Khan in 1906
● They presented several requests to the Viceroy, including reserved seats for Muslims,
the right of separate electorates, and the appointment of Muslim judges
● The Viceroy assured the Muslims that their rights would be protected under his
administration
Why it was sent:

● They had recently been given a province of their own; this was a gesture of thanks to the
British in an attempt to improve their relations
● To counter the propaganda of Congress by assuring the British that they were not part of
the protests and that they were capable of running a province
● To raise political demands
○ Right of separate electorates
■ Following the Two-Nation theory
○ ⅓ seats should be reserved for Muslims
■ This was greater than the Muslim population, who made up only 25% of
the Indian population. However, it was necessary as 33% was necessary
to oppose a bill being passed
Importance:
● Showed that the attempts of Sir Syed had been successful
○ Now, relations between Muslims and the British were mended as the British
accepted Muslim demands for separate electorates and reserved seats’
● The communal rivalry between Muslims and Hindus now existed on a constitutional
level
● Showed that many Muslims now believed they should be treated separately from Hindus
○ This led to the creation of ML and the Pakistan Movement
What was the Muslim League?

● At the 20th session of the MAO education conference, a resolution was passed
unanimously that a separate political party for Muslims should be created.
○ This was the largest ever Muslim conference, with over 300 delegates from the
whole of India
○ It took place in the residence of Nawab Salim Ullah Khan and was headed by
Nawab Viqar-ul-Malik
● The first president was Sir Agha Khan
● Its first annual session took place in 1907 in Karachi
● It had three aims at creation
○ Promoting loyalty to British
○ Working for the political interest and rights of Muslims
○ Preventing the growth of ill-will to other communities
Why it was created:

Two Nation Theory and Hindi-Urdu Controversy:
● In 1867, the Hindu-Urdu controversy arose when it was suggested by Hindus that Hindi
should be the second official language of India instead of Urdu
○ In UP, Sir Anthony Macdonal ousted Urdu from public offices
● In response to this, Sir Syed Ahmed presented his Two-Nation Theory
○ It stated that Muslims and Hindus were two separate nations living in India
○ Due to their different culture and language, they should also be treated
differently
● Hindus were already represented by the INC (which supported Hindi)
● Thus, a need was felt to represent the other ‘nation’, Muslims, to protect Urdu
Counter the INC:

● Though the INC was supposed to represent the whole of India, it quickly turned out to
be a predominantly Hindu body and presented anti-Muslim demands such as:
○ Direct democracy with no reserved seats
○ Competitive examinations for roles in the ICS
○ They also demanded that India be treated as a cultural and political whole and
supported Hindi
● In order to speak for the Muslim community and oppose the INC’s measures, Muslim
leaders in India felt the need to create the Muslim League
○ This would promote Muslim interests and help them develop socially
Partition of Bengal:
● It was important to have a Muslim party to represent the populace of East Bengal, who
were now much more politically important due to their separate province
● The INC was also presenting a lot of propaganda against it, even starting violent
movements such as the Swadeshi Movement
○ The ML was set up to oppose to propaganda being presented against the
partition of Bengal
○ It was also created to assure the British that Muslims were not taking part in such
protests
The Success of the Simla Deputation:

● To take advantage of the separate electorates and 33% of seats reserved for them
● It gave Muslim leaders confidence
○ If a smaller group of 35 could get so much success, why not create a bigger party
which would be at a better position to negotiate and get more rights for
Muslims?
British Elections of 1906:

● In 1906, a new liberal government had taken office in Britain that seemed likely to make
changes in political representation

○ Due to this, they felt like they needed their own party to present their demands
to a more sympathetic government
Activities of Hindu Extremist Groups:

● Hindu extremist groups such as the Arya Samaj were threatening the rights of Muslims
○ They were forcefully converting Muslims to Hinduism
● In order to protect Muslims against such groups, the Muslim Leageu was formed
Morley-Minto Reforms (1909):

● The Morley-Minto reforms were constitutional reforms made with the aim of appeasing
Indians
● At the time, John Morley was the Secretary of State for India and Minto was the Viceroy
● They drafted a reform 1906 and took it to the parliament in 1909
● These are also known as the Indian Council Act
Reforms:
● The imperial council was enlarged by adding more Indians (16 → 60 members)
○ Pros- more representation
○ Cons- The majority of members were still British officials
● Central Legislative Council was enlarged- 60 new members were added
○ Pros - Powers were given to the members to debate and discuss the importance
of the topic. They were also able to raise questions on key political issues
○ Con- the powers given to Indians were only advisory, they had no actual
executive authority. No discussions on foreign policy or on relations with the
princely states were permitted.
○ Note - though, in the textbook, it is written that the Central Executive Council
was enlarged, most other sources say that the Legislative Council was enlarged
so take that as you will
● Provincial councils were enlarged to 50 members in large provinces and 30 members in
smaller provinces
○ Pros- increased Indian representation
○ Cons- British maintained control by maintaining the majority.
■ Also, most of the authority was in the hands of the provincial governor,
who was nominated, not elected
● Muslims were given separate electorates and ⅓ seats in the councils
○ Pros- the British government accepted the Two-Nation theory
■ They were showing interest in the protection of rights of the minority
○ Cons- Hindus and Congress opposed this; it was called a communal division
■ They also objected to Muslims being given a disproportionate amount of
seats in the parliament
● On the suggestion of Morely, Lord Minto appointed the first Indian into his Executive
Council
○ Pros - Representation
○ Cons - Muslims heavily opposed the fact that a Hindu, S.P. Sinha, was appointed.
They suggested that two members should be elected
■ The next time, a Muslim was appointed
● Two Indians were nominated to the Council of the Secretary of State for Indian affairs
● Voting was to be indirect and through a very limited franchise
○ Pros - democracy for the first time
○ Cons - There was an extremely limited franchise and members were not voted
directly
Why they were introduced:

● Pacify Indians and Hindu opposition
○ After the partition of Bengal, there was plenty of unrest, such as the Swadeshi
movement. They wanted to end this
● Enhance Muslims
○ The ⅓ seats and separate electorates promised were now delivered
● Increase Indian representation
○ They were given a larger role in the Imperial and Legislative Councils
○ This was an attempt to win Indian support for British rule as a whole
Hindu Reaction:
● Other than criticizing and rejecting the reforms, the INC, in their annual meetings,
passed a resolution condemning the separate electorates between 1910-1915 and
1917-1935
○ They said that it was an attempt to sow the seeds of distrust
○ They didn’t sign it in 1916 due to the Lucknow Pact
■ Despite this, they still claimed to be representative of all Indians
Reasons:
● Separate electorate and ⅓ seats for Muslims
● Indians were not granted self-rule
○ For example, the Legislative Council had little executive authority
● Lack of representation
○ For example, the British retained their majority in the Imperial Council
Lucknow Pact (1916):

World War 1:
Approaches to WW1:
● The elites believed that it was a moral responsibility to help the British, their colonial
masters
● Political parties believed that there was no harm helping Britain in the war as long as
more concessions were made by them
○ In other words, they offered conditional support
● Extremist groups believed that British necessity was Indian opportunity
○ Lala Hardayal, who was in exile in America started sending arms to India in 1913.
However, the party supporters were betrayed in 1915 and they were all sent to
jail
○ In 1915, there was an uprising in Punjab which was easily put down by the British
○ A mutiny by Indian troops in Singapore was crushed (like Pak Studies crushes my
soul) and dozens of troops were executed or imprisoned
○ The Silk Letter Conspiracy by Muslims was easily put down
Cooperation between the ML and INC:

● In 1915, partly due to the convincing of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the two parties agreed to
hold a joint session.
○ At the end of the joint session, a committee was made to increase cooperation
between INC and ML
● It was after this that the British announced future constitutional reforms.
○ The British saw that people were willing to offer conditional support. Therefore,
they announced that once the war had reached an end, there would be a
constitutional reform in which Indians would be given half of the seats in the
executive council and a majority of the seats in the Indian council.
● Indians took it as a promise.
○ From here, the need of increasing cooperation was felt so that they could ask for
more constitutional reforms.
○ Due to this, the Lucknow Pact was signed in 1916

What was the Lucknow Pact?
● The Lucknow Pact 1916 was a joint scheme of constitutional reforms between the INC
and ML
● In this session, the Muslim League was represented by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and
Congress by Ambeka Chran Mahajan
● During it, the INC made some concessions to the ML and
● Joint demands were raised to the British for more rights.
Demands:
● The member of elected seats on the council should be increased (Indians must have a
majority in the government council)
● Bills passed by the majority must be implemented and accepted as law
● Rights of minorities must be protected
● Adequate provincial autonomy must be given
● Muslims should be given ⅓ of the seats in the central government
● Voting rights for all
● Separation of the executive and judicial wings of the government
● No bill shall be passed in the council related to any community unless ¾ of the same
community in the council approved to it
Why was it Signed?

● Need for increased cooperation
● Both were working for the same cause (self-rule)
● Congress wanted to make political concessions to Muslims to gain support
○ They accepted ⅓ seats for Muslims, the right of separate electorates, and that no
bill shall be passed in the council related to any community unless ¾ of the same
community in the council approved to it
Importance:
● The Lucknow Pact was important for the future of Muslims because it marked the first
acceptance by Hindus of the Two-Nation theory.
● This also marked the beginning of cooperation between Hindus and Muslims. Two
opposing sides were willing to come together against a common enemy
○ This posed a great threat to British rule
● Due to this meeting, self-rule was popularized in Muslims. This marked a change in
Muslim opinion towards self-rule and foreshadowed that they would start working for it

Home Rule Leagues:
● During 1917, two Home Rule Leagues campaigned in India for self-rule
○ One was led by Gangadhar Tilak
○ The other was led by a British woman, Annie Besant
● Annie Besant was arrested in 1917 but then released due to public outcry
○ She was then elected the INC’s President
● Both parties were ultimately unsuccessful
Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919):

● This was a constitutional reform presented by the Viceroy (Lord Chlemsford) and the
Secretary of State (Lord Montagu) in 1919
○ The first report of these reforms was presented in 1918 after Lord Montagu met
with different governmental and non-governmental representatives
● The two leaders stated that a system of government should be introduced which gives
Indians some responsibility in their government
● Give some of its terms in the four mark answer
Reasons:
● A constitutional reform was due
○ Every ten years, constitutional reforms were to be introduced
● To announce what they had promised after the Lucknow Pact
○ When they had seen that conditional support for WW1 was being offered, they
offered the Indians self-rule
● To give Indians more representation in parliament and give them some measure of
responsibility for the state of their country
● Win the support of Indians
Terms:
Central Legislative Council:
● The Central Legislative Council was divided into two councils under a system known as
‘Bicameral Central Legislature’.
○ The Upper House was known as the Council of State
■ 33 of its 60 members were to be elected
○ The Lower House was known as the Legislative Assembly
■ 103 of its 145 members were to be elected
● 32 seats were reserved for Muslims
● The job of this council was to make laws.
● It was headed by the Viceroy, whose powers were enhanced:
○ He could veto any law
○ He could pass any law if he felt it necessary for the safety of India
● The Viceroy’s council was to comprise of 8-12 people, 3 of which were to be Indians
○ He was supposed to follow their advice
● Muslims retained their ⅓ seats and separate electorates
○ Other minorities were given separate electorates, too
Council of Princes
● The Council of Princes, which had 108 members who represented the Princely States,
was set up
● Its aim was to allow them to discuss matters of importance
○ However, as they had no actual executive power, some did not even bother to
attend, regarding it as a ‘talking shop’
The 8 Provincial Legislative Councils:

● A system of diarchy was set up.
○ Under this system, areas of responsibility were either reserved or transferred.
● Reserved subjects were controlled by the Provincial Governor (who was nominated by
the Viceroy) and his executive council (who were nominated by the Governor).
● The transferred subjects were entrusted to ministers chosen by the Viceroy.
○ The Viceroy chose these ministers from the Legislative Council, so that meant
that even if someone got most of the votes it wasn’t certain that he would still be
entrusted with more responsibility.
■ The Council was to consist of 70% elected members and 30% nominated
members
○ Furthermore, the ministers were answerable to the Viceroy, who had the power
to dismiss them at will. Due to this, they were under a lot of pressure to comply
with British wishes as a slight mis-step could result in them being dismissed.
● Reserved Subjects:
○ Justice, Police, Resources, Finance, Press and Publication
● Transferred Subjects:
○ Education, Health, Public Work, Forests
● Voting rights were extended to 2% of the population (5.5 million out of 250 million
people)

Rejection:
● Both the INC and ML both condemned it, calling for self-rule
○ Gandhi called it ‘inadequate, unsatisfactory, and disappointing’
Reasons for its Rejection:

● Legislative Council:
○ The power of the Viceroy was enhanced. Therefore, even though they had
gained some power, it was practically useless as any laws the British deemed bad
would be vetoed
○ Sikhs were given a separate electorate. Hindus, who had barely accepted the
Muslims’ separate electorate, rejected this, regarding it as further division on
communal lines
● Council of Princes:
○ They had no actual power- they were only allowed to discuss. Due to this, it was
regarded as a ‘talking shop’
● Voting Franchise:
○ The voting franchise was too small and only extended to the higher classes. Due
to this, there was no advantage for the lower classes.
● Many Indians had fought with the British in WW1 and they felt like they deserved much
greater concessions
Rowlatt Act:
● In 1917, a committee was set up by Justice Rowlatt to investigate revolutionary actions
in India and recommend ways to stop them.
● They submitted their report in 1918. However, it was not implemented immediately, as
they hoped that the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms would be enough to quell the
Indians.
● This act, also known as the Anarchial and Revolutionary Crimes Act of India, later
became part of the Defense Act of India
Suggestions:
● Arrest without warrant
● Detention without bail
● Right of provincial government to order people where to live
● Gatherings of 5 or more people in public places was to be banned

Backlash:
● There were many protests against this as it seemed to go against central principles of
British justice- trial by jury and safeguards against illegal imprisonment.
● Jinnah resigned from the Imperial Legislative Council and Gandhi launched a mass
protest (hartal).
● However, despite the opposition, the Viceroy still implemented this
Reasons for its Implementation:

● 2-3 explanations of revolutionary activities during World War 1
○ Silk Letter Conspiracy by Anti-British Muslims, in which they wrote plans on silk
hankerchiefs so that they could easily be erased
○ Lala Hardayal set up a Mutiny Party and sent arms to India from America
○ An uprising by Indian nationalists in Punjab during 1915
● The Indian Reaction to MCR- they rejected it and protested against it
Amritsar Massacre (1919):

● On 10th April 1919 rioting started in Amritsar
○ 2 banks were robbed and 5 Europeans were killed
○ General Dyer, the British commander, determined to restore order, banned all
public meetings.
● After this, 20,000 people showed up in a peaceful demonstration at Jallianwala Bagh
○ Some Sikhs were there to relax after a religious festivals and most to protest
■ This is partly because signs banning public meetings were not properly
put up. Therefore, most did not see them
● This was a walled park with a few narrow exits. General Dyer ordered his troops to block
the gate and fire without warning
○ 1600 rounds were fired- 1200 were injured and 400 killed
■ While these are the ‘official’ statistacs, the INC said that 1000 were killed
and neutral bystanders that 700
○ To save themselves, some even went so far as to jump in wells
○ Manto has written an excellent firsthand account of this if you wish to read it:
https://www.rekhta.org/stories/1919-ki-ek-bat-saadat-hasan-manto-stories?lang
=ur
Hunter Committee:
● In 1919, after orders issued by the Secretary of State Montagu, the Hunter Committee
was set up
● It was an inquiry to investigate General Dyer’s actions in Amritsar
● Due to it, Dyer was removed from active service. No other punishment was given
○ The people did not like this. It was this that made Gandhi say “Cooperation in any
shape or form with this satanic government is sinful.”
Was ___ the most important reason that led to the breakout of violence in India in
1919? Explain your answer. [14]
● MCR
○ See reasons for its rejection
● Rowlatt Act
○ Cite its terms
● Amritsar Massacre
○ Give a brief account of the event and the failure of the Hunter Committee
● Arrest of Muslim leaders during and after World War 1
○ Those asking Muslims not to help in WW1 were arrested.
■ Thousands were arrested during and after the war
● Self rule was not given to Indians even though:
○ It was promised
○ Indians fought for the British
○ There was support for Indian self rule in the Parliament
Was MMR/Lucknow Pact/MCR the most important attempt made either by British
or by Indians to reach a constitutional settlement in India during 1909-1919?
Explain.
Successes:
● The Lucknow Pact of 1916 was an agreement between the Muslims and Hindus, which
placed a number of political demands to the British government in an attempt to show a
united front and produce common aims. For the first time Hindus acknowledged that
Muslims had the right to a separate electorate and was therefore seen as a beacon of
hope for the future.
● The Morley-Minto Reforms became law in 1909 as the Indian Councils Act. The
importance of the Councils, which were enlarged, was to ensure that Indian legislators
were given a chance to express their opinions. The British also accepted the right of
Muslims to have a separate electorate.

● The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms held out concessions to political parties provided that
they accepted the right of the British to remain in control.
Failure:
● The Morley-Minto Reforms were well intentioned but the councils that were enlarged
could only give advice, with power remaining in the hands of the British. The Indians
objected to this as they wanted more say in their affairs
● The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms disappointed the Muslims and Hindus as they had
hoped for greater concessions. Central government reserved sweeping powers for itself
with only minor concessions for the locals. As the Indians had supported the British
during WW1 they felt that the British government should reward this by giving them
more responsibility in running their own affairs
● The Rowlatt Act of 1919 followed the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms and increased the
resentment of the political parties by including the right of arrest without a warrant and
detention without bail. This was to cause great unrest
Why was India not given self rule? [7]

● Britain was severely weakened after WW1, especially economically. All colonial nations
were facing demands from their colonies for independence in one form or another, and
the British viewed India as the Jewel of the empire
● Britain’s standing as a world power would be weakened if it gave In to Indian demands
● Strategically, India was important for the British Navy and British influence in the region.
Therefore, the British were reluctant to give in to Indian demands
● There were many thousands of British people living in India who could not be
abandoned. The British government did not want to lose the businessmen, missionaries,
and civil servants who had settled there.

Khilafat Movement
Reasons:
The Arrest of Muslim leaders:
● During World War 1, the British imprisoned many Muslim leaders in order to prevent
conflict against the war against the Ottoman empire
○ These included Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar and his brother, Maulana
Shaukat Ali
● This fostered further mistrust against the British
Protection of Islam:
Preservation of Muslim Political Importance:
● If the Caliphate, the major Islamic institution, fell, Muslims would lose political
importance throughout the world
○ “Every instance of a collapse of the Muslim powers of the world is bound to have
an adverse influence on the political importance of our community” Maulvi
Fazl-ul-Haq
○ “If Turkey is conquered that will be a great grief, for she is the last of the great
powers left to Islam. We are afraid that we shall become like the Jews, a people
without a country of our own” Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
● Muslims feared that the British were trying to reduce Indians’ political power by creating
conflict between them and Hindus
○ Due to this, there were calls for Hindu-Muslim unity, which were acted upon
during the Khilafat Conferences
Mistrust of the British :

● The precedent set by the treatment of Afghanistan and Persia (both Muslim countries)
by Russia and Britain convinced Muslims that little attention was paid to their views
● The Ottoman Empire contained many holy places, such as Madinah, which Muslims
were unwilling to see fall into the hands of the British non-Muslims

Protection of the Caliphate:
World War 1:
● During WW1, Muslims had only fought for the British after they had received
reassurance that the rights of the Caliphate would be respected
○ Despite this, there were still many desertions by Muslim forces who were
unwilling to fight fellow Muslims in the Ottoman Empire
● After the war, seeing the breakup of the German and Austrian Empires, Muslims began
to fear that the same thing would occur to the Ottoman Empire
○ They even sent the Khilafat delegation, to which they got the response that Lloyd
George felt that the Turkish Empire should meet the same fate as their allies in
World War 1
Importance of the Caliphate:

● The Caliphate was essentially the centre of Islam and the sign of the Muslim Ummah
○ The Khalifa was viewed as the worldwide leader of the Muslim community
● Furthermore, it held its roots in the Rashidun Caliphates, due to which Sunni Muslims
held it in high regard
● Due to this, Muslims viewed it as very important and were unwilling to see it broken up
Hijrat Movement:
● A call for migration was given to the Muslim populace. India was also declared as Dar ul
Harb by Fazl ul Haq and Abul Qari and Muslims were told to migrate to Afghanistan,
where their religion was safe
Reasons:
● Since culture, religion and language were the same
● It was the nearest bordering Muslim country
● Muslims were promised religious freedom and vast, fertile, farmable land
Failure:
● Many people living near the border in NWF and Balochistan immediately migrated as
they didn’t have much distance to travel.
● The Muslims of Sindh, however, had a longer distance to travel. They carried with them
all they could and left the rest behind/sold it. By the time they reached, the Afghani
government had turned hostile and refused to take any more refugees as:

○ The number of refugees was increasing and going beyond control
○ The British government might have threatened them
● On the long journey back to Sindh, thousands died due to exhaustion, disease, and
starvation/dehydration. Those that were able to reach were homeless and jobless, which
extremely dispirited them from continuing the movement.
Khilafat Conferences:
There were two in 1919 and one in 1920
First Conference:
● The first one was called in Delhi to try to convince the British to keep their promises
about maintaining the Turkish Empire.
○ They resolved to send a delegation to Britain
Khilafat Delegation:
● Muslims sent a delegation to Britain to remind Lloyd George to remind him of his
promises.
○ The British PM responded negatively, saying that as Germany and Austria had
received justice, they would, too.
● The delegation consisted of Muhammad Ali Jauhar, Maulana Shaukat Ali Jauhar,
Maulana Abdul Bari, and Maulana Fazl ul Haq
● However, while the conference was still in Britain, the treaty of Sevres was announced
Treaty of Sevres:
● Allied powers took control of the Ottoman empire. Different parts would be given to
various countries
● Allied powers took control of finances and the army
● Its terms were made public before it was signed, which sparked protests in India
● It was signed by the Allied Powers and Turkey in 1920
● Indians were concerned about this as:
○ Indians were partly responsible for it as they had fought against them
○ Thus, great opposition to the British was kickstarted
Second Conference:
● In the second meeting, Gandhi joined the movement.
● They also added the objective of self-rule (swaraj) into this so that they could collectively
work for these causes.

Advantages of Gandhi Joining the Movement::
● The movement gained extensive support of all Hindus in India
○ What was at first a Muslim movement was now a national movement
● Increased pressure on the government, putting them in a better position to negotiate
Disadvantages of Gandhi Joining the Movement:

● The objective became less clear
● As both parties were working for different objectives, there was no unity
Non-Cooperation Movement:
● In 1920, Gandhi started a non-cooperation movement
● Many actions against the British government were taken during this, including:
○ Burning of British cloth and the encouragement of hand-spun/woven Indian
cloth
○ Titles were returned
○ Resignations of jobs:
■ Teachers leaving Indian schools and setting up their own institutions
■ Lawyers leaving their practices
■ Eventually, even the police and military officers quit
○ Refusal to pay taxes
Elections of 1920:
● Elections were held in 1920 for the councils. Due to the non-cooperation movement,
both the ML and the INC boycotted it
● A faction of Congress defied this and contested it. They, called the National Liberals, won
a few seats. Soon, it was realised that they were neither popular nor powerful in
influencing the British to enforce self-rule. Thus, they were proven useless
Jinnah and the Khilafat Movement:

● Jinnah was not in favour of this movement. If Muslims in India were not able to get their
own rights protected, how could they petition for the safety of others.
○ Furthermore, it was bound to become violent, after which Muslims would be
blamed. This is why he believed that religion and politics should be kept
separate. This catalysed his exit of the Congress
■ Due to his expression of these opinions, he was called a ‘kaffir’ by many
other Muslim leaders.

Decline of the Movement:
Arrest of Leaders:
● After the INC joined the movement, the widespread arrest of leaders was initiated.
○ The Ali Brothers, Gandhi, and Nehru were all imprisoned
Moplah Uprising:
● Mowplahs were Arab traders who settled on the Western coast (Malabar)
○ Some traded, some were landowners, some worked under Hindu landlords
● Hindu landlords tried redistributing their land, which led to the annexing of some
Mowplahs, which led to a conflict
○ Mowplahs killed a few Hindu landlords in this uprising; some British policemen
were also killed.
○ Therefore, the British sent a regiment and killed 4000 Moplahs and arrested
thousands
● Hindus and Congress criticized the killing of Hindu landlords.
○ After saying that Muslims killed Hindu landlords, Hindus started killing Muslims
○ This dismayed Hindu-Muslim unity, which was badly needed
Moplah Train Tragedy:

● They transported the arrested Moplahs in an airtight freight train
● By the time they reached, most had died of suffocation
○ 66 were found dead and the remaining 34 on the verge of collapse
Chory Chora Incident:

● Chory Chora was a village in the United Province. Over here, a demonstrating mob set
fire to a police station where 21 police officers burned alive, including a British officer.
● Gandhi, who was currently in jail, unilaterally called off the non-cooperation movement
and withdrew his and Hindu support for the Khilafat Movement
○ Thus, Muslims were left alone to face the consequences.
Elections of 1923:
● In 1923, the Congress participated in the elections under the name of the Swaraj Party.
○ The Muslim League did not participate as they were still in the Khilafat
Movement
● After they won, there was a major change in their policy. Congress started criticizing:
○ The right of separate electorates for Muslims

○ Provincial autonomy
○ Protection of the rights of minorities
■ Thus, they had formally negated the Lucknow Pact
Hindu Extremists:
● By 1924, Muslims were not on good terms with the British or Congress. The Muslim
League was alone, with neither Congress nor the British looking to protect Muslims.
During this time, the activities of extremist Hindu groups upset Muslims
○ Forceful conversions
○ Planned attacks
○ Mass killings
○ Abductions
Arya Samaj
● Founded in 1877, it was a Hindu extremist group
● It had strongholds in western and northern India
● Aimed to purify Hinduism from impure practices
○ Aimed to reconvert Hindus who had converted to Christianity
● Power agent for the spread of educational and social reforms
● It carries out militant activities that strained Hindu- Muslim relationships
Hindu Mahasabha:
● In Punjab, HIndu Sabhas had been involved in politics in Punjab since the 1890s
● 1923: Congressman Pandit Mohan Malaviya brought a number of them to form a
political party- the Hindu Mahasbha
● It contested the elections first in 1926
● It had little influence till 1947, when the charismatic U.D. Savarkar became president
○ He was later accused of the assassination of Gandhi in 1948
Successes and Failures:

How successful was the Khilafat Movement?
Successes:
● Muslims realized how important they were. The largest political party in India joined
hands with us for self rule, which reflected Muslim political importance
● Muslims realized that both British and Hindus were not trustworthy. In order to gain
anything, they had to work solely by themselves.

● The political experience Muslims gained while working with the INC was very important.
It made Muslims wiser in the years to come; Muslims could now see and predict what
political strategies Congress was using.
Failures:
● Muslims could not achieve their basic aim- to protect the Caliphate
● Economic losses to Indians due to the non-cooperation Muslim
○ They left their schools and jobs
○ Hijrat Movement
● The end of the movement negatively affected Hindu-Muslim unity, leading to more
communal riots
● As the major Muslim institution fell, Muslim power globally took a blow
Reasons for the Failure:

● Failure of the Hijrat Movement
● Failure of the Khilafat Delegation
● Chory Chora incident
● Gandhi joining the movement
○ See the heading ‘Disadvantages of Gandhi joining the movement’
● Moplah uprising
● Lack of leadership (leaders were arrested)
● Establishment of nationalist government in Turkey
○ In 1922, Mustafa Kamal Pasha Ataturk abolished the caliphate
○ The last caliph, Mehmet VI, was exiled to Italy in 1924
● Activities of Hindu extremist groups- Arya Samaj, Shuddi Sangatun- strained
Hindu-Muslim relations
○ It aimed to reconvert Hindus who had converted and committed many forceful
conversions

1927-1939
Delhi Muslim Proposals:
● 1927: Jinnah called a conference of Muslim leaders in Delhi to discuss how Muslim
interests should be protected
○ There, the Delhi Muslim Proposals were approved
● They were first accepted by the Congress in May 1927 but later rejected
Proposals:
Muslims would call off demands for a separate electorate if the following terms were accepted:
● ⅓ of seats in Central Legislature to be reserved for Muslims through electorates
● Sindh should be given full provincial status
● All British reforms should be extended to Balochistan and NWFP
● Seats given to Muslims in Punjab and Bengal should be proportional to the number of
Muslims given there
Why:
● To discuss the protection of Muslims
○ This was especially important in the context of rising Hindu terrorists
● Reconcile between Hindus and Muslims
○ Nehru said that the largest barrier to Hindu-Muslim unityunity was the Muslim
demand for separate electorates
● Raise, highlight and clarify Muslim demands
Importance:
● It was very important for Muslims as it led to the demand of more provinces for Muslims
to balance the Hindu provinces
● This was the first time Muslims gave up their right of a separate electorate conditional to
other points
Simon Commission:
● A seven-member British commission was sent by the Conservative Government headed
by Sir John Simon reached India in 1927.
● The Commission worked on it alone and published 2 volumes of their report in ‘29 and
‘30
Terms:
● Federal form of government
● Scrapping the system of diarchy
● Accepting the rights of a separate electorate for Muslims
● Rejecting the idea of ⅓ seats for Muslims
● Rejected the idea of separating Sindh from Bombay to make a new province
● Increased the number of Indians in the government council
● Increased voting rights for Indians
Reasons:
● They were sent two years earlier than expected to assess the working of the MCR and to
see if the MCR was accepted by Indians.
● To recommend amendments in the MCR before their expiry to make them acceptable to
Muslims
● It was sent two years early as the Conservative Party feared that they would lose the
elections to the Liberals, due to which they were sent earlier than expected to keep the
Labour Party (who were more sympathetic and likely to give concessional reforms) away
from the constitution
Rejection:
● The commission was opposed by Indians. It was welcomed by protest marches and
slogans: “Go Simon, go home”, “India’s uninvited guests”
● Congress fully rejected it
○ Gandhi called it an insult to the national character of Indians
● A part of the Muslim League, headed by Mia Muhammad Shafi, was in favour of it
○ Shafi suggested that they work with them to see what they suggested, then to
accept or reject it
■ Jinnah, however, believed that as it was the same group who had given
them the MCR, there was no point cooperating with it, especially because
it had been sent early to give strict reforms
Reasons:
● Indians knew that it had been sent by Conservatives, not the Labour Party
● Indians had seen their ‘lenient’ reforms and feared what oppressive reforms would be
like

● It contained seven British members but no Indians, due to which they would have little
to no say in its results
Nehru Report:
● Once the Simon Commission had failed, questions were raised as to why it was sent in
the first place if it was so obviously going to be unsuccessful
○ However, while the British acknowledged the dissatisfaction, they did not amend
anything, instead putting forth the question of whether Indians were united
enough that they could form a constitution themselves
○ For example, Lord Birkenhead, the Secretary of State for India, said in the House
of Lords “…let them [Indians] produce a constitution which carries behind it a
fair measure of general agreement among the great peoples of India...”
■ This put the ball in Indian court- it was a challenge to them to unitedly
present a reform draft
● An All-Parties Conference was set up in India by the INC in 1928 in response to the
challenge
○ A committee was made headed by Motilal Nehru. His son, Jawaharlal Nehru, was
the secretary of the committee. The two Muslim members were Shoaib Quraishi
and Sir Ali Imam. One Sikh and one Scheduled Caste Hindu was also present
○ They were assigned the task to design a constitutional report accepted by all.
■ They were told ‘to consider and determine the principles of the
Constitution of India along with the problem of communalism and issue
of dominion status.’
○ 5/9 of the members signed it- all four Hindus and one Muslims
■ The rest rejected it as there was not enough protection for minorities
● More information here:
○ https://www.constitutionofindia.net/historical_constitutions/nehru_report__mo
tilal_nehru_1928__1st%20January%201928
Suggestions:
● Dominion status for India
● Federal form of government.
○ A close federation was suggested with more power resting with the centre and
less with the provinces.
■ Muslims, however, wanted provincial autonomy
○ Key areas- defense, finance and foreign policy were to be controlled by the
government.
■ Muslims wanted these to be in the hands of the provinces
● Reserves seats for minorities
○ There was no mention of ⅓ seats for Muslims
○ “There shall be no reservation of seats for the House of Representatives except
for Muslims in provinces where they are in a minority and non-Muslims in the
N.W.F. Province. Such reservation will be in strict proportion to the Muslim
population in every province where they are in a minority and in proportion to
the non-Muslim population in N. W. F. Province.”
● Rejected the idea of a separate electorate
○ Muslims were only willing to give them this if the DMP were accepted, which
they weren’t
■ While they report accepted the idea of separating Sindh as a province,
they rejected the idea that Muslims should have ⅓ of the seats and that
there should be population based representation for Muslims in Punjab
and Benahl
■ Balochistan and NWF were also not to be affected by reforms
● Bicameral legislature with a Senate and a House of Representatives
● Hindi had to be the official language
○ Muslims wanted Urdu to be the official language
● Adult franchise- everyone was to have voting rights
○ Due to this, no minority would get any chance to win against Hindus
● An official Bill of Rights was put forth which included free primary education
Proposed Amendments:
● These reports left Muslims dissatisfied as:
○ There was hardly any Muslim input into it - Sir Syed Imam Ali attended only one
meeting as he was ill and Shoaib Qureshi refused to sign the report
○ It did not follow the Delhi Muslim Proposals - separate electorates were rejected
and adequate reconciliation was not given
○ Not enough consideration were made for Muslim rights
● Although it did not provide protection to Muslims, Jinnah did not immediately reject it.
He suggested a few reforms:
○ ⅓ seats for Muslims
○ Population based representation to be given to Muslims in Punjab and Bengal
○ Residuary powers to be given to provinces (provincial autonomy)

○ Full provincial status for Sindh and NWF
● The failure of the INC to accept this resulted in the “Parting of ways” ~Jinnah
Jinnah’s 14 Points:
● In January 1929, the ML met in Delhi, where Jinnah presented his 14 points, a
constitutional solution
● Muslims agreed that the 14 points should be the basis for any further discussions with
Congress. It was accepted by the conference in March ‘29
Terms:
● The form of the future constitution should be federal, with the residuary powers vested
in the provinces.
● A uniform measure of autonomy shall be guaranteed to all provinces.
● All legislatures in the country and other elected bodies shall be constituted on the
definite principle of adequate and effective representation of minorities in every
province without reducing the majority in any province to a minority or even equality.
● In the Central Legislature, Muslim representation shall not be less than one third.
● Representation of communal groups shall continue to be by separate electorates:
provided that it shall be open to any community, at any time, to abandon its separate
electorate in favor of joint electorate.
● Any territorial redistribution that might at any time be necessary shall not in any way
affect the Muslim majority in Punjab, Bengal and NWFP provinces.
● Full religious liberty shall be guaranteed to all communities.
● No bill or resolution shall be passed in any legislature if three fourths of the members of
any community in that body oppose the bill.
● Sindh should be separated from the Bombay Presidency.
● Reforms should be introduced in the NWFP and Balochistan on the same footings as in
the other provinces.
● Muslims should be given an adequate share in all services, having due regard to the
requirement of efficiency.
● The Constitution should embody adequate safeguards for the protection of Muslim
culture, education, language, religion and personal laws, as well as for Muslim charitable
institutions.
● One-third representation shall be given to Muslims in both central and provincial
cabinets.
● No change shall be made in the constitution without the consent of the provinces.

Reasons:
● Nehru report failed to protect Muslim rights
● Jinnah proposed amendments incroporated the DMP, which the Congress had refused
● He wanted to protect the rights of Muslims in future constitution
Importance:
● Formed basis of future negotiations
● Furthered the awareness that Hindus and Muslims should form a separate nation
○ This shaped the basis of a desire for a separate homeland
● Made clear that living with Hindus under one constitution is no longer a possibility for
Muslims as their demands are very different from Hindus, who were not ready to
provide protection for Muslims
● Revived the Muslim League and directed them in a new way
Rejection and Non-Cooperation:

● The Congress rejected this as they were insisting on the implementation of the Nehru
report
○ They also gave the British an ultimatum: implement the Nehru Report by the
next year or they would start another non-cooperation movement
● On 31 December ‘29, a procession took place on the banks of Ravi at midnight.
○ It was headed by Jawaharlal Nehru and demanded independence
● In March 1930, Gandhi relaunched non-cooperation with the Salt March. He travelled
240 miles along the coast for 24 days.
○ He started from his Ashram at Ahmedabad to Seaside Village on the Dhandi
○ This march was against the new salt laws, which banned the manufacturing of
salt without a license
■ As it was Indian salt from the Indian oceans taken by Indian people why
was the British to be paid?
○ This is considered one of Gandhi’s greatest achievements, and, in my opinion, is
heavily underemphasized
Allahabad Address:
● In 1930, Allama Iqbal was asked to chair over the meeting of the Muslim League in
Allahabad

Why Allama Iqbal was asked to preside over it:
● He was a well respected, authoritative figure who had the confidence of Muslims and
first important Muslim leader to advocate the partition of India
● He was opposed to British control of India
● He persuaded many that the ML had to build an effective mass political party to oppose
the INC and inspired and spoke for many in the ML
● He was suitable and educated; he was the best leader as Jinnah had not yet accepted
the Two-Nation Theory
● His poetry awakened nationhood amongst Muslims
Contents of the Adress:

In this address, Allama Iqbal:
● Highlighted the Two-Nation Theory
● Described Islam as the basic guiding principle for Muslims
● Demanded Muslim majority provinces
● He suggested that Punjab, NWF, and Balochistan be amalgamated to form an
autonomous state in or outside British India
○ He was farsighted enough not to ask for Bengal
● He said that there was no possibility of peace till Muslims were recognized as a separate
nation
● He opposed British control of India and said that the conquest of others was inherently
wrong
○ The fact that they had, many times, acted against Muslim faith, supported his
view of a separate homeland
Importance of the Address:

● He was the first Muslim leader to suggest the partition of the subcontinent on the basis
of the Two-Nation Theory.
● He united Muslims by giving them a guideline
○ He was called the father of the ideology of Pakistan. His views acted as an
inspiration to Muslims who were uncertain as to how to defend their religion and
culture by giving them a clear-cut objective
● It was his ideas that were further built upon to form the Pakistan movement
○ He was an inspiration for other Muslim leaders
■ His ideas were included in Rahmat Ali’s Pakistan Scheme (1933)
■ His ideas were the base for Jinnah’s Pakistan Resolution (1940)

Round Table Conferences 1930:
● At first, only one was to occur, but eventually, 3 occurred
Reasons for the First Round Table Conference:

Failure of the Simon Commission:
● It was rejected by the INC and most of the Muslim League
● It was met with resistance by the Indians
● As the British attempts at a constitutional agreement had failed, this was necessary
Indian attempts to reach a constitutional agreement due to a constitutional deadlock

● Nehru Report was rejected
○ This wasn’t accepted by minorities
● Jinnah’s 14 Points were rejected
○ The Hindus and INC didn’t like it
To discuss the report of the Simon Commission:

● The Labour Party was now in power.
○ They were more sympathetic to Indians
● Even though they liked it not, they couldn’t outright reject the Simon Commission. Thus,
they said that they would discuss it with Indians to see if they rejected it.
What was the Round Table Conference?:

● It was held in London in 1930
● It was called by the Labour Party
● All political parties and princes were called
○ 89 delegates attended
● Only the INC did not attend
● During it, all issues related to minorities were discussed and settled
Why didn’t the INC attend?:

● They were currently leading a Non-Cooperation movement, due to which the following
events occurred, all of which made them less likely to co-operate with the British
government in any way:
○ Salt March
○ Arrest of Congress leaders
○ The INC had been outlawed as a political party

● They wanted the Nehru report to be implemented as it was made by an All-Parties
Conference
● Gandhi wanted an assurance from the British government that things discussed in the
Conference would be implemented. No such assurance was given.
Successes and Failures of the First RTC:

Successes Failures
The princes declared that they would join a No consensus could be developed as to the
future federation of India as long as their structure of the federation. It was not
rights were recognized decided whether there would be a
strong/loose centre
A federal type of government was approved As the INC, the largest party in India, did not
for India attend, it was difficult for significant progress
to be made
Provincial autonomy was approved, with the No decision could be made as to weightage
system of diarchy abolished in the provinces and separate electorates
They all agreed to give Sindh the status of a The subcommittees formed to deal with
full-fledged province matters of minorities were largely
unsuccessful, partially due to the death of
Maulana Muhammad Ali Johar, who was a
part of all of them
● The main reason for its failure was the absence of Congress
Gandhi Irwin Pact:

● The Viceroy, Lord Irwin met with Gandhi in jail. Negotiations were held, and both
reached an agreement, which was signed on 5th March 1931
● Following this, the second RTC was held
Clauses
● Most political prisoners and property seized by the government were released
● Gandhi agreed to call off the non-cooperation movement
● The government lifted all bans against the Congress
● Gandhi gave up his demands for independence as long as he was granted self rule

Second Round Table Conference:
● Following the Gandhi-Irwin pact, the Second Round Table Conference was held, during
which Gandhi alone represented the INC
● The largest issue was as to how Hindus and Muslims were going to interact
Successes Failures:
Due to this Gandhi-Irwin Pact, the INC Since the Labour Party had lost power, Britain
attended the meeting was less keen to take an agreement
Sindh and NWFP would be given provincial Gandhi took a hard line and refused to listen
status to minorities, claiming that he represented all
of India.
In response, the minorities formed a
minorities group, claiming to represent 56%
of India
Gandhi wanted the Nehru report to be

implemented
In return, Muslims demanded the
implementation of 14 points
All minorities agreed to separate electorates

while Gandhi rejected them
Communal Award:
● The British Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald, saw himself as ‘a friend of the Indians’
and thus wanted to help resolve their issues
○ After the failure of the 2nd RTC, he announced the Communal Award in August
1932
● It gave the rights of separate electorate to all the minority communities in the country
● The principle of weightage was also applied.
Reaction:
● The award wasn’t popular with Muslims as it reduced their majority in Punjab and
Bengal.
○ However, they accepted it anyways “in the best interest of the country”
● The Congress rejected the award and launched a campaign against it
○ They especially hated the confirmation of Untouchables as a minority
Third Round Table Conference (1932):

● This had little chance of success as Lord Irwin had been replaced as Viceroy by Lord
Willington, who was even less prepared to give concessions
○ The non-cooperation movement had restarted, due to which Congress leaders
were arrested and not present
○ All major princes boycotted the talk
○ Jinnah had gone into voluntary exile due to the lack of progress even made, due
to which Aga Khan represented the ML
● There were only 46 delegates. The meeting broke up with nothing of substance agreed
Government of India Act 1935:

White Paper 1933:
● A draft constitutional document published by the British government containing
recommendations of the RTCs was published in 1933.
● Afterwards, a committee was made to submit a draft constitution based on it.
○ This committee presented their report in 1934
● It was approved by the British parliament in August 1935. The new bill was called the
‘Government of India Act 1935’
Terms:
Provincial:
● It introduced a federal form of government which allowed provincial autonomy through
a representative government in the provinces
● The number of provinces increased from 8 to 11
○ Sindh was separated from the Bombay Presidency
○ Orissa was separated from the Bihar Presidency
○ NWFP was formally made a province
● The system of diarchy was abolished from provinces and was instead introduced at the
centre
○ Instead of giving power to the Indians, all of it was given to governors at the
centre
● Nominated Provincial governors were given ‘special powers’
○ They could only be used if something went wrong in the following three areas:

■ Law and order
■ Rights of minorities
■ Civil services
○ If anything did, they were allowed to:
■ Dismiss provincial ministers
■ Dismiss whole provincial administrators
■ He could impose an emergency and govern the whole province while
ignoring fundamental rights
Federal:
● Central legislature was bicameral (similar to the MCR). It had two levels:
○ The Upper House/Council of State
■ In the upper house, there were elected Indians from provinces and
nominated princes. There would be 260 total members, 156 from the
provinces and 104 from the princely states
○ The Lower House/Legislative Assembly
■ There were 375 total members, 250 of whom were elected and 125 were
nominated provinces
● The head of the central government was called the Governor-General instead of the
Viceroy
○ According to the numbers above, Indians could make any laws they wanted to.
They countered this by increasing the power of the governor-general, allowing
him to:
■ Veto any law
■ Pass any law
■ Dismiss the whole constitution
● A System of Diarchy at the Centre was implemented
○ Reserved Subjects (which were controlled by the Governor-General):
■ Defense, Finance, and Foreign Policy
● The voter franchise was increased by 5x from 5-25% of the total population
○ Now, 35 million could vote
● There were separate electorates for Muslims and Sikhs
○ Untouchables were given Separate Electorates and voting rights
Reaction:
● It was opposed on all sides in India

● Nehru called it a “Charter of Slavery” and said that it had too many safeguards that it
was like “a machine with strong brakes but no engines”
○ In other words, he believed that instead of actually giving Indians enough rights,
they had added too many clauses that allowed the British to take them away
● Jinnah said it was “thoroughly rotten, fundamentally bad, and totally unacceptable”
Importance:
● It was an important point in the move towards independence as it:
○ Provided the basis for negotiations which resulted in the British leading India
○ Parliamentary systems had been set up which gave Indians more representation
● Provincial governments were free to come up with their own policies
○ This was, however, counteracted by the increased power of the Provincial
Governor
● Indian power was increased:
○ Indians were allowed to make any laws they wanted
■ This was counteracted by the increase of power of the governor-general
○ The voting franchise was increased (to 25%)
● The system of diarchy was removed from the provinces
○ It was, however, added to the centre
Failures:
● Unlike the Nehru Report, it contained no bill of rights
● While Indians were given some power, the British gave themselves the authority to take
the wheel back whenever they wanted to
○ The Governor-General’s and Provincial Governor’s powers were increased too
much
● It contained no preamble, due to which it was unclear as to what British attitude
towards Indian Dominion Status was in the future. For the present, India was not given it
Elections of 1937:
● Due to the Act of ‘35, elections were held on provincial bases
Manifestoes:
Muslim League:
‘The main principles on which we expect our representatives in various legislatures to work will
be:

i) that the present provincial constitution and proposed central constitution should be replaced
immediately by democratic full self-government
ii) and that in the meantime, representatives of the Muslim League will utilize the Legislatures in
order to extract benefit out of the constitution for the uplift of the people in the various spheres
of national life’
● It was for provincial autonomy and the protection of minorities
INC:
‘Every party and group that stands aloof from the Congress organization tends, knowingly or
unknowingly, to become a source of weakness to the nation and a source of strength to the
forces ranged against it. For the fight for independence a joint front is necessary.’
● They were for self-rule (Swaraj)
● They also said that they were contesting just to show their popularity and spread; the
decision as to whether they would take the government would be taken later. This is
because, in the RTC. they claimed that they spoke for 85% of the Indian populace
Results:
INC:
● Out of 1771 general seats, they got 750 (40%) of the seats
● They had an absolute majority in 5 provinces
● They were the largest party in 4 provinces
○ They were in power in 9 provinces
○ They joined the coalition in 2 (Sindh and Assam)
● The INC refused to set up their government till the British met their demands:
○ The provincial government would not use their special power in legislative affairs
as they knew there would be problems in rights of minorities
○ Many discussions took place, and eventually, the British government consented
in a verbal agreement. After a 4 month delay, the INC finally formed their
ministry
Muslim League:
● Out of 486 Muslim seats, they won 109, most of which were from Muslim minority
Provinces
● Punjab: They won 1/96 seats. The Unionist Party of Punjab, later headed by Khizar Hayat
Tiwana, got a majority in alliance with the INC.
● They won 0 seats in Bengal
● They won a few seats in UP, a Muslim minority province. Here, they wanted to be part of
the coalition government. To discuss it, they held a meeting with the INC, in which

Sardar Abdur Rab Nishbar, representing the ML, met Molana Abul Kalam, representing
the INC
○ The following demands were presented:
■ The ML members who won seats were to join the INC
■ They would take orders from INC
■ The ML’s parliamentary board in UP would be dissolved.
○ As this was incredibly disrespectful, they rejected it

Indian National Congress:
● Successes:
○ They won a majority in 5 provinces and were the largest party in 4 others
○ They saw themselves as the sole party representing India - they were the largest
party with 40% of the seats
○ Led to the formation of cabinets in 8 provinces
● Failures:
○ Congress alienated the ML when they offered to form a coalition in UP
○ The attitude of Congress hardened Muslim views for a separate nation
○ The ML won seats in Hindu-majority provinces
● The elections of 1937 were an absolute success for the Congress - for one, the ML’s
reputation was now destroyed and they had no power. Furthermore, this was a further
boost to their reputation as it was definite affirmation that they were the largest party in
India. Also, it gave them power to enforce their ideology over the next term
Muslim League:
● Successes:
○ This was their first major election, which helped unify the party after the internal
split of the 1930s
○ Gave them experience as to how to contest elections, which led to
improvements in organization and planning
○ They learned that their support lay in areas where Muslims were in a minority as
Muslim-majority states had not yet realized the threat HIndus posed to their
freedom
○ The ML realised they had an image problem - they were seen as aristocrats out of
touch with ordinary Muslims
● Failures:
○ Very poor performance - they won only 109/489 Muslim seats

○ In Muslim majority provinces, they did terribly, getting only 1 seat in Punjab and
0 in Bengal
○ Muslims felt betrayed by the British, who were seen as more concerned with
getting the new provincial government running rather than Muslim rights
○ During its term in power, the INC used its new powers to upset Muslims
● Reasons for their failure:
○ Its leaders were seen as aristocrats and princes, whereas many Muslims at the
time were poor and illiterate
■ Thus, they thought that the ML leaders didn’t represent them
○ As this was the first major election they fought, they were inexperienced and
immature
○ They were overconfident, due to which they did not pour as much effort into
campaigning as they should’ve.
■ Furthermore, they believed, that as provincial autonomy had been
guaranteed, they didn’t have to fear Congress tyranny
Congress Rule:
● Congress had ministries in 9 provinces for 2.5 years
○ This time was crucial in the history of Hindu-Muslim relations
○ Hindu racist anti-Muslim policies measures introduced by the INC resulted in the
severe worsening of relationships between the two parties
Policies:
Bande Matram:
● This was a song that degraded Muslims and their religion
○ It was written by a Bengali novelist, Bantam Chatterie
● It urged non-Muslims to expel Muslims, suggesting that India (Hindustan) was for
Hindustan only, strengthening Hindu nationalism
● INC members insisted on commencing the day with a recitation of the song
● It was adopted as the national anthem and was to be recited before the start of official
business
Warda Sceme:
Under the Warda Scheme, an educational policy, the following were implemented:
● Religious teachings were ignored
● Hindi was made the national language
○ It was made the medium of education
● Spinning cotton by hand, a symbol of Hindu nationalism, was included in the curriculum
○ This skill was now useless due to the industrial revolution
● Students were told to pay respect to Gandhi’s portrait during assembly
Uidya Mandhir Scheme:

● Meaning: Temple Based Learning Scheme
● It was an educational scheme introduced in all schools, colleges, and educational
systems in Congress Ministries (2 points)
● It was suggested by Dr Zakir Hussaainand based off the Madrassa system
○ He suggested that temples be used as school to save money as they wouldn’t
have to build new infrastructure
General:
● Azaan was forbidden
● Attacks were carried out on mosques
● Beef was forbidden and punishment was inflicted for slaughtering crowds
● Noisy processions were carried out near mosques during prayer and pigs were
sometimes pushed into masjids
● Anti Muslim riots: Muslims were attacked and their houses were set on wire
○ Many Muslims believed that filing complaints was useless as decisions were
always made against them
Reactions:
Muslim Opinion on:
● Bande Matram:
○ It degraded Muslims and their religion
○ It urged Hindus to expel Muslims from ‘Hindustan’, suggesting the country was
for Hindus only
● Wardha Scheme:
○ This inculcated and propagated Hindu beliefs in the youth, due to which it was an
attack on Islamic culture
○ It instilled Hindu nationalism
● Uidya Mandhir Scheme:
○ This was seen as an attempt to destroy Muslim culture by converting all
non-Hindus to Hindus, thus presenting two options: compromise your education
or compromise your religion
○ The fact that they had to bow to a picture was unacceptable for many

Importance:
● Communal riots highlighted the Hindu-Muslim divide
● Muslims realised it would be wrong to expect fair treatment from Hindus after
independence
Muslim League in Congress Rule:

● After their failed attempts to form a coalition, Jinnah now realized that he must devote
his time to warning Muslims that they must organize themselves if they were to resist
the desire of Congress to establish Hindustan
● Due to this, he drove to transform the party
○ At the Lucknow meeting of the party in 1937, Jinnah persuaded the party to build
up support from the grassroots, pointing out that recent elections victory had
come where branches of the League had been established before 1937
■ One way they did this was by releasing two reports on how Muslims were
treated under Congress Rule, creating awareness as to the future Muslims
faced in a post-British era
● This gained popularity due to this
● This was successful - the chief ministers of Assam, Bengal and Punjab joined the party in
1938
○ The Congress recognized the importance of this when a talk between Nehru and
Jinnah was organised. Despite this, they still refused to see them as the sole
representatives of Muslims
● Due to this, Hindu-Muslim relations deteriorated
Outbreak of War 1939:

● On September 1939, Britain announced that it was at war with Nazi Germany
○ At the same time, they announced that India, too was at war with Germany
● Congress objected to this, saying that they would only fight if given the promise of full
independence
○ The British didn’t grant this, promising only Dominion status after the war
■ Congress objected and resigned from the government as a protest.
■ Before doing so, they passed a resolution which made clear their
disapproval of Nazism and Fascism, making clear the fact that they didn’t
support Hitler, but wouldn’t fight against him if they weren’t granted
independence
○ The Muslim League wouldn’t fight unconditionally, either. Jinnah demanded:
■ An end to the anti-Muslim Congress policies
■ That no law affecting Muslims should be passed unless ⅔ of Muslims
supported it
■ Congress should agree to form coalitions in provincial administrations
● As neither the British nor the INC was willing to accept this, they,
too were forced to back away while declaring their dissent of
fascism
Day of Deliverance:
● In 1939, Britain announced that they, and India, were at war against India.
● When they refused to listen to Congress demands for independence in exchange for
help in the war, the INC abdicated government
● Following the abdication of the government by the INC, the Muslim League called a Day
of Deliverance across the subcontinent in order to celebrate the end of Congress Rule
● Muslims around India were thankful as Congress tyranny had ended, and they
celebrated after Jinnah told them to
● The Hindus were deeply offended by this, with the INC commenting on how little
Muslims and Hindus agreed on
Reasons for Celebrating:

● Bande Matram
● Uidya Mandhir Scheme
● Wardha Scheme etc
Was the Day of Deliverance Justified?:

● Justified:
○ Use your answer for “Reasons for Celebrating” here
● Not Justified:
○ The relationship between the Muslims and the INC became irreconcilable
○ This created more of a divide between Hindus and Muslims, due to which a
united India in the future became even less possible
○ The ML was only able to celebrate because the British were so involved with the
war with Germany that they didn’t have time to deal with this

1940-Independence
Pakistan Resolution:
What:
● At the annual session of the Muslim League held in Lahore in 1940, the premier of
Bengal, Maulvi Fazl-Ul-Haq put forward the Pakistan Resolution (2 points)
○ In his welcome address, Jinnah’s welcome speech, during which he endorsed the
Two-Nation Theory. According to Stanley Wolport “this was the moment when
Jinnah, the former ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity, totally transformed
himself into Pakistan’s great leader.”
● Initially, it was called the Lahore Resolution. However, after Hindu press began to refer to
it as the Pakistan Resolution, that name was adopted
● It was passed unanimously on 23rd March 1940
● It took place at Minto park, later named Iqbal park where the Minar e Pakistan was built.
Maulvi Fazl ul Haq:

● He was a Bengali politician born in 1873 part of the Muslim League
● First Prime Minister of Bengal
● He was known as Shehr-e-Bangla (tiger of Bengal)
● He put forth the Pakistan resolution
Description:
● Regions in which muslims are numerically a majority as in the North-Western and
Eastern zone of India, should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the
constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign
● It was inspired by Sir Syed’s Two Nation Theory, Allama Iqbal’s Allahabad Address, and
Rehmat Ali’s Pamphlet
Why it was passed:

● Make a separate homeland for Muslims
○ Muslims deserved this as they had a separate culture, religion and language
● Muslims had suffered under the tyranny the INC imposed upon them in their rule from
1937-39. Thus, they knew how they would be treated if the British left India. Thus, in
order to protect their rights, they passed the Pakistan Resolution

● The Muslim League passed the Pakistan resolution in order to unite Muslims for a
common cause - working for a separate homeland. Thus, it was passed to gain the
massive support of Muslims all over India
Importance of the Pakistan Resolution:

● It united Muslims all over India towards a common cause
● It became the basis for further negotiations by the Muslim League
● It popularised the idea of a separate homeland amongst Muslims in India
○ It solidified the acceptance of the Two-Nation Theory
● Highlighted Hindu-Muslim differences
August Offer:
What:
● In August 1940, Lord Linlithgow made Indians an offer on the behalf of the British
parliament to:
○ Expand the Executive Council of the Governor General to include more members
from political parties
○ To set up an advisory council comprising of members from the Indian Princely
States
○ To set up a council to decide a new constitution for India with due regard for
minorities after the war had ended
■ All of this was if they helped the British in World War 2
○ It ended up as a failure since Congress and ML both rejected it.
Lord Linlithgow:
● He was born in Britain in 1887
● He was a unionist politician and colonial administrator
● He was the governor-General of Australia
● He presented the August offer to India in 1940
Why:
● The British government was in need of Indian assistance in the war. However, this was
not being given as:
○ The INC was demanding complete transfer of power to Indians
○ The ML wanted partition of India
● Germany was achieving significant victories in the war and now, after the fall of France,
Britain was alone
● Indians were shocked by British powerlessness, spurring thoughts of resolution. British
wanted full cooperation from Indians in this time, due to which they sent the August
Offer
Reasons for Its Rejection:

● The Muslim League rejected it as:
○ It did not mention the formation of Pakistan
○ The demand of partition was not met
○ Jinnah had demanded:
■ The end of anti-Muslim policies by the INC
■ No law affecting Muslims should be passed unless ⅔ members of the
Converse supported it
■ The INC should agree to form provincial coalitions
● But these, too, were rejected
● The Congress rejected it as:
○ They wanted a complete and total transfer of power; no compromise would be
accepted.
Cripps Mission:
What:
● In 1942, Sir Stafford Cripps came to India to win its support on the war issue (3 points)
● They offered:
○ Post war dominion status in India
○ To allow the elected legislature to draft the future constitution
○ To allow provinces to opt out of the future constitution
■ This was known as the Non-Accession Clause
○ The new legislature was to be elected immediately after the war.
○ Defence of India, Finance, and Foreign Policy would remain in the hands of the
British Government, and the Finance Minister shall be a British National
Sir Stafford Cripps:

● He was a British politician born in 1889
● He was part of the Labour Party
● He led the Cripps Mission
● He was part of the Cabinet Mission Plan

Why it was sent:
● To win Indian support on the issue of war.
○ Indians were currently not cooperating with them
● Japan had recently invaded Singapore. Due to this, there was a fear of a Japanese
invasion of India. The Cripps mission aimed to gain Indian support to prevent this
● They wanted to announce their proposals, such as of post-war dominion status, in India.
Reasons for its Rejection:

● The Muslim League rejected it as:
○ It contained no reference to the creation of Pakistan. However, Jinnah liked the
Non-Accession Clause
○ There was an inadequate representation of Muslims in the Government
● The Congress Rejected it as:
○ They did not want the disintegration of India
○ They wanted complete control of India to be handed over to Indians
immediately, not Dominion status to be handed to them after the war
○ The British would probably be too weak after the war to even enforce these
promises.
○ Again, Ghandi didn't trust the British to keep their promises.
■ Due to this, Gandhi called the proposals ‘a post-dated cheque of a failing
bank.’
■ The INC wanted to take advantage of the weak status of the British to
gain their political goals. The same can arguably be said about the Muslim
League, but we don’t talk about that
● There was a fear that the Japanese would annexe India. Gandhi argued that if the British
left, there would be no need for them to do this
● It was said that these offers would be given after the war. Both parties wanted their
demands then. Furthermore, it was possible that after the war, the British wouldn’t be
powerful enough to give them their demands
Importance:
● British weakness was seen
● Non accession clause was an important step in acceptance of separation
● Hindu-Muslim diametrically opposing views highlighted
● British began to realize more and more how independence was the only feasible option.

Quit India Movement:
What:
● In 1942, Gandhi called for the British to immediately leave India.
○ This was because if they did, the Japanese would have no reason to invade India.
Even if Japan did invade India after the British left, they could resist ‘nonviolently’
● Thus, a massive Civil Disobedience Movement was launched. Gandhi referred to it as an
‘open rebellion’
● The call for determined but passive resistance was given in his call to ‘Do or Die’
● By the end of September, the British had arrested more than 50,000 Indians
○ All Congress leaders were arrested and the INC was declared an illegal
organization
○ >1000 lives were lost and thousands more injured
● The short-lived yet violent Quit India Movement is considered by many to be the most
serious threat to British rule since 1857
○ In it, strikes were called in many places. People burnt down government offices;
violence could not be controlled by the Congress. It was ended only by the
introduction of the British army
Gandhi:
● Mahatama Gandhi was an Indian politician born in 1869
● He was the President of the Indian National Congress
● He was a political ethicist in support of peaceful protests
● He launched the Quit-India Movement
Reasons for its Launching:

● To get the British to leave India
○ Indians feared Japanese invasion. They wanted the British to leave due to this as:
■ They had seen that the British were incapable to defend them
■ If the British left, India would no longer be such an enticing target for the
Japanese
● The Indian demands were not met in the August Offer and Cripps Mission
○ The INC was demanding that power be handed over to them. However, this was
not met, due to which they felt the need to take the matter in their own hands
● The INC wanted to pressurize the British government to immediately transfer power to
the elected legislature
○ As the INC was the largest party in India, this would effectively mean a transfer of
power to them
Reactions:
● The Muslim League referred to it as ‘blackmail’.
○ They feared that it would lead to the INC gaining complete control of India
○ Jinnah referred to it as ‘Divide and Quit India’ as he wanted Hindu-Muslim
settlement first but the opposite was occuring
● The British immediately imprisoned all Congress leaders and declared it an illegal party
○ Thousands of protesters were arrested
Importance:
● Showed the British that India:
○ Couldn’t be made without the support of Indians
○ Was ungovernable in the long run
■ This raised the question as to how power would be transferred
● It placed the demand for complete independence on the British Government
● It united the Indian people against British rule
● It kept the INC united through the trials that followed - they were able to organize
protests even when all leaders were imprisoned
Gandhi Jinnah Talks:

What:
● In 1944, the Gandhi-Jinnah talks were held to try to resolve the looming issue of what to
do about the demand for Pakistan, given that the British seemed to be on the verge of
leaving the subcontinent
● They were held at Jinnah’s house in Bombay
● It was initiated by a lawyer Raj Gopal something, a friend of both Gandhi and Jinnah
Why they were Held:

● Gandhi wanted:
○ To win Muslim support for the Quit India Movement
○ To convince Jinnah to let go of the Pakistan Resolution and Two-Nation theory
○ Transfer of power to Indians first and Hindu-Muslim settlement afterwards. He
was here to convince Jinnah to join him in these thoughts

Why they Failed:
● Gandhi insisted that the British depart first, and then there should be talks about
partition
○ Gandhi wanted this as he wanted the League to aid their pressure tactics for the
British to leave right away
○ Jinnah wanted the division to happen before the British departed as the
Congress rule of 1937-9 and the Nehru Report created some distrust
● Gandhi wanted to give only three provinces to future Pakistan while Jinnah was
demanding 6 Muslim majority provinces
○ Gandhi believed that because Punjab, Bengal and Assam were only partly
Muslim, they should be divided along communal lines
■ Jinnah disagreed and wanted all 6 to be a part of Pakistan
● Gandhi declared himself as representative of all of India, which annoyed Jinnah
○ He made it clear that he believed Gandhi represented the Hindus only.
● Gandhi’s declaration that as Muslims were converts from Hinduism, they were not a
separate nation and the Two-Nation Theory was false
○ Jinnah disagreed and countered that the Muslims were a separate nation by any
standard and definition of one
● Gandhi wanted a close federation with strategic areas like defence and foreign affair in
the hands of the federation
○ Jinnah, on the other hand, wanted provincial autonomy
● Ultimately, Gandhi confessed that he disagreed with the Two-Nation Theory
○ He believed that, at best, there could only be division of certain rights
○ Of course, Jinnah disagreed absolutely
Importance:
● Until now, the INC had refused to negotiate with the ML on an equal footing. Now, it was
forced to do so
● The INC, by negotiating possible terms of a partition, was accepting the ML’s claim that it
spoke for Muslims, thus going against its own claims that it spoke for all Indians
● By speaking intelligently and assertively, Jinnah proved that he was the most capable
Muslim leader. These properties helped him deal with Muslim problems, especially in
Punjab, with a firm hand

Simla Conference:
What:
● Lord Wavell, the new Viceroy of India, was a reputed military commander who declared
that the British government wanted to see India as an independent country
○ In May 1945, he went to London and discussed his ideas about the future of
India. The talks resulted in the formulation of the Wavell Plan, made public in
1945
● Simla Conference was held at Simla in 1945 to discuss the setting up of an executive
council/interim government with a parity of seats between Hindus and Muslims, with
reserved seats for other minorities.
● Important political parties which participated in the Simla Conference were the INC, the
ML, the Hindu Mahasabha, the Sikhs, and others
○ The Muslim League was represented by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Liaqut Ali Khan,
Khwaja Nazimuddin, and Sir Ghulam Hussain Hidayatullah
○ The INC was represented by Gandhi, Maulana Abul Kalam, and Khizar Hayat
Tiwana
■ A Muslim was chosen to prove that the ML was not the only
representative of Muslims
Lord Wavell:
● He was a Britisher born in 1883
● He was appointed the Viceroy of India
● He was Field Marshall of the British army
● He led the Simla Conference
Terms:
● The Viceroy’s Executive Council would be immediately reconstituted and the number of
its members would be increased.
● In the Council there would be equal representation of high-caste Hindus and Muslims.
● All the members of the Council, except the Viceroy, member-controlling defense and
the Commander-in-Chief, would be Indians.
● An Indian would be appointed as the member for Foreign Affairs in the Council.
However, a British commissioner would be responsible for trade matters.
● The defense of India would remain in British hands until power was ultimately
transferred to Indians.

● The Viceroy would convene a meeting of Indian politicians including the leaders of
Congress and the Muslim League at which they would nominate members of the new
Council.
● If this plan were to be approved for the central government, then similar councils of
local political leaders would be formed in all the provinces.
● None of the changes suggested would in any way prejudice or prejudge the essential
form of the future permanent Constitution of India.
Describe the Wavell Plan:

● The Wavell plan suggested reconstitution of the Viceroy’s executive council in which the
Viceroy was to select persons nominated by the political parties
● The executive council/interim government would work under the current constitution
until the new constitution is made and drafted
● There shall be parity of representation between Hindus and Muslims in this executive
council with one seat reserved for Sikhs and one for Scheduled-Caste Hindus
● One out of five Muslim seats in the executive council must be given to a non-ML
member
○ To this, Jinnah brought up the fact that they had won every by-election for the
past two years
Why it was held:

● Due to the Cripps Mission, Quit India Movement, and the Pakistan Resolution, the British
wanted to transfer power to the Indians
● Prior to this, Indians had proven that they were unable to reach an agreement regarding
the transfer of power, as shown by the Gandhi-Jinnah talks. Due to this, the British had
to step in
● It was held to discuss the proposal of setting up and interim government council and to
decide its details in order to give Indians experience in government
● WWII had exhausted the resources of the British, and left Britain financially bankrupt
○ They wanted to focus more on domestic issues than worrying about the
subcontinent.
○ As a result, they believed that it was time to discuss the future of the
subcontinent.
Importance:
● The British government realised the importance of Muslims in the future of India

● By reserving an equal number of seats for Muslims and HIndu, they accepted the
Two-Nation Theory
● This showed that Britain was willing to hand over power to the Indians and to negotiate
○ For the first time, they handed over the important ministries of Finance and
Foreign Affairs to Indians
● It proved the now weakened British after the severe draining of resources during WWII.
They were in a vulnerable state and very open to negotiations
Reasons for its Failure:

● The Wavell plan included no mention of Indian independence
● Muslims were not given a separate homeland
○ Congress continued to claim that they represented all Indians, including Muslims
■ To show this, they sent Maulana Azad, a Muslim leader from Congress, as
the leader of their delegation
○ This plan did not accept the ML as the sole representative of Muslims in India
■ Jinnah opposed this and pointed out that the League had won every
by-election for the past 2 years
● The composition of the Executive Council with parity of seats between Hindus and
Muslims and seats reserved for Sikhs and scheduled caste Hindus could not be agreed
upon
○ Gandhi did not like the inclusion of the scheduled caste Hindus, nor did he like
how they were referred to
○ Jinnah pointed out that the Sikhs and scheduled caste Hindus would be bound to
vote in favor of the Hindus and thus the Muslims would be a permanent minority
on the council
● Jinnah opposed the ability for Congress to put forward Muslim representatives of the
Congress Party as part of the Executive Council
○ Congress continued to claim that they represented all Indians, including Muslims
■ To show this, they sent Maulana Azad, a Muslim leader from Congress, as
the leader of their delegation
● Even though Muslims and Hindus were to have an even number of seats, as Sikhs voted
with Hindus, Muslims would be in an eternal minority
The 1945-46 Elections:

● In 1945, the war-time prime minister, Winston Churchill, and his Conservative Party were
defeated in the general elections
● The new Prime Minister, Element Attlee, and the Labour Party, were committed to
self-government in India. Wavell was told to organise elections to both provincial and
central assemblies and the set up an Executive Council with the support of the main
Indian parties
● During these elections the INC and the ML competed with simple but diametrically
opposing manifestos:
○ The INC stood for an undivided India independent from the British
○ The ML held that the only solution to future religious communal conflicts
between Hindus and Muslims was to create a Muslim homeland independent
from both the British and India
■ “If you want Pakistan, vote for Muslim League”
Results:
Muslim League:
● They won all 30 seats in the Central Legislature that were reserved for Muslims
● They won 87% of the seats reserved for Muslims in the Provinces (446/495)
○ Punjab: 79/86 Muslim seats
○ Bengal: 113/119 Muslim seats
○ Sindh: 28/35 Muslim Seats
○ NWFP: 17/36 Muslim seats
● They made ministries in two provinces:
○ Bengal, where Hussain Shaheed Suharwrdy was made the chief minister
○ and Sindh
■ In Punjab, even though they were the single largest party, the UP, INC,
and Akalis made a coalition to form the government
Indian National Congress:

● The INC won most of the non-Muslim seats, winning 80% of the general seats and 91.3%
of the Non-Muslim votes
○ The INC won in NWFP, winning 19 of the 36 Muslim seats
■ This is because Doctor Khan Sahib, the leader of the red shirt movement,
was campaigning on the behalf of the INC there
Why the Muslim League Performed so Well:

● After the elections of ‘37, the ML had become a more well-organized and mature
political party under the leadership of Jinnah, who was made its lifetime president.
○ They fixed their ‘image’ problem by allowing common Indians to

● The tyrannies Muslims had faced under Congress Rule made them realise that if they
didn’t stand up for their rights (by voting for the ML), they would have to face another 5
years of the same treatment
● The social and political climate of India was different
○ Most Muslims were now for an independent homeland after the Muslim passing
and propagation of the Lahore Resolution.
○ The communal divide was much greater, which ML was being able to capitalise
on by using religious symbolism in their campaigning
Importance:
● The results of this election marked the ending of the days when the ML could be ignored
as they confirmed Jinnah’s two claims:
○ The ML was the sole representative of Muslims
○ Most of them want a separate Muslim state.
● The results of these elections revealed how divided India had become, which was
proven due to the fact that the ML and the INC, with their directly opposing manifestos,
had won most of the Muslim and non-Muslim seats respectively.
● It made the Pakistan Resolution much more viable by revealing its support and how
relevant it was in the current social conflict
Cabinet Mission Plan:

What:
● In March 1946, the British made their final effort to settle the differences in India and
keep the subcontinent together as a federation
● The new (Labour) British government sent three senior Cabinet Members (Led by Sir
Stafford Cripps and containing Mr AV Alexander and Lord Pethic-Lawrence) to India to
try to negotiate a settlement acceptable to all parties
● It met with representatives of the ML, INC, Sikhs, and the Hindu Mahasabha.
○ There was little in common between the ML and INC. Jinnah was insisting on the
formation of Pakistan while the INC was opposed to any partition. Thus, they
took a different approach in their statement
● As there was a great deal of unrest and political activity, as long as the deteriorating
economic and political situation of the country, people looked towards the mission with
hope and expectation.
● Lord Wavell published a statement in May 1946, containing their solutions to the
constitutional deadlock. There were two plans: a short term plan and a long-term plan.
Why it was Sent:
● To save Indian unity by solving the constitutional deadlock
● After the World War, Britain were weak and didn’t have the resources to manage India
● To discuss the future of India and how power would be transferred from Britain to India
○ The new Labour Party was anti-colonization and keen to give India independence
Plan:
Long-Term:
● There would be no Pakistan in a post-British India. Instead it would be divided into three
groups of provinces:
○ Hindu Majority Provinces:
○ Muslim Majority Provinces
○ Bengal and Assam
● Each group of provinces would have provincial autonomy and would be able to draw up
its own constitution.
● The foreign affairs, defence, and communication of the country would be managed by a
Central Indian Union.
Short-Term:
● An interim government would be set up in which all positions would be held by Indians
● Any party that accepted the Plan would be invited to make up the interim government
Reactions:
● At first, Jinnah and the Muslim League accepted it.
○ However, Nehru then announced that after the British left, he would not be
bound to this plan.
■ This wasn’t even his whole party’s position and Gandhi did scold him
quite a lot over this. It seems like one foolish man was able to ruin the
future of United India
○ This destroyed any confidence the ML had in the INC, causing them to reject the
plan. Thus, the Plan was dropped

Importance of the Cabinet Mission Plan:
● This destroyed any possible negotiations between the INC and ML in the future as now
the ML had absolutely no trust left in the INC
● There was now no chance left for any United India as this, the final gamble, had failed.
● It marked the beginning of the independence negotiations and was the first time the
British actually offered India a chance to be separated from the Empire
Direct Action Day:

● By summer 1946, it was clear that British withdrawal was imminent. Therefore, in July
1946, the ML passed a resolution declaring that it should prepare for the final struggle
against both the Congress and the British
● On 16th August 1946, upon the recommendation of Jinnah, the ML called a direct action
day to show their solidarity
○ All Muslims who had received British titles were asked to hand them back
○ Jinnah stated that up till now, the British and the Hindus both had been pointing
a pistol on them while they negotiated peacefully. Now, it was time for Muslims
(who were not reliant on ‘any group for help but would seek independence
themselves’), to use their own pistols
● In Calcutta, this demonstration turned violent, due to which up to 4000 people were
killed in the ‘Great Calcutta Killings:
○ This marked the start of the “Week of the Long Knives”
Reasons:
● To show Muslim solidarity and power to the British and INC
● The ML feared that the British might pull out prematurely, leaving the Muslims to suffer
under the hands of the Hindu Majority
● To make their demand for independence even more clear
Importance:
● The Calcutta massacres caused the worsening of the Hindu Muslim Relations, making
the Partition even more likely
● British gained a physical, not numerical, sense of the Muslim power and solidarity
● The ML was now preparing for the final struggle for independence

Interim Government:
● After the ML rejected the Cabinet Mission Plan, the INC promptly accepted it. However,
the Viceroy soon realized the futility of the scheme without the participation of the ML
and organized a meeting with Jinnah
○ In it, he convinced Jinnah to participate in it, advising him to protect the rights of
Muslims by doing so
○ Jinnah then joined the council, nominating five members, including one Hindu (in
order to show that they weren’t anti-Hindu). The nominated members were:
■ Liaqut Ali Khan
■ Raja Ghazanfar Ali Khan
■ Sardar Abdur Rab Nishtar
■ Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar
■ Jogindar Nath Mendal
● Although Muslims had an equal number of seats, they were not given an equal number
of ministries
○ The INC agreed to give the finance ministry to the ML, who nominated Liaqut Ali
Khan
○ Even though the INC though it would be difficult to handle this complicated
industry with their minimal resources, Liaqut Ali Khan took over the issues and
presented the first budget of United India very efficiently
■ The budget Liaqut Ali Khan presented was called a “Poor Man’s Budget”
as it adversely affected Hindu capitalists. This made it very difficult for the
Congress ministers to run their industries as they found it difficult to
release finances, thus effectively placing the governmental setup under
the Muslim League
● The elections for a Constituent Assembly were held between July and December 1946.
○ However, when it first met on 9th December, the ML refused to attend
○ In retaliation, the INC demanded that, as the ML had rejected the Cabinet
Mission Plan, they should be forced to resign. Otherwise, the INC would
withdraw their own member
○ Seeing this, the British Viceroy entered a series of talks with the INC and ML.
Jinnah made it clear that the demand for Pakistan had the support of all
Muslims, due to which Lord Mountbatten prepared for the partition of the
subcontinent and announced it on June 3rd, 1947.

3rd June Plan:
What
● The British Prime Minister, Clement Atlee, declared in the British Parliament that India
would be freed by February 1948
○ Lord Mountbatten was to replace Lord Wavell as the last Viceroy
○ He arrived in India in 1947, charged with the mission to make a peaceful transfer
of power. There were several challenges, discussed below.
● Seeing the riots and killings between Hindus and Muslims in Punjab, he realised the
need for speedy settlement. He soon began negotiations with the political leaders, and
after prolonged talks worked out a partition plan by April 1947.
○ He himself took the plan to London, where he got it approved without any
alterations. However, the approval he received from the cabinet lasted not more
than five minutes.
● He came back to Britain on May 31st, and on June 2nd met Indian leaders.
○ After Indian leaders approved the plan, Mountbatten met with Gandhi and
convinced him that it was the best plan under the circumstances. It was made
public on June 3rd
○ Both the INC and the ML accepted it
Problems while Making the Plan:

● The ML was demanding partition of India, unprepared to accept anything less than
Pakistan
● On the other hand, the INC was pressuring hard for the transfer of power to the Hindu
dominated constituent assembly
● The choice of June 1948 for the transfer of power was too close for the innumerable
political, constitutional, and administrative decisions involved
The Partition Plan:

● The sub-continent would be divided into to independent states, India, and Pakistan
○ The interim constitution of both states was the 1935 Government of India Act
○ Each state was to have Dominion status and an Executive responsible to a
Constituent Assembly
● Punjab and Bengal would decide which country to opt and whether the provinces would
be partitioned
○ A referendum would be held in NWFP and Jirga in Balochistan to decide their
future

○ Princely States would be free to join either country. They wouldn’t be
independent
● A boundary commission would be set up to demarcate the Punjabi and Bengali borders
between Pakistan and India
● Assets including Army, Civil Services, and Finance would be divided between India and
Pakistan
Reasons:
● To ensure a peaceful transfer of power
● The failure of the interim government
● The riots in Punjab, the vies for independence, and the protests
● After WW2, British were too weak to run an Empire
● Gandhi had failed, now, there was a power struggle between Jinnah and Nehru
○ Jinnah wanted independence, Nehru a combined constitution
Preponement:
● Due to the Punjabi massacres and communal riots, the British felt the need to prepone
the transfer of power from June 1948 to 1947 in order to prevent a Civil War on June 4th
● However, there were still quite a few problems left to be solved:
○ There was still a need to draw boundaries between Muslim and non-Muslim
areas
○ The issue of princes had to be resolved - what was to happen if they went against
the wish of the people when deciding which country to join?
○ How would assets be divided?
○ Pakistan’s relationship with Britain still had to be resolved - although India’s first
Governor General was to be Mountbatten, Jinnah was to be Pakistan’s
Violence in Punjab:
● For quite a few months before March, there was agitation in Punjab, with the Muslim
League criticizing the Hindu and Sikh government
● The UP’s proximity to the British government was a major source for their power in
Punjab. Thus, when the British announced their plan to leave, they quickly lost most of
their prestige
○ Sir Khizr Hayat decided to resign on 3rd March
● In response to this, Hindus and Sikhs held demonstrations, which Muslims violently
retaliated against
● In the following days, violence quickly broke out
○ ~3500 (overwhelmingly non-Muslim) citizens were killed, with kidnappings of
non-Muslim women and forced conversions to Islam, especially in Rawalpindi
○ In order to escape, many Sikh women jumped into wells to save their honour
○ Some 40,000 non-Muslims had to migrate
● Soon, Congress started to demand the division of Punjab
The Independence Act:

● On 14th July, the Indian Independence Act was passed.
● It stated the India would be separated into two dominion states - India and Pakistan ON
15th August. They would be separated from Britain on that day
○ Princely states could join either country
○ Government of India Act 1935 would remain enforced until the constituent
assemblies of either countries could from their own constitution
○ The states of India and Pakistan were to be in the British Commonwealth if they
so Desired
● On 14th August, Jinnah celebrated the creation of Pakistan
○ India was created the next day, on 15th August
● This was so rushed as Jinnah couldn’t afford to drag it out - he was extremely ill and had
no good replacement in the ML
Radcliffe Award:
● One issue that couldn’t be resolved by 15th August was the border between the two
countries
○ Originally, Rehmat Ali presented a border which consisted of a very divided
Pakistan, with dozens of Muslim enclaves inside Hindu India. Because it was
completely stupid and impractical, no-one paid any attention to this nutcrack
● Mountbatten appointed Sir Radcliffe to head a Boundary Commission to establish the
new borders (particularly in Punjab and Bengal)
○ He had four assistants, two from the ML and two from the INC
● The decision of the Boundary Commission (known as the Boundary/Radcliffe Award)
was announced on 16th August.
○ In it, Kashmir and Hyderabad weren’t given to Pakistan. Both Ferozepur and
Gurdaspur were given to India

Pakistan Movement:
Do you agree that during World War 2, there was no significant progress towards
independence? Give reasons for your answer.
● No significant progress
○ Failure of the Cripps Mission
○ Arrest of Congress leaders during Quit India campaign
○ Failure of Simla Conference
■ All parties agree that an Executive Council should be formed
○ Failure of the Gandhi Jinnah Talks
■ This could also be seen as a success - the INC were now willing
● Some Significant Progress
○ End of Congress tyranny
○ Pakistan Resolution
○ Cripps Mission
■ This showed that the British accepted the need to protect the minorities
○ Quit India Campaign
■ Shows that Congress was taking radical action
○ By the end of the war, British withdrawal was inevitable
○ Simla conference proposals:
■ The British acted according to the two nation theory
● Conclusion
○ It appears that no real progress had been made as the Cripps Mission and Simla
Conference had been unsuccessful. However, underneath this apparent failure
was progress. Both the Muslims and HIndus had come to see that British rule
must end immediately, and the British were beginning to realize this, too.
How Did the Pakistan Movement Become and Important Force:

● Hindu opression during their reign led Muslims to realize this would be the status even
after independence
● The impending British exit pressed the need of the issue
● Fear of Hindu domination after indepenence
● Support for Muslim League incraesed rapidly after 1937 culminating in their victory in
by-elections and next election, which solidified the support of their manifesto
● The Pakistan Resolution stated and popularized the Muslim demand for a separate state

Which Event Was More Important For Independence:
● Pakistan Resolution - Extremely Important:
○ This was a vital step towards the creation of Pakistan by the Muslim League. It
clearly stated their aims - the creation of Pakistan, thus uniting Muslims in India
under a common cause. It also formed the basis of their future negotiations with
Britain and the Congress.
● August Offer - Not important at all:
○ The August Offer contained no reference to the creation of Pakistan or any
special rights for Muslims. It was a clear depiction of the fact that Britain had not
yet realised the importance of Muslims in the future of India. Thus why the
Muslim League rejected it immediately as Britain still had a long way to travel till
their plans were acceptable for Muslims.
● Cripps Mission - Important:
○ In this offer, British for the first time made any reference to the separation of
provinces into a separate state. This showed a change in their mindset - now,
they were willing to accept the power of Muslims and respond to their wishes.
However, they had not yet accepted the prospect of full independence, due to
which Jinnah rejected the Mission while simultaneously expressing his
appreciation for the Non-Accession Clause.
● Quit India Movement - Not important at alll:
○ In this movement, the Congress placed pressure on Britain to immediately
transfer power to the Hindu government (which had already shown how little
they cared about Muslims in their rule). This would no doubt be terrible for the
future of Muslims, due to which the Muslim League referred to it as the ‘divide
and Quit India Movement’. The Indian National Congress movement’s gaining of
traction was bad for the Pakistan Movement for an increased chance of the
Hindu’s wishes coming true meant a decreased chance of Muslim’s coming true
● Gandhi-Jinnah Talks - Partially Importnat:
○ Even though Gandhi had not yet accepted the idea of Pakistan, by negotiating on
an equal footing with Jinnah, he was accepting the Muslim League’s claim that
they were the sole representatives of Muslims in India. Furthermore, this gave
Jinnah a chance to portray his intelligence and worth as the most capable Muslim
leader
○ However, no agreement could be reached as to independence and partition
● Simla Conference - Not Important:

○ According to the Wavell Plan, Muslims were to be given an equal number of
seats to Hindus. However, as Sikhs (who had also been awarded reserved seats)
always voted with Hindus, Muslims would be in a permanent minority.
Furthermore, it gave no mention to the creation of a separate state for Muslims,
which showed that their mindset had not progressed any further since the Cripps
Mission. It is for this reason that the Simla Conference was a failure for the
Pakistan Movement, which is why the Muslim League rejected it.
● Elections of 1945 - Important:
○ As the Muslim League won most of the Muslim vote, this prove that not only
were they the sole representative of Muslims, but also that their manifesto, the
creation of Pakistan, was extremely popular. This cemented their importance as a
political party, giving them much more power in future negotiations. It is likely
that Pakistan would not have been created if the Muslim League didn’t perform
as well in the elections.
● Cabinet Mission Plan - Depends:
○ The Cabinet Mission Plan was an excellent compromise between the Indian
National Congress and Muslim League’s Manifestos - while India itself was not
officially divided, Jinnah was also provided with the substance of Pakistan while
avoiding it being ‘moth-eaten’ as it was after the partition. It is a shame that it
had to be rejected.
○ After Nehru’s statement in the Cabinet Mission Plan, any trust between the
Muslim League and Congress was destroyed. This would make future
negotiations much more difficult.
○ This can be the most or least important event depending on how you look at it -
while it did make any hope for a united India go away and also led to the
formation of the interim government, it was also yet another failed attempt at a
settlement between HIndus and Muslims
● Direct Action Day - Important:
○ During these demonstrations, Muslims were able to portray their power and
unity, thus increasing their bargaining strength with the British. The week of long
knives that followed also portrayed the animosity between separate religious
groups, pressing the need for it
● 3rd June Plan - Important:
○ In the 3rd June Plan, both the British and the Congress finally accepted the
creation of Pakistan. The efforts of Muslim League and Jinnah had finally come
into being, only seven years after they had set their goal.
● The Independence Act - Depends:

○ Due to the independence act being so rushed, important issues such as borders
and the citizenship of princely states had to be decided in an extremely short
period of time, which could not be done effectively. This created many problems
for Pakistan, such as the unjust Radcliffe Award, and the Kashmir Issue.
○ However, Jinnah’s health was rapidly declining. As he was the only capable
Muslim Leader, if he passed away before negotiations were complete, the
partition would probably never occur. The Independence Act removed the
chance for this by cementing the creation of Pakistan. It also prevented a full-out
civil war in India due to the many riots and massacres occurring then.
● Radcliffe Awards:
○ The boundaries drawn under this award were extremely controversial due to its
heavy preference for Hindus. Due to the partition of Bengal, Jinnah said that it
left Muslims with a ‘moth-eaten Pakistan’. Furthermore, some Muslim-Majority
areas were given to India, such as Ferozepur and Gurdaspur. Gurdaspur was
proved especially important during the war of 1948 as it gave Indians easy access
to Jammu and Kashmir.
Why did Pakistan Come into Existence:

● The British refusal to leave in the 1920s/30s led to the worsening of communal divides in
the nation
● The election of the Labour party, who were anti-colonialism, after the failure of several
ploys to solve the war issue meant that the British government were much more eager
to get out however they could
● The INC:
○ They turned a blind eye to the Hindu-Muslim issues, thus leading to their
substantial worsening during their rule
○ Their refusal to include ML in their coalitions and further refusals to negotiate
properly (for example, in the Gandhi-Jinnah talks) made any negotiations for a
United India difficult
● The Muslim League:
○ By passing the Pakistan Resolution, they united and riled up Muslims to protect
their identity
○ Quaid-e-Azam individually was very important - he singlehandedly negotiated
everything
● Community:
○ The Hindu-Muslim divides got worse due to communal violence and racism, such
as during the massacres in Punjab and discrimination during Congress Rule

Reasons for the Creation of Pakistan in 1940s:
● Pakistan Resolution
● Cripps Mission
● Gandhi Jinnah Talks
● Simla Conference
● Elections of ‘46
● Cabinet Mission Plan
● Day of Deliverance and Calcutta Killings
● 3rd June Plan
British-India Relationships:
● August Offer
○ Rejected by Indians
● Cripps Mission
○ A post dated cheque on a failing bank
● Quit India Movement
○ Failure to win independence
● Simla Conference
○ An agreement could not be reached
● Cabinet Mission Plan
○ Direct Action Day and the Great Calcutta Killings

Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Allama
Iqbal, and Rehmat Ali
Muhammad Ali Jinnah:
Who:
● He was born in 1876 in Karachi
● At the age of 15, he went to London to study law
○ While in England, he attended debates at the House of Commons
● He returned to Karachi in 1897, where he established a highly successful practice
● He started his political career in 1906 by joining the Congress
● He never joined the ML till it started working towards self-rule
○ Before, it was basically a puppet party
● In 1913, it joined the Muslim League but remained a member of the Congress
○ He took upon himself the responsibility of bringing the two parties together
■ Due to this, he was given the title of ‘Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity
in India’
Achievements:
It is best to study them while going over the other units. Here I will outline some of his efforts
● Hindu-Muslim unity:
○ Lucknow Pact
○ Continued efforts till Nehru Report, and the ‘Parting of Ways’
● 14 Points
○ Formed the basis of further negotiations
● Voluntary self-exile to London, for he felt that that was the ‘centre of gravity’ where
most changes were to occur
○ Permanent lifetime president of the League when he returned
● First Round Table Conference
● Reformed the league
○ United it
● Rejected Cripps Mission
● Gandhi-Jinnah talks
● 1st Governor-General of Pakistan
○ More about his post-partition efforts in the post on Post-Partition Problems
● Women’s rights
Allama Iqbal:
Who:
● Poet, philosopher, and active political leader
● Born in Sialkot in 1977
● Joined Sialkot Mission School and got a degree in 1897
● In 1927, he was appointed General Secretary of the Muslim League Sir Muhammad Shafi
group
● In 1930, he was invited to preside over the Allahabad address
● He died in 1938 and was buried outside the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore
Allahabad Address:
See 1927-1939
Importance:
● He was the first Muslim leader to suggest the partition of the subcontinent on the basis
of the Two-Nation Theory.
● He united Muslims by giving them a guideline
○ He was called the father of the ideology of Pakistan. His views acted as an
inspiration to Muslims who were uncertain as to how to defend their religion and
culture by giving them a clear-cut objective
● It was his ideas that were further built upon to form the Pakistan movement
○ He was an inspiration for other Muslim leaders
■ His ideas were included in Rahmat Ali’s Pakistan Scheme (1933)
■ His ideas were the base for Jinnah’s Pakistan Resolution (1940)
● His poetry was a source of inspiration for the Muslims of India that kindred a sense of
nationhood and motivated them to work hard to achieve their goals
● Iqbal was the one who convinced Jinnah to rejoin politics in 1934.
Chaudhry Rehmat Ali (1897-1951):

Who:
● He studied at the Islamia College in Lahore
● He moved to England in 1930 and was a student of Cambridge in 1931
○ He was able to do so after winning an important case for the Nawab of Mazari
● He was the earliest advocate for the creation of the state of Pakistan
● He coined the name ‘Pakistan’ for a separate Muslim homeland in South Asia
● He penned the pamphlet ‘Now or Never’ in 1933
○ In the same year, he founded the ‘National Pakistan Movement’ in England
Beliefs:
● In order for Muslims to become a viable, independent community they must first reform
politically
● Muslims should unite to survive in what he believed was an increasing hostile India
● Muslims should have a separate homeland
Chaudry’s relations with other Muslim leaders:

● Most had different points of view but were working for the same cause - the
development of Muslims in India. Thus, they were sincere with each other
● At the time, Muslims in India were struggling for rights. Chaudhry Rehmat Ali, however,
was in India, suggesting that Muslims should go for independence, unaware of the
actual situations on the field. Due to this, his and Jinnah’s opinions were different -
Jinnah knew that currently, Muslims were struggling to get even basic rights/unite
themselves. Furthermore, even the British did not care about their future. If they were
unable to achieve basic aims, how was a battle for independence viable at the time?
● Iqbal did not agree with him either, as he wanted a separate state, not a homeland
Limitations of his Ideas:

● He did not include the Muslims of Bengal
● His ideas were disliked by Jinnah, who was struggling for the protection of Muslims
within the constitution through a system of loose federation
● His views were different from Iqbal’s, who wanted a separate state, not a homeland
How did the name ‘Pakistan’ originate [4 marks]:

● Chaudhry Rehmat Ali devised the name
● It was stated in the pamphlet ‘Now or Never’ in 1933
● By the end of the year, most Muslims within India knew its name and importance
● It was a combination of different provinces which were to be included in Pakistan:
Punjab, Afghania, Kashmir, Sindh, and Balochistan
● As the Muslim League thought his idea was impractical, ‘twas ignored by Jinnah

His contributions:
● In 1933, he and some fellow students produced a pamphlet called ‘Now or Never’, in
which he argued in favour of partition and gave the name Pakistan to this new Muslim
state that would be formed
○ “Are we to live or perish forever?”
● He was the first person to use the name Pakistan for the separate homeland
● He wanted a separate federation of Muslim states with independence
● He criticized plans to abandon Muslim communities in Delhi as well ass accepting a
divided Bengal
○ When the Viceroy came in 1947 with his plans for the partition, Jinnah and
Nehru immediately accepted it. He didn’t push for more as his doctor told him
that he was ill and would soon die. If he died with the negotiations incomplete,
they would never end
● In many respects, he was ahead of his time. His vision of the future was adopted in the
long-term by 1940 by the Muslim League
Did Allama Iqbal play more of an important role in the development

of the Pakistan Movement than Chaudry Rehmat Al/Jinnah? Explain
your answer.
Allama Iqbal, Allahabad Address:
● See Heading ‘Importance’ under Allama Iqbal
Chaudhry Rehmat Ali, Now or Never Pamphlet:

● In 1933, he and some fellow students produced a pamphlet called ‘Now or Never’, in
which he argued in favour of partition and gave the name Pakistan to this new Muslim
state that would be formed
○ “Are we to live or perish forever?”
● He was the first person to use the name Pakistan for the separate homeland
● He wanted a separate federation of Muslim states with independence
Jinnah, 14 Points:
Past Paper Answer:
Jinnah’s 14 Points of 1929 set out the demands of future negotiations with Congress and/or the
British Government. These demands were also to form the basis of Muslim League’s demand for
a separate Muslim homeland. It argued that Hindus and Muslims were two separate nations
and won much British approval for such a view. However, he also achieved much more. After
the 1937 elections, Jinnah set out to reform the Muslim League at grass root level and, as a
result, membership had grown significantly by mid-1938. Without this growth, the League
would have struggled to be recognised by the British as a powerful player in Indian politics, and
hence the fortunes of the Pakistan Movement would have possibly failed to bear fruit when it
did. Jinnah used the Lahore Conference in 1940 to ensure that the Muslim League would only
accept a solution to the sub-continent which ensured partition. This was called the Pakistan
Resolution. He also opposed the proposals of the Cripps Mission that saw Dominion status for
the sub-continent. In doing so he helped ensure the British realised the need to protect Muslim
interests. Although the Gandhi-Jinnah Talks of 1944 broke up without agreement, Congress was
left in no doubt that the League was an important organisation that spoke with authority on
behalf of many sub-Continent Muslims. Due to continued pressure from the League and Jinnah,
the 3 June Plan of 1947 announced that separate states would be set up – India and Pakistan.
● Formed basis of future negotiations
● Furthered the awareness that Hindus and Muslims should form a separate nation
○ This shaped the basis of a desire for a separate homeland
● Made clear that living with Hindus under one constitution is no longer a possibility for
Muslis as their demands are very different from Hindus, who were not ready to provide
protection for Muslims
● Others:
○ Rejuvenated the ML
○ Opposed the Cripps Mission, showing India the importance of Muslims
○ Everything else

Post-Partition Problems:
A reminder: When writing about how successful the government was in solving these issues,
remember that Pakistan does not fail, it is only less successful. Saying otherwise is double-plus
ungood.
Pakistan faced several problems after separation. This document shall discuss them and how
Pakistan/Jinnah attempted to solve them
Issues Created by the Radcliffe Award:

Complaints about the Award;
● The boundaries between India and Pakistan were announced in the Radcliffe Award on
17th August. It is due to this that many problems were created between Pakistan and
India
● Ferozepur was given to India
● Gurdaspor, which also had a border with Kashmir, was given to India
● Bengal was partitioned, with the Hindu-majority city of Calcutta being given to india. It
was vital for the economy of West Bengal as it was here that the raw materials were
processed
● The Chittagong Hill Tracts (a Hindu majority area) was given to Pakistan
Geographical Issues due to the Award:

● West and East Pakistan were separated by over a thousand miles of enemy territory. This
is in contrast to most other countries, which have natural borders such as rivers,
mountains, or the sea.
● Due to this, it was difficult to govern the whole area efficiently, especially due to the
social differences and political problems
○ As the two wings had various cultural differences, a sense of insecurity and
deprivation developed in East Pakistan due to the fact that the capital, and most
political leaders were situated in West Pakistan.
● There were only 8 big cities with a population of over 10,000 (Karachi, Rawalpindi,
Hyderabad, Dhaka, Multan, Sialkot, and Peshawar) and its main industry was the
agricultural one, which didn’t create enough revenue for industrial growth
○ Pakistan was, however, the world's leading producer of Jute, producing 70% of
the world’s supply of it.

○ Despite not having a jute mill, Jute contributed a major part to the foreign
exchange of Pakistan
Accession of Princely States:

● Under this award, the Princely states were to choose which country they joined. This
created issues in a few areas, most notably in Kashmir.
○ There were around 560 semi-autonomous states, all of which had to choose a
side.
○ Lord Mountbatten said they should take into consideration communal
composition and the geographical location while making their decision
● Hyderabad:
○ Hyderabad was the largest and richest state in India, due to which it was
desirable to them.
○ The Nizam of Hyderabad, who was Muslim (whilst 85% his populace was Hindu)
wanted dominion status, but Lord Mountbatten forbade this. Therefore, he
decided to join Pakistan despite his population being against this.
○ India did not like this and therefore pressurized him to join India. A standstill
followed
■ The Hindu populace was incited to revolt against the Nizam and his desire
to be independent, due to which there was provincial turmoil and
violence
■ Due to this, Hyderabad filed a complaint in the UN Security Council
○ Before the hearing, India invaded and annexed Hyderabad under the pretence
that they were there to restore order
■ Hyderabad surrendered on September 17th 1948
● Junagadh:
○ Junagadh, a small state on the coast 300 miles Karachi, had an (80%) Hindu
population and Muslim prince who decided he would join Pakistan on September
15th 1947
■ He did this despite the fact that the state wasn’t that geographically close
to Pakistan
■ The Muslim ruler of Manavader, a smaller state which shared a border
with Junagadh, also followed suit in this decision. These decisions were
accepted by Pakistan, but not by India
○ India imposed a blockade, imposing an economic blockade and blocking all rail
communication to Junagadh, due to which there was a lack of food

■ The situation got so hectic by the end of October that the Muslim ruler
had to hastily leave for Karachi
○ In November 1947, India sent 20,000 troops with modern weapons, later taking
control of the entire state despite Pakistan’s protests against the illegal
occupation
■ After two months, India held a referendum, which was overwhelmingly in
support for joining India
■ Pakistan took the matter the to UNO but nothing happened
Kashmir Issue:
● The Hindu Nawab of the land, Hari Singh, wanted independence, even though his 78%
Muslim population wanted to join Pakistan
○ Lord Mountbatten pressured him to take a decision to join either state, to which
Maharaja asked for more time for deliberation. During this time, the Indian and
Pakistani governments were asked to sign a ‘standstill agreement’, to which
Pakistan agreed but India disagreed
● During this time, the local population started to pressure the Nawab to join Pakistan
○ In an effort to sway him, they held a massive protest in August ‘47, due to which
the Nawab panicked and started firing on the Muslims, killing hundreds in a
matter of seconds
○ A local Barrister, Sardar Muhammad Ibrahim, set up the Azad Kashimr
government and began to wage guerilla warfare against the Nawab
● By October, the War of Kashmir had started, during which Pathan tribesmen from NWFP
invaded the valley in order to avenge the deaths of their fallen comrades
○ They defeated the Nawab’s troops and reached the gates of the capital of
Kashmir
○ Due to this, the Nawab had to flee to Jammu, where he signed the instrument of
accession in order to gain Indian support in the war.
● In the end of October, India began to airlift troops to the capital, and launched an attack
on the tribesmen
○ Pakistan was about to send troops in their defense, but the british General
Gracey refused, due to which Jinnah proposed a ceasefire and plebiscite.
● In 1948, India took the matter to the security council. The government requested a
ceasefire and withdrawal of troops so that a fair plebiscite could be held
○ Pakistan was accused of aggression and was told to withdraw its tribesmen while
India was accused of annexing Kashmir by force

○ During the UN negotiations, India launched a full-scale attack, driving the
tribesmen to the Pakistani border, due to which Pakistan rushed its army into
Kashmir.
● On August 13th, 1948, when Khwaja Nazimuddin was the General, the Security Council
called for a ceasefire and the withdrawal of all troops for a plebiscite
○ Both governments accepted and the resolution was implemented in January,
with the ceasefire line being demarcated in July
■ Under it, Pakistani Kashmir consisted of some parts of Jammu, Poonch,
some areas of Western Kashmir, Gilgit, and a large chunk of Ladakh
territory near the Chinese border whereas India kept the Kashmir valley,
Jammu and the remainder of Ladakh
○ While the ceasefire has remained in existence since then, no plebiscite has been
held
How it was Resolved:

● The Pakistani government failed to solve any of the issues relating to princely states, as
seen by the state of Kashmir today
Refugee Issue and Communal Riots:

● The boundaries between Pakistan and India were announced after their independence.
While it was easy to divide provinces like Balochistan, Sindh, NWFP, and East Bengal, it
was extremely difficult to draw the Punjabi borders
○ This area contained several important Sikh areas
● Once the hastily-drawn borders were announced in the Radcliffe Award, millions of
people found themselves in the wrong country. Thus, about 17 million people left their
homes and possession to seek safety, with 7 million refugees who needed rehabilitation,
clothes, food, and shelter suddenly entering Pakistan
○ The commission divided districts, villages, farmlands, water, and property. Most
were unprepared for this, and so had to quickly rush across the border, leaving
their homes, land, and personal property
● During this, the communal riots of the past few years came to a crescendo, with both
Hindus and Muslims brutally massacring people of the other religion. Entire trains were
murdered, reaching their destinations with no living passengers. Thus, people fled in a
panic, hoping to find safety on the other side
○ Sometimes, the violence was even orchestrated by authorities
○ It got so bad that Delhi was forced to declare martial law when non-Muslims
began a massacre of local Muslims
● Pakistan, a poor country with little resources, was now faced with the issue as to how to
accommodate these refugees, many of whom had absolutely no belongings
○ Pakistan didn’t have sufficient resources to provide food, shelter, and medical aid
to the refugees
○ Furthermore, most factories didn’t work as the Hindu and Sih staff left Pakistan,
replaced by unskilled Pakistani peasants
Reasons for the Refugee Crisis:

● The Radcliffe Award presented many problems as the borders in Punjab and Bengal
resulted in many Sikhs, Hindus, and Muslims being on the wrong side of the border.
● The borders were drawn after Pakistan was made, due to which they were extremely
hasty. Furthermore, many people found out after partition that they were in the wrong
country, due to which they had to hastily migrate in order to
● Sikhs and Hindus were unhappy due to the loss of religious places, due to which Skihs
and Hindus armed with deadly weapons slaughtered Muslims due to their anger.
Muslims were also resentful of others, slaughtering many Hindus and Sikhs for revenge

● Refugee camps were set up in Karachi and Lahore
○ Jinnah shifted his headquarters from Karachi to Lahore (which was closer to the
border) in order to be closer to the action
● The Minority Safety Act was passed, which stated the smooth transition of people from
India to Pakistan through a proper visa system
○ The Central Refugee Council was created, which facilitated the rehabilitation of
refugees
■ In 1948, the State Bank was created to manage resources for this task
○ The Government of Punjab was given the responsibility to accommodate the
refugees and the army protected further refugees
○ Custodians of Private Property were appointed in order to allow refugees to
recover their personal goods
● The Quaid-e-Azam relief fund was set up, to which wealthy Pakistanis were encouraged
to donate
● Jinnah also gave many speeches about tolerance, declaring himself the protector-general
of minorities
○ He urged people to think of themselves not as Muslims, Hindus, Sindhis, or
Punjabis, but as Pakistanis

○ He appealed to everyone to extend every possible assistance to their brethren.
The people quickly responded to his call and came forward with every possible
help and assistance for the refugee
Economic Issues:
Underdevelopment:
● Pakistan was mostly made up of underdeveloped states with little industry.
○ Although Karachi had a modern port, most provinces were on the borders of the
subcontinent and thus did not avail the benefits of industrialisation under British
India as the central states.
○ It was an extremely rural country, with ~90% of the population living in the
countryside. There were only 8 towns with a population >100,000
● Pakistan had an agricultural economy which did not produce enough of a surplus to
industrialize
○ Furthermore, Pakistan received few factories, getting only 14 cotton factories
and 0 Jute factories (of which it produced 70% of the world’s supply)
○ In fact, Pakistan received only 10% of registered factories, 6.5% of industrial
workers, 5% of the electrical capacity, and 10% of the mineral deposits
● Pakistan had an electricity issue.
○ Due to the division of Punjab, many of Punjabi electricity supplies had been
disrupted
○ While India had 30-40 million KW of hydroelectric power Pakistan only had ½ a
million
● Transport:
○ Pakistan got railway engines that needed constant repair due to their use in the
second world war
○ Pakistan only had 14000 miles of roads
■ There were no ample roads in any province but Punjab
○ Pakistan got only 2 sea ports - Karachi and Chittagong
● Communication:
○ Pakistan only had 3 radio stations and no TV channels
○ There was a shortage of telephones and post offices

● In order to rebuild the economic system of this new country, he realized that Pakistan
would not be able to overcome its economic problems solely with the assistance by the
Reserve Bank of India
○ Due to this, he ordered the setting up of a State Bank of Pakistan
■ This responsibility was given to Mr Zahid Hussain
■ It was established on July 1st 1958
● He suggested the evolving of an economic system based on the Islamic concept of
justice and equality
● In Jinnah’s Industrial Policy Statement, he made it clear that it was important to
industrialize as quickly as possible
Canal Water Dispute

● Due to Pakistan’s agricultural economy and the lack of rain, Pakistan is heavily
dependent on irrigation
● The division of the subcontinent resulted in many rivers being cut in half, with their
headworks in Indian Kashmir and body running through Pakistan
○ The headworks of Ravi and Sutlej were in India
○ As the rivers started in India, they benefited from them first
● While India promised not to tamper with their flow, on 1st April 1948, India shut off the
waters from the Ferozepur headworks in East Punjab, threatening 1.65 million acres of
agricultural land

● In May 1948, a temporary agreement was reached in which India allowed water from
East Punjab to flow into Pakistan but Pakistan agreed to look into alternate water
supplies
● In 1959, the Indus Water Treaty was signed with the World Bank as a witness. The basic
terms were that India would be allowed the use of the waters of Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej,
while Pakistan was allocated Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab.
○ The World Bank promised to help in the establishment of hydroelectric power
and soil reclamation
Division of Assets:
● It was agreed that the assets of British India would be divided on the ratio of 17:5 - 17 to
India and 5 to Pakistan according to their relative sizes and populations
Financial Assets:
● In June 1947, it was agreed that Pakistan would be paid 750 million rupees from the
Reserve Bank.
● The first 200 million were paid. However, then, conflict broke out in Kashmir
○ Due to this, India refused to pay the rest, saying that Pakistan would only use the
money to buy arms against India, and that it would be handed over if they
agreed to give India Kashmir
Military Assets:
● Pakistan was in need of armed and military forces/equipment in order to ensure its
security, as illustrated by the Kashmir Crisis
● Britain reluctantly agreed to divide the armed forces 36% to 64% between India and
Pakistan
○ The army personnel were given freedom to join whichever country they wanted,
due to which Muslim regiments went to Pakistan and Hindus to India. This split is
illustrated by the following table:
Pakistan India
Armoured Divisions 6 14
Artillery Divisions: 8 40
Infantry Divisions: 8 21
○ However, most of the Pakistani soldiers were lowly ranked, due to which there
was an absence of officers.
■ Pakistan needed 4,000 officers for it’s 150,000 unit strong army.
● Military supplies:
○ Pakistan received 0 of the 16 ordnance factories, which was an issue
○ India was supposed to give Pakistan the following military equipment:
■ 160,000 ton Ordnance stores, 172,667 ton engineering stores, 1461 soft
vehicles, and 249 armoured vehicles
○ However, due to the conflict in Kashmir, Pakistan received only
■ 23,225 ton Ordnance stores, 1128 tons engineering stores, 74 soft
vehicles, and no armoured vehicles,
● Many of which were old and worn

● The issue about finances was not solved by the government but by Gandhi.
○ He viewed Nehru’s actions as unjust and persuaded the Indian government to
pay the remaining 500 million rupees via a hunger strike

● In order to build a capable army, Pakistan:
○ Pressurized the Indian government into giving them 60 million rupees so that
they could build an ordnance factory
○ They took 500 British officers to fill the top spaces in the army
Socio-Political Issues
Administrative:
● While India inherited from the British government buildings and officials, Pakistan had
none of these
○ Their ministers were people who had political experience and had worked to gain
popularity among the people
○ Pakistan lacked even the most basic supplies such as furniture and stationary
● In Pakistan, the Constituent Assembly consisted mostly of landlords with little political
experience
○ They had little influence in the urban areas, drawing most of their support from
the rural areas
○ Due to this, Pakistan lacked the administrative and governmental machinery to
run the affairs of a new country - Jinnah would need to find a capital, and good
officials in order to run an efficient government
● While half of the population of Pakistan was in East Pakistan, the majority of
government and army leaders came from West Pakistan.
○ Due to this, feelings of provincialism began to rise, with there being tension
between East and West Pakistan

● Jinnah established an assembly to draft a constitution. However, the next constitution
was not allowed on since 1954
○ The new constitution was to embody Islamic democracy, but was not to be a
theocracy
○ Equality of man, justice, and fair treatment was emphasized. All citizens were to
have equal rights
● Karachi was declared the capital as Muhammad Ali Jinnah as:
○ It was centred in West Pakistan, where most of the trade occurred
○ Most politicians lived there
○ It had an important airport
○ A central secretariat was set up

● An agreement was made with the Tata Air Company for the transportation of
government officials
● They civil services were reorganized, with civil service rules drafted
○ He emphasized that, despite the lack of equipment, they should still work to
their fullest efforts
● Accounts and foreign services were introduced
○ His foreign policy was based on mutual friendship and equality, giving priority to
relationships with Muslim countries
○ Pakistan became a member of the UNO in 1947
■ He got involved with the UNO to sort out the problems with India
○ Negotiations were begun with India to solve the issue of Kashmir, Hyderabad and
Junagadh
● Headquarters for the army, navy, and air force were set up
Provincialism:
● Pakistan was mainly made up of five different groups:
○ The Pakhtuns in the north
○ The Balochs in the west
○ The Sindhis in the south
○ The Punjabis in the north-east
○ The Bengalis in the east
Language of Pakistan:
● Pakistan has a very diverse populace, with the populace of each province having
different languages, cultures, and lifestyles.
● There were 52 languages spoken at the time of independence
○ Bengali was spoken by the highest percentage of the population, due to which
Bengalis got angry
■ 56% spoke Bengali while 44% spoke Urdu
■ In February 1950, East Pakistan launched a movement to state Bengali as
the national language
● During a student protest vying for it, 4 students were killed

NFWP:
● NWFP was a conquered part of Afghanistan, due to which they held close ties with the
nation
● NWFP’s most popular political party was the ‘Red Shirts’ who wanted to be
independent/join Afghanistan
○ When the Durand line was drawn, there was much anger

● Quaid immediately attended to this danger of provincialism and racism by advising
people to beware of such ignorable elements who wanted to destroy national unity
○ Quaid made many speeches to the people to consider themselves united as
Pakistanis instead of by province, but Bengal still became Bangladesh
● At first, Urdu was chosen as the national language due to its role in the partition and its
unifying power
○ Later, in 1956, the issue was solved when Bengali was given official status as a
national language alongside Urdu
● The 15% minority population of the country were guaranteed 15 of the 65 seats in
parliament via a separate electorate
○ Jinnah called himself the ‘Protector-General’ of minoritiesand was keen to
present Pakistan as a land of tolerance
Muhammad Ali Jinnah:

● Muhammad Ali Jinnah was the first Governor General, which was supposed to be a
purely ceremonial role.
○ However, he still acted as Chief Executive of the new state, chairing Cabinet
Meetings and acting as the President of the Assembly as he wanted to set the
country off to a good start before he succumbed to pneumonia
● He passed away on 11th September, 1948 due to tuberculosis after setting up the
foundations of this state
His Aims:
● He had three main principles for the development of Pakistan: Unity, Faith, and
Discipline
● He wanted Pakistan to be a “Progressive Democracy” based on brotherhood and
equality
○ It was not to be a bureaucracy but ‘in the hands of the people’
● The four pillars he wanted to work on were Economic and Industrial Challenges,
Education, Defense, and Social and Political Uplifting
His Contributions to Women’s Rights:

● He used to take his sister, Fatima Ali Jinnah, to public meetings, commenting that Islam
gave more rights to women than the west and the women should be educated
○ His sister later contested against Ayub Khan in an election in an attempt to
restore democracy to the nation
● “No nation can rise to the height of glory unless your women are side by side with you.
We are victims of evil customs. It is a crime against humanity that our women are shut
up within the four walls of the houses as prisoners. There is no sanction anywhere for
the deplorable condition in which our women have to live.”
Miscellaneous:
● He chaired Cabinet meetings and was the President of the Constituent Assembly

Early Ministries
Terms:
Governor-General: Prime Minister:
Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1947-8) Liaquat Ali Khan (1947-51)
Khwaja Nazimuddin (1948-51)
Malik Ghulam Muhammad (1951-55) Khwaja Nazimuddin (1951-53)
Muhammad Ali Bogra (1953-55)
Iskander Mirza (1955-58) Chaudhary Muhammad Ali
Hussain Suhrawardy
Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar
Feroz Khan Noon
Liaqut Ali Khan and Khawaja Nazimuddin:

Who:
Liaquat Ali Khan:
● Liaquat Ali Khan was born into an aristocratic family in Karnal, India, in October ‘95
● He received early education at MAO Collegiate School in Aligarh and graduated from
Aligarh University in 1919
● He left for Oxford University in 1919 to study law. He returned to India in 1921
● He joined the AIML in 1923. He was an active member who slowly rose through the
ranks
● He was one of the people who convinced Jinnah to return in 1933
● Due to his contributions to the struggle for independence, he was the first choice for
leadership and was appointed as the first Prime Minister in 1947
Khawaja Nazimuddin:
● Khawaja Nazimuddin was a Bengali politician, conservative figure, and one of the leading
founders of Pakistan
● He was the first Bengali leader and the second Governor-General and Prime Minister
● He was born into an aristocratic family in Bengal in 1894, and studied at Aligarh
University and later Cambridge University
● When he returned, he started his political career in the Muslim League, championing the
cause of Bengali education
● He was the first prime minister of Bengal from 1943-45, becoming its chief minister from
1947-48. After Jinnah’s death, he became the second Governor-General on 14th
September 1948
○ Seeing Liaquat Ali Khan’s ability, he stepped back and allowed him to run the
country
Contributions:
LAK during Quaid’s life:
● He helped him solve the riots and refugee problem and in the setting up of an effective
administration
● He established the groundworks for Pakistan’s foreign policy.
● During his tenure, India and Pakistan agreed to resolve the dispute of Kashmir in a
peaceful manner
○ Via the UN, a ceasefire was implemented in January 1948, and it was decided
that a plebiscite would be held
Liaquat-Nehru Pact:
● The safety of religious minorities was again put in danger during late 1949 and early
1950, due to which it looked like India and Pakistan were to fight their second war
● Due to this, Liaquat made a statement emphasizing the need to find a solution,
proposing a meeting between the Pakistani and Indian heads of state in order to find out
how to end the communal riots and tense situation
● Nehru and Liaquat met in Delhi on April 2nd 1950, discussing the matter in detail for 6
days, following which an agreement was signed which was a bill of rights for the
minorities of India and Pakistan
○ It was signed in an effort to improve the relationship between Pakistan and India
○ Minorities were promised complete equality of citizenship (irrespective of their
religion), and a full sense of security with respect to their life, culture, property,
and honour
● Its Aims:
○ To alleviate the fears of minorities in both nations
○ To elevate communal peace

○ To create an atmosphere in which the two countries could resolve their
differences
● Free passage of refugees across the border was also stopped via a visa system
Making of A Constitution:
● Pakistan was still running on the Government Act of 1935, which was undesirable as it
had many flaws, such as the large amount of power given to the Governor-General
○ Due to this, his main task was to draft a new constitution acceptable to all. To
meet this task, a Constituent Assembly was set up
■ The Constituent Assembly set up a Basic Principles Committee of 25
members to define the principles on which the constitution was to be
based
● The Objectives Resolution:
○ On 12th March 1949, the BPC submitted and got passed its first report, the
‘Objectives Resolution’
■ The new constitution was to be based on the principle of democracy,
freedom, equality, tolerance, and social justice as enunciated by Islam
■ All measures would be applied to enable Muslims to live according to the
teachings of Islam
■ Minorities would be free to practice and profess their religion freely
■ Protection would be provided to minorities against social injustice
■ Fundamental rights would be guaranteed
■ The legal system would be independent of government control
● They attempted to please everyone - minorities and East
Pakistanis by the protection of their rights and the Islamic
fundamentalists by including references to Islam.
● The Draft Constitution:
○ The same committee later presented the draft constitution on 28th September
1950
■ A Bicameral Legislature was recommended, with the two houses having
equal powers
● The Upper House was to have 100 members and was to be
elected indirectly by provincial ministers
● The Lower House, with 400 members, was to be directly elected
■ The president was to be elected by the joint session of the two houses
■ Urdu was recommended as the national language
■ The Head of State could abrogate the constitution and issue ordinances

■ A religious oversight board was suggested in order to make sure the laws
followed Islam
○ It was rejected due to various criticisms by different people:
■ East Pakistanis were extremely annoyed by the equal representation of
East and West Pakistan in the assembly, citing their larger population
(54%) as a reason, saying that they would become a colony of West
Pakistan
● They also disliked the application of Urdu, instead of Bengali, as
the national language
■ Islamic Fundamentalists complained that the constitution lacked an
Islamic appearance
■ Provincial politicians didn’t like the power given to the head of state and
the federal government, fearing that it would lessen their own powers
Public and Representative Officers Disqualification Act (PRODA):

● In 1949, Khawaja Nazimuddin passed the PRODA, which was meant to eliminate
corruption from the grassroots
● Any members found guilty of corruption, including ministers and members of the
assemblies were debarred from office and politics for five years
● In order to bring someone to justice, a complaint had to be lodged with the
Governor-General of the Provincial Governor, who would file an inquiry with the judges
● Under it, the Mamdot Ministry in Punjab was removed as they had purchased 2000
acres of land despite being a refugee.
○ The only way they could get the capital for this was via corruption
● It was discontinued as politicians misused it to persecute their opponents and restarted
in 1954, following which it was implemented til 1959
Economic Policies:
● Even during the war, Pakistan and India were large trade partners, with India accounting
for 56% of Pakistan’s export and 32% of Pakistan’s import
○ This continued until 1955-6
● During the Korean War, there was a favourable balance of trade as Pakistan exported
jute as an army supply
● The first five-year plan was announced by LAK, under which:
○ The State Bank was established in November 1949 in order to kickstart banking
services

○ Economic infrastructure was expanded and more people were employed when
the government revenue increased
○ In 1949, there was a deadlock in trade with India with them even boycotting
Pakistani goods due to the currency war. Due to this, Pakistan started replacing
foreign imports by domestically producing them.
■ Due to this, the manufacturing sector was greatly advantaged and the
GDP grew by double digits
■ In 1950, trade restarted, and in 1951, a new trade deal was signed with
India
○ A Paper Currency Mill was installed in Karachi
● However, these advantages stopped after Liaqaut’s demise
LAK’s other Contributions:

● He visited the US in May 1951 in an effort to create closer ties to the west
● The first Muslim Army Chief, Ayub Khan, was appointed in 1951 in an attempt to reform
the army and please those who complained about the prescense of British soldiers in
the Pakistani army
● The Central Refugee Council continued to run in this time
Problems:
The Accession of Princely States
● India invaded Hyderabad while Pakistan was still recouping after the death of the first
Governor-General (more information in the previous document)
● There was lots of tension between Pakistan and India due to the Kashmir Issue
● The resolution of this has been discussed in the previous document. Furthermore, the
Liaquat Nehru Pact was signed in order to improve relationships between the two
countries
Refugee Crisis:
● There was a large influx of refugees, as described in the previous document
● In order to solve it:
○ The Central Refugee Council had been set up
○ The Liaquat-Nehru Pact was signed (under which Pakistan and India promises to
take responsibility for the safety of minority groups in their border)
○ Free passage of refugees across the border was restricted via a refugee system

The Rawalpindi Conspiracy:
● Despite the reforms to the army, some army officers were unhappy with the government
and planned a coup
● Reasons for the Conspiracy:
○ The army officials were discontent with Liaquat and his government, viewing it as
incompetent and corrupt
○ The army officials did not like that British officers were still present in the army
as:
■ It was viewed as a security threat
■ They came in the way of their promotions
○ They disliked Liauqat’s handling of the war with India, thinking they should’ve
annexed the whole of Kashmir instead of settling for a ceasefire
■ Some were even more passionate about this as they owned Kashmiri land
● Ayub Khan discovered it in March 1951, and the conspirators were arrested, tried and
imprisoned
● The conspirators (Major-General Akbar Khan, Chief of General Staff, and 4 others) were
arrested, tried, and imprisoned
Assassination:
● While he was working on a revised constitution, Liaquat Ali Khan was assassinated
● The assassination took place in Rawalpindi on 16th October 1951 by a former
intelligence agent, Saad Akbar
○ It is unknown as to who was behind the plot
● He was given the title of Shaheed-i-Millat
Khawaja Nazimuddin and Malik Ghulam Muhammad:

● After LAK’s, assassination, Khawaja Nazimuddin was asked to step down from GG and in
as the Prime Minister by Malik Ghulam Muhammad as there was no other person found
suitable for the post
● Malik Ghulam Muhammad was elevated, with consent by the constitution, was elevated
to the post of the third Governor-General
○ He was a bureaucrat who had been the Finance Minister
○ The fact that he was unelected set the precedent for more bureaucrats, and
eventually a military dictator, to come into office
Ghulam Muhammad:
● Malik Ghulam Muhammad was a notable Chartered Accountant
● He was the first Finance Minister of Pakistan from August ‘47 till October ‘51
● After Liauqat’s death, he convinced Khawaja Nazimuddin to step down as
Governor-General to become the Prime Minister
● He served as the third Governor-General of Pakistan from October ‘51 till August ‘55
Contributions:
Revised Report of the Basic Principles Committee 1952:
● This revised report was presented by Khawaja Naimuddin on 22nd December 1952. It
suggested that:
○ The head of state be Muslim
○ The Central Legislature was to consist of two wings - the House of Units and the
House of People
■ The House of Units will have 60 members from East Pakistan and 60 from
West Pakistan.
■ The House of People was to have 400 members with 200 elected
members from each wing
○ Religious minorities were to have representatives at national and provincial levels
○ The cabinet was to be responsible for National Assembly
○ A committee of Islamic experts would be chosen by the head of state to ensure
that all laws conformed to Islam
○ The assembly shall decide an official language
● Criticism:
○ The equality of representation was unpopular in East Pakistan as they believed
they should have a larger representation due to their greater population
○ It was feared that the Religious Advisory Board would have too much veto power
○ The issue of the national language was still unsolved
■ Due to this, in January 1953, the proposals were withdrawn
Economic Contributions:
● In 1950, under LAK’s rule, a Planning Commission was set up to ensure economic growth
in Pakistan and launched its first 6-year plan, which focused on the agriculture, mining,
transport, and communication industries, with focus on social uplift schemes
● In 1952 (under MGM), a jute processing plant was started and exploration of Sui gas in
Balochistan was started
○ This led to the finding and exploitation of large reserves of natural gas
● In 1953, a planning board was set up, which initiated a five-year plan responsible for
accelerating Pakistan’s economic development

○ However, the economic developments could not stop the drought or food
shortages
Foreign Relations:
● MGM represented Pakistan as its Governor-General during Queen Elizabeth II’s
coronation in London during 1953
Problems:
Food Shortages:
● There was a drought in 1953, due to which there were food shortages. These were made
worse by the fact that, since the Korean war had ended, jute prices and demand in the
global market fell
● Thus, Pakistan was forced to take foreign aid from America, who agreed to donate a
million tons of wheat. However, due to mismanagement, even more (640,000 tonnes)
had to be imported
Civil Unrest:
● Bengali Movement:
○ East Pakistanis believed that Bengali should be set as the national language as
the majority of the population (56%) spoke it.
○ However, Khawaja Nazimuddin refused, repeating Jinnah’s statement that Urdu
would be the national language
○ Protests were held against this decision. In one student protest organized by the
University of Dhaka in February 1951, 8 students were killed, which further
worsened relations between the two wings.
● Anti-Ahmadi Movement:
○ Ulamas believed that Ahmadis were not Muslims and should therefore be
genocided - I mean mass murdered in a very not-genocidey way
○ They placed pressure on the government to outlaw them and prevent them from
government service
■ This demand included the dismissal of Sir Zafarullah Khan, the Foreign
Minister at the time
● Rioting broke out in February ‘53 due to the food shortages
Delay in the Constitution:

● The revised draft commission was rejected, due to which Pakistan was still, after more
than 5 years, running on the Government Act of 1935

● This was one of the reasons why he was dismissed
Dismissal of Khawaja Nazimuddin:

● On 17th April 1953, Khawaja Nazimuddin and 3 other members of the cabinet were
dismissed by the Governor-General
● Despite being annoyed by the dismissal, Khawaja decided not to raise an objection to it
in the best interest of the country
○ He did, however, call it ‘illegal and unconstitutional’
● Muhammad Ali Bogra, the Pakistani ambassador to the USA, was appointed as Prime
Minister in his place
Reasons for Dismissal:

● Inability to control the economy
● Lack of firmness while dealing with the social situation
● Failing to make a constitution
Muhammad Ali Bogra and Ghulam Muhammad:

Contributions:
Economic:
● Bogra wanted as much foreign aid as possible in order to boost the Pakistani economy
● In April 1953, America, Canada, and Australia donated food
○ This helped calm the riots, which had started due to the famines
● He set up the Planning Board to produce further five year plans
○ These would, hopefully, prevent further food shortages
● He worked out a regional agreement, called CENTO, which would involve Western aid for
Pakistan in terms of money, supplies, and the help of foreign experts
○ However, as the US and UK didn’t join, it was later abolished
● Pakistan signed an MDAA (mutual defence agreement)
○ As this came at a time when America was in a conflict with North Korea, it led to
the two countries becoming closer
Creation of a Constitution
● On 7th October 1953, Bogra presented his scheme, known as ‘Muhammad Ali’s
Formula’, which was a modified version of the Basic Principle Committee’s report
○ The Central Legislature was to comprise of two houses with equal powers
■ The Upper House was to have 50 members, out of which 10 would be
from East Pakistan and 40 from West Pakistan
■ Out of the 300 members of the lower house, 165 were to be from East
Pakistan and 135 from West
○ If the head of state was from West Pakistan, the PM was to be from East
Pakistan, and vice versa
○ The President was allowed to dissolve the houses if they were unable to resolve
their differences
● Reaction:
○ They were met extremely positively, as it was thought that it would lead the
closer integration and cooperation between the two wings
Problems:
● Anti Ahmadi Movement:
○ Chief Zafarullah, an Ahmadi, was dismissed as foreign minister in 1954 (as he was
joining the UN as a judge), which sparked violence
● Lack of food
○ Haha communism=no food lol
Constitutional Crisis:
● Bogra had been placed at Prime Minister as Ghulam Muhammad believed he would be
easy to dominate. However, Bogra turned out to be more rebellious than he could have
foreseen
Amendment of the Constitution:

● On 21st September 1954, in 15 minutes, the Assembly passed the following
amendments while Malik Ghulam Muhammad was out of the country:
○ All his ministers, including the Prime Minister, must be a part of the Assembly
■ The Prime Minister had to be supported by a majority of the Assembly
○ The Assembly had to approve the Cabinet
○ The GG had to take the advice of his ministers
● It also abrogated PRODA, which allowed the Governor to dismiss corrupt ministers
New Cabinet:
● MGM was furious, and on 24th October 1954 declared a state of emergency and
dissolved the assembly, saying that it had lost the trust of the people
● He imposed press censorship and promised to hold new elections ‘soon’. In the
meantime, he created a new cabinet with 8 bureaucrats
○ Ayub Khan, Iskander Mirza, Hasan Sohrawardy, and 5 others formed the new
cabinet
Maulvi Tamizuddin:
● On 7th November 1954, Malvi Tamizuddin Khan, the Speaker of the dissolved assembly,
contested the dissolution of the Sindh High Court
● He argued that:
○ The dissolution had been illegal
○ The new members shouldn’t have been appointed since they were non-Assembly
members
● The court ruled in favour of him in February 1955
○ They declared the MGM’s making of a new Cabinet had been vague as no
provisions for such an occasion were mentioned under the Government of India
Act 1935
● MGM appealed to the Federal Court, which ruled in May that he had the right to dismiss
the Assembly ‘if he was satisfied the situation demanded it’
○ He said that such there were no provisions for the making of a new Cabinet as
such for it had been assumed the National Assembly would function properly
■ Thus, this set the precedent for anyone to seize power as long as they
said they were acting in the best interests of the country
○ They also advised that he hold a general elections
Next Elections:
● On 21st June 19, elections were held after eight months without a democratic
government
● There were to be 80 seats in the Constitution, divided as such:
○ 40 from East Pakistan
○ 21 from Punjab
■ 1 for non-Muslims
○ 05 for Sindh
○ 04 for NWFP:
○ 10 nominated by the Governor-General for special Areas
■ 02 from Bahawalpur
■ 1 from Khairpur
■ 1 from Balochistan

■ 1 from Balochistan States Union
■ 1 from the Frontier States
■ 03 from the Tribal Areas
■ 1 from Karachi
● Results for the election held on 21st June 1955:
○ The Muslim League won 26 seats
■ Even though it was the majority party, due to its defeat in East Pakistan, it
was no longer the ruling party.
○ The United Front won 16 seats
○ The Awami League won 13 seats
○ The Pakistan National Congress won 04 seats
○ The United Progressive Party won 2 seats
○ The Scheduled Caste Federation won 03 seats
○ Other parties won 16 seats
● The former foreign minister, Choudhary Muhammad Ali, was unanimously voted by the
assembly to be the Prime Minister
● During the elections, Ghulam Muhammad became ill and Iskander Mirza took his role as
the Governor General
Choudhary Muhammad Ali and Iskander Mirza:

Who:
● Iskander Mirza was a lieutenant in the British Army
● He was the Defense Secretary from 1957-50
● He was the Governor of East Bengal and Cabinet Minister from 1954-55
● He became the Governor-General after Ghulam Muhammad fell ill and had to retire
Appointment of Chaudhary Muhammad Ali:

● When Iskander Mirza became the Governor-General, his first act was to dismiss Bogra as
he failed to take the vote of confidence from the new Assembly, making him
ambassador to the US again
● Then, Chaudhary Muhammad Ali, a Civil Servant and former Finance Minister was
appointed as PM after he was voted in by the Assembly in 1955
○ He formed a coalition between the Muslim League and the United Front of East
Pakistan
● He was told to focus on drawing a constitution

Contributions:
‘One Unit’ Scheme:
● What:
○ It was first proposed by Muhammad Ali Bogra in 1954 that all areas of West
Pakistan be integrated under one administrative system
○ The West Pakistan Act was passed on 30th September ‘55
■ It was implemented on October 5th 1955 by Iskander Mirza
○ The unified province of West Pakistan formally came into existence on 14th
October 1955
● Arguments in Support:
○ Administration of a single province was more efficient and cost-effective
■ Unification would ensure administrative efficiency and promote economic
development
○ A single province would bring an end to the difference, prejudice, and rivalry
amongst the provinces
■ Iskander Mirza believed that the unification would increase harmony and
patriotism
○ Two single provinces would make it easier to establish a constitution for Pakistan
○ Most prominent politicians and bureaucrats were from West Pakistan - typically
from the most developed province of Punjab. They feared that if East Bengal
gained a majority, they would potential rapidly develop at the expense of the
West Wing
■ The One Unit Scheme prevented them from gaining a majority due to
their numerical majority
● Opposition:
○ The provincial politicians were upset for they feared they would lose power
■ Even some who supported the scheme turned against it when they failed
to keep their promises to the provincial leaders, such as the failure to
provide better administration and protection in Sindh
○ People feared it would lead to the loss of provincial identity and culture
■ Some claimed that the Sindhi language wasn’t protected enough
○ East Pakistan was against it as it was a method to prevent them from gaining a
majority in the Assembly, for the 1956 constitution required that the number of
seats given to East and West Pakistan be equal
○ Smaller provinces and tribes didn’t like being merged into a large province that
didn’t necessarily reflect their culture and identity

● The Chief Minister of Sindh and the State Assemblies of Bahawalpur and Khairpur were
dissolved due to their agitations against the scheme
○ Troops had to be used to crush opposition to it in Balochistan
○ In 1969, the One-Unit Scheme was annulled by Yahya Khan
Constitution of 1956:
● Iskander Mirza’s primary task for Chaudhary Muhammad Ali was the making of a
constitution and the passing of it was an important landmark in his constitution
● Pakistan passed its first constitution on 29th February 1956, and it was formally enforced
on 23rd March
● It tried to find a compromise between both wings
○ In order for the United Front to drop their objections to the equal seats, they
made Bengali an official language
○ The Constitution was declared the Islamic Public of Pakistan in order to please
the Maulvis
● Despite its new constitution, Pakistan kept its membership in the British Commonwealth
● It lasted two years until Marshall Law was established
Terms:
● The new constitution had 234 articles which were divided into 13 parts and 6 schedules
● General:
○ Independence of judiciary
○ The name of the country was to be the Islamic Republic of Pakistan
○ All citizens were to have equal rights
○ Powers were to be divided amongst the Centre and the Provinces.
■ The powers were divided into 3 lists: The Federal List, the Provincial List,
and the Concurrent List
● The President:
○ Powers:
■ They chose the Prime Minister
■ They had emergency powers
■ They could dissolve the National Assembly
■ All bills passed by the assembly must be given to him for approval within
90 days
● If he declines it, a ⅔ majority will be needed to give the president
the bill for approval
■ If the assembly was not in session, he could issue authoritative orders

■ They had discretionary powers to appoints the chairman and members of
the election commission, delimitation commission, and public services
commission
■ They could remove the Prime Minister if they felt they had lost the
confidence of the majority of the members of the National Assembly
○ Restrictions:
■ Muslims
■ Over 40
■ PM must be from the National Assembly
■ The National Assembly could only be dissolved on the advice of the PM
● Prime Minister:
○ Powers:
■ Chooses cabinet
○ Restrictions:
■ Cabinet must be from the National Assembly
● Cabinet:
○ Powers:
■ Advises, and only advises the President
○ Restrictions:
■ It has no executive power
● Islamic Committee:
○ They had the right to veto legislation if they thought it wasn’t Islamic enough
● National Assembly:
○ It shall have an equal number of seats from East and West Pakistan
○ It would have 300 members elected by adults over 21 years old via a direct
elections
○ A ⅔ majority was required to amend the constitution
○ It was to be a unicameral system, with the only house of parliament being the
National Assembly
○ It was to meet at least twice a year, with one session at Dhaka
● Provincial Assembly:
○ Each province would have a provincial assembly
○ Its governor was to be appointed by the president
Assessment:
● It pleased the Islamic scholars by:
○ The President was required to be a Muslim

○ He was to set up an organization for Islamic research in order to set up an Islamic
society
■ However, it could only give recommendations
● Power of the president
○ While they could appoint the Prime Minister, they would have to take a vote of
confidence
○ Furthermore, he could no longer remove the Prime Minister
● Assembly:
○ They recognized the concept of unity by dividing the seats equally, introducing
the principle of parity
● Summary:
○ It was a written and flexible constitution
○ It advocated the fundamental rights of the individual while giving the President
the power to remove them in emergency situations
Criticism:
● Minorities disliked the fact that the President had to be Muslim and that Pakistan was
declared an Islamic republic
● The Muslim League had advocated for separate electorates in order to protect the rights
of minorities, such as Hindus (who, due to their distribution in East Bengal, could control
142 out of 309 seats before independence. It is unclear as to how many seats they could
get after independence).
○ Under a separate electorate, they would be entitled 70 seats, but this
constitution rejected that, adding to the frustration of many East Pakistani
politicians
● East Pakistan was unhappy that they were given equal seats instead of a majority due to
their larger population
Modernisation:
● Karachi airport was completed in 1955
● Steps were taken to improve Pakistan’s railways
● The telephone system was expanded
● Health and education services were looked into. However, the advancements in these
sectors were heavily exaggerated.
Problems in East Pakistan:

● There was plenty of dissatisfaction in East Pakistan for various reason:

○ It remained poor throughout the years due to lack of attention and severe floods
○ There were food shortages
● In order to solve these political and economic problems, Choudhary Muhammad Ali
began talks with the President and political leaders of East Pakistan on 18th August 1956
● These could not solve the problems, however, and he stepped down on 12th September
1956, when he was replaced by Hussain Shaheed Suharwardy, a prominent politician
from East Pakistan
○ Iskander Mirza hoped that by appointing him, he would gain Bengali support for
their government
Path to Martial Law:

Hussain Suhrawardy and Iskander Mirza:
Who:
● Hussain Suhrawardy was a seasoned politician
● He was from Bengal
● He was the Prime Minister of United Bengal before Independence
● He moved to Pakistan from Calcutta after independence, where he became a prominent
leader of East Pakistan
Replacement:
● He had no desire to be a puppet and thus pressed hard against Mirza for authority
● He revived controversy over the One Unit Scheme and the question of Separate
Electorates
○ West Pakistan was for the One-Unit Scheme (as it prevented East Pakistan from
gaining a majority) and for Separate Electorates (which would result in as much
as 142 of 309 East Pakistani seats being controlled by Hindus
○ East Pakistan and Hussain Suhrawardy was against the One Unit Scheme and
Separate Electorates
● In order to gain popularity, he unsuccessfully tried to remove the economic disparity
between East and West Pakistan and to alleviate the food shortages in the country
○ However, the fact that he wasn’t a complete puppet for corporations and
bureaucrats enraged Iskander Mirza, who punished him severely.
○ The central bureaucracy fought to save the One Unit Scheme, and Businesses in
Karachi lobbied against his decision to donate most of the 10 Million Dollar
International Court of Arbitration aid to East Pakistan and to set up a National
Shipping Corporation

○ Iskander Mirza, supported by these corporations and power-hungry bureaucrats,
demanded he resign
■ At first, Suhrawardy suggested a vote of confidence be taken from the
Assembly to prove that he had at last their confidence, showing his
shrewdness. Iskander refused, for he knew it would fail
○ However, eventually, under threat of Dismissal, he resigned on October 10, 1957
Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar and Iskander Mirza:

● Chundrigar was appointed the Interim Prime Minister
○ He headed a coalition government including:
■ From East Pakistan:
● Krishak Sramik Party
● Nizam-I-Islam
■ West Pakistan:
● Republican Party
● Muslim League
○ The Muslims League had agreed to join if separate
electorates would be introduced
● As seen above, he was backed by quite a diverse coalition which wouldn’t agree on
everything. This made it impossible to do anything, which presented quite a few
problems
○ Ministers from East Pakistan and the Republican Party opposed the proposed
amendments - the Republican Party to gain an advantage over its political
opponent
● Iskander Mirza exploited these differences to prevent IIC from doing anything
meaningful, due to which he only lasted two months
Malik Feroz Khan Noon and Iskander Mirza:

● On December 16th, 1957, Malik Feroz Noor, the leader of the Republican Party and last
Prime Minister under Iskander Mirza came into power by forging an alliance with:
○ Awami League
○ National Awami Party
○ Krishak Sramik Party
○ National Congress
○ Scheduled Caste Federation
● Even though it had many people, it was surprisingly stable, partly because he appointed
a large cabinet with 26/80 members of the National Assembly
○ Furthermore, it also had the support of both the Bengali and Punjabi politicians.
Thus, he had the full cooperation of the people
○ However, there was one threat - Iskander Mirza felt he’d lost his grip. Therefore,
he brought other politicians to his side by making more alliances
● Iskander Mirza’s power started to wane, especially because the Muslim League became
popular in East Pakistan
○ Due to this, he started looking to dissolving West Pakistan for popularity and also
tried to seek the help of the Muslim League leader and the Governor of East
Pakistan in order to reduce the strength of the Awami League
● Eventually, he had to turn to Ayub Khan and imposed Martial Law in the midnight
between October 7th and 8th
○ He claimed it was due to the constant political disagreements
○ Furthermore, the dissolution of parliament set the stage for further Martial Law
Possible Questions:
Who was Liauqat Ali Khan? [4]
Who was Khawaja Nazimuddin? [4]
What was the Liaquat-Nehru Pact? [4]
Explain Liauqat’s achievements as the first Prime Minister of Pakistan. [7]
What was the Basic Principles Committee? [4]
What was the Objectives Resolution? [4]
Why was it so difficult to make a constitution by the end of 1950? [7]
What was the revised report of the Basic Principles Committee? [4]
Why was the revised report of the Basic Principles Committee rejected? [7]
What was the Public and Representative Officers Disqualification Act? [4]
What was the Rawalpindi Conspiracy? [4]
Describe the Constitutional Crisis of 1954-55. [4]
How successful was the One-Unit Scheme? [14]
Describe the Constitution of 1956. [4]
Which of the following Contributed the most to Pakistan’s Domestic policies between 1948-58?
(Three Pakistani Leaders will be listed here) [14]

Ayub Khan
Who:
● He was born on May 14th in NWFP
○ His father was a Risaldor-Major in the British army
● He enrolled in the Aligarh Muslim University, leaving it early to join the Royal Military
Academy Sandhurst
○ He completed his training and enrolled in the British army in 1928
○ He fought as a Major and then a Colonel in World War 2
○ He also assisted General Pete Rees in the Punjab Boundary Force during the
communal riots
● After Independence, he joined the Pakistani army as a Brigadier, the most high ranking
Muslim officer
○ In 1951, he was appointed by Liauqut as the first Muslim Commander-in-Chief of
the Pakistani army
■ Seeing the shortage of arms, he suggested Liauqut start an alliance with
USA for ammunition
Seize of Power:
Reasons for Martial Law:
● Political instability:
○ As there had been so many Prime Ministers in such rapid succession, Ayub felt it
was necessary for the army to take control until the situation calmed down
● Failure of the Constitution:
○ East Pakistanis disliked the constitution of 1956 for they wanted more seats in
the government, leading to increased tension
● Ambitious Politicians:
○ Iskander, who had lost the support of most politicians, was alarmed by Hussain
Suhrawardy pushing the political leadership of Bengal and Punjab against him
● He, along with Iskander Mirza and other bureaucrats, took control of the nation on
October 7th 1958 under the pretense that they were tired of the inefficient leaders but
really in order to advance their own power.
○ He became the Chief Martial Law Administrator
○ The constitution was abrogated, ministers were dismissed, assemblies were
dissolved, and political activities were banned
● While they had claimed that it was a two man-regime, they had different views on how
to proceed, due to which there was a power struggle
○ Iskander Mirza, who had believed that his power would not reduce, was
unexpected by the fact that Ayub Khan started attempting to win over the army
(as he had realized that was where the power lay)
■ In fact, due to the situation, he regretted his actions and even said “I
didn't mean to do it”, trying to end martial law as quickly as possible
● Eventually, in an attempt to balance the power, Ayub Khan was appointed as PM on 24th
October 1958.
○ He set up a cabinet of bureaucrats
● Iskander Mirza then tried to gain the support of Ayub’s enemies in the army
unsuccessfully
○ In response, Ayub, and the other Military Generals arrested Iskander on 27th
October, after which he was exiled to Britain, where he later died
● Ayub was now the sole power in Pakistan. He appointed himself President, and as
corruption was so widespread, he was welcomed by the people (except for the East
Pakistanis but they don’t count)
Reforms:
Political:
Basic Democracy System:
● The Basic Democracy Order was passed on 26th October 1959 as:
○ The current political system had been tarnished by corruption and malpractice
○ A new system had to be introduced which people could actually understand
○ Ayub wanted more power
● Power System:
○ President:
■ Appoints Provincial Governors
■ Appoints PDAC members, ⅓ of them which must be chairmen of local
committees)
○ Provincial Governors:
■ They ran the provinces
■ However, they had to obey the President and carry out PDAC rulings
○ Provincial Development Advisory Council (PDAC) (East/West Pakistan)
■ They outline general provisions for provinces in relation to agriculture and
education etc.
○ Divisional Councils, Each run by a Divisional Commissioner
■ Each Divisional Council has a number of district councils (calculated on
population), each run by a District Commissioner with a District
Magistrate
■ They take the general outlines of the PDAC and fit them to local policies,
circumstances, and culture
■ These civil servants were chosen by the PDAC, not elected. Some must be
from the coordination committees
○ District Councils, run by a District commissioner
■ They composed of bureaucrats who organized education, sanitation, and
local and social welfare
○ Coordination Committee/Sub-District Council, which was run by the District
Council:
■ The chairman of local committees in set areas had the power to
coordinate the distribution of resources in their area
○ The Coordination Committee runs the Local Committees/Village Councils/Union
Councils
■ Its members were elected by towns, districts, or villages - there was one
member per every 1,500 people (10-15 villages). Each district was called a
D Ward
■ The adult population of a BD ward would vote for the Basic Democrats, of
which there were 80,000 total
● The first BD elections were held in January 1960.
● On February 7th, 1960, 95% of them voted that Ayub Khan should be the President of
Pakistan
● Advantages of Basic Democracies:
○ Locals would have some say in the government as they elected union
representatives who formed the electoral college who they knew would help
solve their problems
○ Direct elections were replaced by indirect elections
● Disadvantages of Basic Democracies:
○ As political, social, and economic coercion could be used to gain points, there
was a lot of corruption.
○ Ayub did not change the entrenched social structure of feudalism in urban areas
and powerful landlords were able to influence the illiterate public and gain the
top positions in the Electoral College, union, district and divisional councils.
○ The Basic Democrats were elected based on ability to deal with local issues which
makes it questionable if they were suitable for electing the National Government

Elective Body Disqualification Ordinance:
● In August 1959, Ayub Khan passed a bill that allowed him to dismiss members of elective
bodies
○ 75 politicians, most notable being H.S.Suhrawardy, were dismissed. Most of them
were from East Pakistan
● It was criticized and opposed by both wings for various reasons
○ It was seen as a misuse of power
○ Many politicians were dismissed for little to no reason
■ Due to this, it was given the nickname of “Everybody Disqualification
Ordinance”
○ It was used by Ayub to remove his political opponents
● Due to the opposition, it was abolished in December 1966
● Ten days after he was elected, on 17th February 1960, Ayub Khan appointed a
commission to draft the new constitution
○ It was headed by Justice Shahab-ud-Din
○ It presented its report on 6th May 1961 and was approved by Ayub immediately,
thus ending the (official) martial law
○ Even though Ayub claimed it combined “democracy with discipline” it really just
set up a presidential form of government by giving him even more power
■ Furthermore, major landlords dominated the elections by coercing or
bribing people in order to influence the results
● Terms:
○ President:
■ The President could not be removed unless impeached
■ The President nominated the cabinet from members of the National
Assembly
■ The President nominated the heads of the judiciary
■ He could pass any laws he wanted
■ He had emergency powers
■ However, he was elected by the Basic Democrats
● This didn’t really matter for the elections were rigged
○ National Assembly:
■ The members were elected for five years by the Basic Democrats
■ They owned Federal and Supreme Courts
■ They could suggest and administer legislation

● However, the President could veto any law he wanted
○ Provincial Assemblies:
■ There were five provincial assemblies - the One Unit scheme had been
dropped
■ Its members were elected for five years by the Basic Democrats
■ They owned the Provincial Courts and had the same powers and
restrictions as the National Assembly
○ East Pakistan:
■ Urdu and Bengali were recognized as the national languages
■ The NA Session were held in both Islamabad and Dhaka
■ If the President was West Pakistani, the Speaker of the NA was to be from
East Pakistan
● In their first meeting on 8th June 1962, they removed the ban on political parties
Presidential Elections:
● In January 1965, the Presidential elections were held.
○ Ayub Khan who was nominated by the Convention Muslim Leage, a party he
helped form
○ Even though he had believed the opposition were divided, they together put
forward Mohtarma Fatima Jinnah as their nominee
■ Their main demand was that the direct elections should be replaced with
indirect elections
● Ayub Khan won the elections, getting 64% of the votes
○ They were rigged, however - only BD members who owed their influence to his
system were allowed to vote
○ As it was clear to everyone how unfair they were, the opposition challenged the
results
○ Riots broke out in Karachi and East Pakistan during which 10 people were killed
○ They ruined his reputation in East Pakistan - many Bengalis had supported Fatima
Jinnah and became even more unhappy with his reign
Change of Capital:
● Islamabad was chosen in 1959 to replace Karachi as the capital of Pakistan
○ Construction started in October 1961, and it came to life on 26th October
○ In 1967, Islamabad was officially made the capital
○ Work on the city’s principal buildings, streets, and facilities were continued till
the mid-1970s

○ The Secretariat Blocks, which cover an area of 92,900 square meters, are the
administrative and policy planning nerve centres of the country
● The capital was switched as:
○ Islamabad had a better climate
○ It was close to the army’s command headquarters
○ He was trying to shift power from the industrially and commercially developed
south
○ It was considered vulnerable to attack from the Arabian Sea
○ The influx of refugees in it created large problems
● Opposition:
○ Bengalis opposed it, thinking a city in East Pakistan should have been chosen
Economic:
Agricultural:
● Aims:
○ Make Pakistan’s agriculturally self-sufficient in order to free money for the import
of industrial resources
○ Prevent food from becoming more expensive (by increasing supply), which would
require a rise in wages and thus reduction in industrial profit
○ Modernize the agricultural process
○ Make private farms more efficient
○ Eliminate the monopoly of big landlords
● Land Reforms:
○ Large landowners:
■ Many acres of land were owned by large landowners, which was a
problem as, often, these landowners didn’t know much about farming
■ Furthermore, they were mostly run by tenants, who worked on many
farms and thus had little incentive to be productive
■ Lots of land was also wasted as it was set aside for large mansions
■ In order to break these, ceilings were placed on land ownership - noone
could possess more than 500 acres of irrigated or 1000 acres of Barani
land
● However, 150 acres extra could be retained as orchards and land
could also be given
■ Land seized would be compensated in the form of interest bearing bonds
redeemable in 25 years
● The seized and would then be offered to the tenets for sale

○ Rights of Tenants:
■ Landlords could not eject them without paying appropriate compensation
■ Land owners could not raise rent illegally
■ Landlords could not exploit tenants by asking them for free labor, services
or non-contractual fees
○ Small Landowners:
■ Small landowners produced little surplus as they used traditional
methods and used most of it for their own purposes
■ Furthermore, they were too small to invest in mechanization
■ Therefore, one could not own less than 12.5 acres of land. Any land
smaller than this could not be gifted or inherited
● Modernisation:
○ HYV seeds, chemical fertilizers, and insecticides were introduced
● Irrigation:
○ The Warsak Dam on River Kabul was built in 1961
■ It was able to irrigate 120,000 acres of land and could supply 160,000KW
of electricity to Western Pakistan
○ He signed the Indus Water Treaty with India on 19th September 1960
■ As Pakistan owned Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab, the irrigation of the Plains
of Punjab was ensured
■ Pakistan also received financial assistance to build 3 large dams, 5
barrages, and 7 link canals, including 1 gated syphon
● Land Reclamation:
○ Waterlogging and Salinity were major problems in Pakistan as the canals build
during the British era to irrigate cash crops were not properly lined
○ In order to increase area under cultivation and control salinity, the Salinity
Control and Reclamation Programme (SCARP) was launched in 1959
○ Under it, many tube wells were built and electrical tubewells were looked into
■ Rural electrification helped this
● Loans:
○ The One-Window Policy was introduced, via which farmers could easily take out
loans in order to mechanize their land
■ This was the Agricultural Development Bank of Pakistan
○ Farmers were loaned money to build wells in order to reduce the need for canals
○ Private lenders also gave loans, but at extremely high interest rates
● Effectiveness:
○ Land Reforms:

■ Landowners were able to avoid the ceiling by ‘gifting’ extra land to their
relatives
■ If they did give land up, they gave only infertile land with hard terrain in
return for much more money than they were worth
■ They also bribed tax collectors into writing down less land than they had
since they had a lot of influence
○ Mechanization:
■ Large landowners benefited more from them since they were the only
ones who could afford them
■ They were also able to replace their tenants with machines
○ Loans:
■ Farmers used the money for personal use instead of development
Industrialization:
● Aims:
○ To create the opportunity to important machines from abroad
○ Private investment would be encouraged by making the country politically stable
○ The working class had to remain discipline without demanding extra resources
● Opposition:
○ Landlords didn’t like them as it caused them to lose political and economic
power
○ The common people didn’t like them as it replaced them as workers
○ Furthermore, all that would be seen in the short term was inflation due to
increased foreign spending. The benefits would be seen later
■ However, Ayub could ignore this as he was a dictator
● Factors necessary for industrialization:
○ Educated and employable about force
○ Finance for investors
○ Sources of raw material and food must be available
■ The prices of these inputs must remain stable
○ There must be a demand/market for the goods
○ Infrastructure such as roads, electricity, phones, and banks
○ Administrative efficiency and political stability in order to make investors
comfortable in investing in the long term
● Foreign Policy:
○ Loans from Western countries, especially USA, Germany, and UK were taken

○ An economic union was formed with Iran and Turkey (the Regional Cooperation
for Development)
○ An Export Bonus Scheme was set up under which exporters could keep 40% of
their profits directly
● Domestic:
○ Development of Markets:
■ The Princely states of Kalat, Swat, Dir and Hunza were dissolved and
brought directly under the control of the government
■ Tariffs were kept on imports in order to encourage local production
○ Industries were given tax holidays for 5 years
○ The PIDC was set up which was easy to get loans from
■ It set up textile mills, sugar mills, paper mills, jute factories, fertilizer
factories and shipyards
○ The NIT was set up in order to encourage people to have small savings
○ The prices of industrial goods were stabilized by relaxing control over industrial
investment
○ Oppression Transfer of Profits from East Pakistan
■ East Pakistan had a monopoly on production of jute. Instead of investing
the profits in them, they were stolen by West Pakistanis
■ Taxes on East Pakistan
● Results:
○ An average of 7% GDP growth per year
○ While production did rise, most of the profits were taken by a small amount of
people
■ In 1968, 22 West Pakistani families controlled 66% of Pakistan’s industrial
assets and 80% of Pakistani banking and insurance companies
○ Unemployment still rose every year
○ Most of the profits were in West Pakistan, with East Pakistan being neglected
completely
Social:
Aims:
● Increase literacy rates
● Encourage women to enter the workforce
● Control the population in order to create a surplus in food production

Problems:
● Some were too progressive and were not accepted by the general populace
● There were too few institutions to make sure they were properly implemented
● There were too few resources to implement the reforms
● Some religious groups were resistant to the reforms as it challenged their traditional
beliefs and thus threatened to make the government unpopular
● The government was not in power long enough to implement the reforms
● The government did not wish to challenge the status quo when it directly benefited
them
Rights of Women:
● As women were treated as second class citizens, family laws were introduced to protect
their rights
○ Polygamy was banned except in certain cases - before a man remarried, he had
to get consent from his firt wife
○ The number of wives and divorce was regulated - all marriages and divorces had
to occur through the government
○ The minimum age for marriage was 16 years
Education Reforms:
● In 1958, a commission was set up to review the existing education system.
● It recommended the remaking of the syllabus and making primary education free and
compulsory till 8th grade
● It recommended a three year degree course opening of technical colleges and emphasis
on religious education
● Technical and vocational institutes were formed to train labour in East and West Pakistan
Rehabilitation of Refugees/Homelessness:
● Cities like Karachi were bombarded by homeless people as:
○ People moved there for better jobs but were still unable to afford houses
○ Refugees still hadn’t been rehabilitated
● General Azam Khan was appointed as the rehabilitation minister
● Massive housing projects were formed:
○ 40,000 housing units were built in Korangi, with 75,000 housed in them
○ Satellite Township schemes were launched.
● A large number of cases relating to abandoned properties were decided

● However, due to the scale of these and the educational reforms, they weren’t that
successful
Price control Programme:

● They prevented people from hoarding and reselling goods on the black market at
exorbitant prices by confiscating and arresting profiteers and their goods
○ This brought down the price of many goods
● He fixed the price of milk
Population Control Programme:

● Population control is necessary to finance industrialization by reducing expenditure on
food
● Due to this, the ‘Family Planning Programme’ was launched with help by US loans
● Radio, cinema, newspapers, posters, and leaflets were used to convince people to have
smaller families
● Family planning centres and clinics were set up to allow people to obtain contraceptives
and learn how to use them
Others:
● Civil and Criminal Law:
○ A grandchild now had equal right to inherit from his grandfather if his father had
died
○ The Jirga Court was held where the crime took place in order to investigate the
occurrence - this helped relieve pressure from the judiciary
○ Petty crimes would be taken to village elders in a system called Panchayat
○ Young or mentally challenged individuals would be sent to probation officers
with adequate psychology training
● Medical facilities:
○ Medical and nurse training schools were set up
Indo-Pak War of 1965:

Buildup:
● As the Kashmir issue was still unsolved, there was still a lot of tension between the two
states
● In 1962, India went to war with China over their borders. China advanced till where they
believed the border should be and declared a ceasefire
● Seeing India’s easy defeat, Pakistan started to militarize
○ India rearmed by receiving arms supplies from the west
● There were skirmishes on the border, the most notable being over the Rann of Kutch
○ Following this, an independent tribunal was formed to solve the problem - this
gave them hope for the same to occur in Kashmir
● Due to this, they instigated anti-Indian rebellion by arming guerilla warriors. However,
this failed as:
○ There was not enough support for the movement
○ It was hastily planned
○ They didn’t expect India to fight back
War:
● Due to the failure of the guerilla warriors, Pakistan directly invaded Indian Kashmir on
1st September, trying to cut off the road that led to India, initiating the warfare.
● In retaliation, on 6th September, India invaded Lahore.
○ As Pakistan had not expected them to do so, the area was scarcely defended -
most troops were in Kashmir
■ This, however, does not mean that Ayub Khan was a bad military dictator,
who shouldn’t be field Marshall as he has literally no experience - he was
actually playing 5D mind chess by not doing well
○ The defense of a few armed units prevented the city from being completely
annexed
■ Due to this, India launched a second major offensive in Sialkot, but it was
largely stopped
● Foreign Involvement:
○ US and UK stopped supplying arms to both sides, which affected Pakistan more
as they were more dependent on Western aid for their military material
○ China was ready to step in if India was winning. They also exerted diplomatic
pressure on India
○ In 1966, the Russian Prime Minister Kosygin organized the peace treaty
● After 3 weeks of fighting, both nations were so weak that they agreed to a ceasefire
Tashkent Declaration:
● The Russian Prime Minister organized the meeting of Indian PM Lal Bahadur and Ayub
Khan in Tashkent
● An agreement was signed to:
○ Refrain from resorting to armed clashes
○ Settle differences via peaceful mediation

○ Withdraw their forces to the position on 5th August
● It contained no reference to Kashmir as:
○ India wasn’t as weak as Pakistan had though they’d be
○ Pakistan was reliant on Western aid
● As Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, the then foreign minister, opposed to signing (as he knew that a
half-hearted agreement would be unacceptable for the Pakistani public), he was sacked
and the majority of the failings of the war came onto him
○ He then became one of Ayub’s greatest opposers
Reasons for Resignation:

Economic Policy:
● They widened the economic disparity between the two wings of the country
○ For example, jute profits were not invested back into the area they were
produced in but instead into West Pakistan
○ Most reforms were concentrated to West Pakistan
● The class inequalities grew:
○ By the end of his reign, 22 families controlled 66% of the industrial assets in
Pakistan
● Even though agricultural production rose, so did food prices
Political Reforms:
● The political system heavily discriminated against East Bengalis:
○ They were ousted from all decision-making processes
● They also liked not the fact that the new capital was in West Pakistan
● People were discontent with the undemocratic vote-rigging
Educational Reforms:
● Due to their scale, they did not produce the desired results
● Many of the protests against Ayub were planned by students and labour unions
Family Laws:
● Islamic Fundamentalists opposed it, calling it un-Islamic
Agartala Conspiracy:
● In 1966, Mujib-ur-Rehman, a popular Bengali leader, was arrested for making provoking
and seditious speeches, which was very double-plus ungood for him

● He was released but then again arrested in December 1967, supposedly for his
involvement in the overthrow of the Government with Indian assistance
○ He was released after pressure by politicians
○ He was later invited to attend round table conferences with Ayub Khan
Celebration of the Decade of Development and the Democratic Action Committee:

● Ayub Khan called for the celebration of ‘a decade of development’ in order to attract
attention to his achievements
● However, by now, the general populace was upset at the developments in his regime -
the concentration of wealth and the military defeat to India - that they were insulted by
the call for celebration and protested
○ In 1966, Bhutto resigned, creating a new political party, the PPP, in 1967
○ Many students protested against the rising food prices, increased taxes, and lack
of personal liberties in West Pakistan
○ In December 1968, the agitation spread to East Pakistan
● Ayub attempted to quell the protests with force
○ Bhutto was arrested for several weeks in November 1968
○ He was joined in fail by student leaders and other politicians
● In January 1969, eight opposition parties set up the Democratic Action Committee in
Dhaka. Their demands were:
○ The scrapping of indirect elections
○ Lifting of emergency regulations (which had been imposed since the war of ‘65)
■ As he was under immense pressure, Ayub accepted all their proposals on
17th February 1969, releasing political prisoners and rescinding his
emergency powers
● Further talks were held from 27th February to 13th March, during which Ayub accepted
most demands, but it was too late
○ With the mass resignation of many Basic Democrats, the BD system fell apart
○ On 25th March, Ayub Khan resigned
● Since Ayub Khan was determined not to hand over power to ambitious and incompetent
politicians, he gave power to Yahya Khan
Possible Questions:
Who was Ayub Khan?
Why did Ayub Khan come to power in 1958?
How did Ayub Khan achieve power?
What was the Basic Democracy System?
Describe the Agricultural/Industrial reforms of Pakistan.
How successful was ayub khan in introducing economic reforms in Pakistan?
Explain why Ayub Khan called the years 1958 to 1969 a ‘Decade of Progress.
Medical facilities were improved and attempts were made to control the population through a
family planning programme. Economic growth was enabled through industrial developments
funded by loans from the West. Agricultural reform meant an increase in agricultural
production. He also tried to deflect increased criticism of his government by highlighting the
reforms which in the main only benefited the wealthy

Yahya Khan and the
Independence of Bangladesh
Who:
● Yahya Khan was born on 4th February 1971 in Peshawar
● He received education from the Punjab University in Lahore, following which he joined
the Indian Army
○ He became a brigadier at the age of 34
● He played an active role in Ayub Khan’s military dictatorship
○ He was involved in the planning of Islamabad
○ He was the head of the Pakistani forces in Kashmir during the war of ‘65
○ He was promoted to the Chief of Army Staff in 1966
○ When Ayub Khan seceded power, he handed leadership to Yahya Khan
Political Reforms:
Legal Framework Order (LFO):
● After assuming power, Yahya abrogated the constitution of 1962, banned all political
activities, and dissolved the national and provincial assemblies and cabinets, thus
declaring martial law
○ However, since he wanted to bring back democracy for the reasons listed below
■ Basic Democracy had not been a success
■ There would be a properly elected government
■ The ‘One Unit’ scheme had not worked, due to which a provincial form of
government should be returned to
○ Thus, he overturned the One Unit Scheme and the constitution of 1962 and
resumed normal political activity
● In March 1970, he issued the Legal Framework Order, an interim constitution which laid
the ideals for future constitutions, which was meant to guide the transfer of power to
civilians. It recommended:
○ A parliamentary and federal form of government
○ Islamic character of the constitution
○ Direct and free election to the federal and provincial legislature
○ To guarantee fundamental rights to all citizens

○ Independence of judiciary
● It laid the structure via which the elections were to be held on the principle of ‘one man,
one vote’. The seat distribution was to be as followed:
○ 82 General and 3 reserved seats in Punjab
○ 27 General and 1 reserved seat in Sindh
○ 18 General and 1 reserved seat in NWFP
○ 4 General and 1 reserved seat in Balochistan
○ 7 General seats in FATA
■ It also defined who could run
■ The elected assembly would be dissolved if it was unable to frame the
constitution in 120 days
○ 300 national seats, with 13 reserved for women and 162 for East Pakistan
Organization of the Elections:

● As no elections had previously been held, machinery had to be put in place for the cause
○ A 3-member Election Commission was set up
■ Justice Abdus Sattar was appointed the Chief Election Commissioner
● All citizens above 21 years of age were enrolled as voters
○ On January 16th, the electoral rolls were put forth for correction
○ On March 17th, the electoral rolls were finalized
■ There were 56,941,500 registered voters, 31,211,220 being from East
Pakistan and 25,730,280 from West
■ The seats and constituencies were marked
● 199 Returning Officers were appointed for the National Assembly
and 285 Returning Officers were appointed for the Provincial
Assemblies.
● The 24 political parties which participated were allowed to campaign from January 1st
1970
○ The two most popular parties were the Awami League and the PPP. More on
them below
● The elections were postponed due to the cyclone in East Pakistan in 1970, followed by
severe flooding in the area
○ According to the Pakistan Observer, the handling of this was majorly mismanaged
despite the government’s otherwise claims

The Creation of Bangladesh:
Bengali Dissatisfaction:
Social Disparity:
● After independence, Pakistan had two wings.
○ While they were previously held together by religion and a mutual hatred of the
British, they quickly realized how different they were
○ The distance between the two wings also made it more difficult to coordinate
reforms
○ This created many issues
● Language Issue:
○ East Pakistanis wanted their language, Bengali, to be the national one, arguing
that it was spoken by 56% of the population as compared to Urdu, which was
spoken by only 6%
○ Quaid-e-Azam viewed Urdu as a uniting force due to its role in separation and
thus refused
■ In fact, he visited Dhaka and declared that only Urdu would be the
national language
○ In 1952, student protests were held on ‘National Language Day’
■ During it, tear gas was used and some students were killed
○ In 1956, it was finally accepted as a national language
● Cultural Differences:
○ The art, music, dance, and heroes of East and West Pakistan were different
○ According to Ayub, many West Pakistanis saw their culture as superior
● Workplace Discrimination:
○ Like the British, West Pakistanis considered Bengalis inept and lazy, mocking their
darker skin and shorter stature
○ Due to this, they gave them fewer jobs in the military and bureaucracy
Economic Disparity:
● From the British era, Bengal had been given less attention, slightly because Bengal was
one of the most violent opposers of the British and ardent supporters of the Muslim
League
○ Most of the revenue was spent in the development of Central India
○ While central India benefited from British rails and canals, the British seized even
tea plantations in Bengal

○ Bengali local producers could not compete with industrial British cotton
manufacturers
○ The underdevelopment caused by this affected Bangladesh till much later as
unchecked capitalism intensified these differences, thus concentrating power
and money in the hands of West Pakistan
● Trade:
○ East Bengal had been cut off from trade with West Bengal since 1947
○ Most lucrative import licenses were given to West Pakistan
○ Even though the largest Pakistani export was jute, produced in East Pakistan,
most of its revenue was transferred to West Pakistan
■ In fact, the East Wing’s foreign trade balance was much better than the
Wests’ - they accounted for 50-60% of exports and only 30% of imports
■ West Pakistan, on the other hand, had a trade deficit (which was financed
by East Pakistan (from which Rs.1000 million was transferred per year
before 1960)
○ East Pakistan also paid much more than the international price on goods, such as
rice, that they imported from West Pakistan
■ Despite the increased exports from East Pakistan, their buying power
didn’t increase due to the lack of goods in West Pakistan and the
overvalued rupee
■ This lead to inflation, which placed more pressure on the already dismal
workers’ paycheck
● Lack of attention:
○ East Pakistan received only 26% of the investment from the first 5 Year Plan (2.5
Billion as compared to 8.9 Billion Rs. in West Pakistan
○ The taxes collected from East Pakistan were mainly used for the defence of West
Pakistan
○ More than twice as much foreign aid and capital investment went to West
Pakistan
○ Ayub focused on diverting resources to the industrial capital in West Pakistan
● Condition of the People:
○ The per capita income in West Pakistan increased from 330-373 Rs. but fell from
305-288Rs. in East Pakistan from 1949-60
○ In 1951, the per capita income of East Pakistan was 85% that of West Pakistan’s,
meaning that West Pakistani’s were 15% wealthier. This gap grew to 40% by 1970
○ In 1948, West Pakistan only had 200 doctors and 3000 hospital beds

○ In 1947-58, primary school enrollment in West Pakistan rose by 163% as
compared to the minute 38% in East Pakistan
● Concentration of Wealth:
○ The 22 families which owned 60% of Pakistan’s industrial assets were all from
West Pakistan
○ Only 11% of Pakistan’s industrial assets were in the hands of the East Wing
○ 50-70% of East Pakistani factories were not owned by the citizens of the area -
instead, they were owned by foreigners, mainly West Pakistanis
○ 8 of the 9 banks which owned 90% of Pakistan’s assets were owned by industrial
houses who focused West Pakistan, making it difficult for East Pakistanis to get
loans
Political Disparity:
● Underrepresentation:
○ Less than 20% of the armed forces were from East Pakistan
○ Most Governor-Generals and Prime Ministers were from West Pakistan
■ Whenever there were Governor-Generals and PMs from different wings
the West Pakistani would take charge
○ Most powerful politicians were from West Pakistan
■ One reason for this is that conservative landlords who could control the
farmers en masse were largely the people in power
● Governmental Policies:
○ Common Disagreements:
■ East Pakistani politicians wanted their larger population to enable them
to form the government via a representative form of elections
● This dissatisfaction was expressed in the making of the Draft
Constitutions, the Basic Principles Constitution, the One-Unit
Scheme, and in the Constitution of 1962
■ The joint electorates were unpopular or something I don’t know at this
point there so much contradictory information just read this copypasted
stuff from the previous document
● Under a separate electorate, they would be entitled 70 seats, but
this constitution rejected that, adding to the frustration of many
East Pakistani politicians
■ East Pakistanis wanted a decentralized government in contrast to West
Pakistan’s desire for a centralized government

○ Iskander Mirza:
■ Hussain Suhrawardy was dismissed when he actually did something good
for East Pakistan by setting up a National Shipping Corporation there
because that was money not going into the hands of West Pakistani
monopolists
○ Ayub Khan’s Reign:
■ The capital was always set in West Pakistan - first in Karachi and then in
Islamabad
● East Pakistanis believed that due to its large population Dhaka
should be the capital
■ The EBDO was used largely to disqualify East Pakistani politicians
■ The constitution of 1962 was seen as a ploy to legitimize army
dictatorship
● It gave large amounts of power to the West Pakistani President
● They disliked the lack of a role they had and the censorship
● They let out this discontent at Ayub’s policies after he’d left via
many protests for their rights
○ Mujeeb was not allowed to take government despite winning the elections
The Elections of 1970:

● They were supposed to be held in October, but were postponed to December 1970 due
to cyclone Bhola
● It was based on the “one man one vote” system under an adult franchise as described by
the LFO
● Heavy turnout - 90% of people voted in some areas
● It was won by the Awami League
Parties:
● In 1970, two parties representing the separate wings ran, winning most of the seats
between themselves:
○ PPP was a leftist party which ran with the slogan of “roti, kapra, makan” which
pretty accurately (West Pak)
■ They also incorporated Islamic principles of social equality - essentially,
they were (ideologically perhaaapssssss not practically) Islamic socialists

■ It was founded by Bhutto in October 1967 due to the opression of Ayub
Khan
■ It was against military rule by Ayub and for democracy
○ The Awami League was led by Mujeeb ur Rehman, and it ran on a 6 point
formula focused on decentralization and provincialization: (East Pak)
■ A directly elected federal form of government
■ Decentralization - the Federal government would deal only with defence
and foreign affairs
■ The provinces were to have separate fiscal and monetary policies,
including separate currencies
● Fiscal policies involve tax collection and spending
● Monetary policies refer to the actions of central banks to achieve
objectives such a price stability and economic growth
■ There should be separate foreign trade accounts for the foreign exchange
earnings of the two wings
■ The Federal Government was not to have the ability to levy taxes. The
provinces were to do this instead, sending a share to the centre
■ The state should be given control of paramilitary forces
○ Why Mujib Presented his 6 Points:
■ He subscribed to the rhetoric that West Pakistan was exploiting East
Pakistan, due to which he wanted provincial autonomy for political rights
■ He didn’t want the federal government to collect taxes as he knew that
they wouldn’t distribute them back to the populace in terms of
infrastructure fairly, instead preferring West Pakistan (specifically Karachi
and Punjab) as seen earlier
■ He believed that he represented the voice of East Pakistanis and that
these were there demands
○ What was the Awami League?
■ It was created in 1949 under Maulana Abul Kalam under the name
“Awami Muslim League”
■ It was the Bengali nationalist party
■ It dropped “Muslim” from its name in 1955
■ It won the elections of 1970
Results:
● The Awami League was the largest party, winning 160 of the 162 seats allotted to East
Pakistan

○ The PPP, on the other hand, only won 81 seats of the 138 West Pakistani seats
(just 58% - they weren’t as dominant as they are portrayed)
○ This presented problems:
■ The Awami League could control the entire government on their own
■ The Awami League had won on a programme of decentralization
● A weakened Pakistan would be weaker with regards to India
● The centre wouldn’t have enough funds to run
■ It would divide the administrative and social aspects of the two wings of
the country
Following Events:
● In January 1971, Yahya met with Mujib and called him ‘the next President’ in an attempt
to dissuade him from forming the next government
○ He stuck to his ideals, however
○ Bhutto also met him at the end of January, but they were to no avail either, as
neither side backed down
● In February 1971, PPP announced that they would not take their seats unless Mujib
reached
○ In response, Mujib launched a non-cooperation movement
○ Governmental and educational institutions were forced shut, taces were not
paid, shops and factories were not opened - essentially, all governmental activity
ceased to exist
○ Bangladeshi freedom fighters also emerged, such as the Mukhti Bahini, which led
mass demonstrations. Mukhti Bahini:
■ Its name means “liberation force”
■ It was a guerilla army trained by India
■ It fought against the oppressive Pakistani forces in 1971
■ It operated the Independent Bangladesh Radio Station
● Due to the unrest, Yahya, on Bhutto’s demand, postponed the meeting of the National
Assembly he had arranged on 3rd March, just two days before it was to be held
○ In retaliation, Mujib immediately demanded:
■ Lifting of martial law
■ Transfer of power to elected representatives
○ Bhutto also got involved, declaring that he would break the legs of those
politicians who went to the assembly in Dhaka.
○ Due to the strikes, General Tikka Khan was appointed as CMLA and the provincial
governor was recalled

● Yahya and Bhutto met Mujib in Dhaka on March 15th, returning on the 25th after
reaching no solution
● On March 23rd, Resistance Day was celebrated by East Pakistan, which catalyzed
Operation Searchlight
Operation Searchlight:
● In an attempt to quell East Pakistani resistance, Operation Searchlight was launched
● They believed that if the killed enough (3 million people) the rest would subjugate to
them
● Under it, Mujeeb was arrested and censorship was imposed
○ 58,000-3 MILLION Bangladeshi civilians were brutally genocided and 10 million
fled to India
The War of 1971:

Reasons:
● Yahya delaying the meeting of a NA
● Yahya Khan and Awami League's power ~ they presented the 6 points and stuck to them,
inciting protests
● Press censorship was imposed, political activity banned, and many politicians were
silenced or arrested
● India greatly started defending Bangladesh and even trained the Mukti Bahini
● Brutal opression and genocide of Bengalis ~ Under operation searchlight, Mujib was
arrested, 58,000-3 MILLION people were systematically genocided with countless more
murdered because yahya believed if he killed enough of them they'd stand down
Events:
● On 31st March, India declared its support for the people of Bengal, hoping to weaken
Pakistan’s central government
○ They began training the Mukhti Bahini
■ Its name means “liberation force”
■ It was a guerilla army trained by India
■ It fought against the oppressive Pakistani forces in 1971
■ It operated the Independent Bangladesh Radio Station
● On 3rd December, Pakistan attacked India
○ After only 14 days, Pakistan was forced to surrender as they had lost 5619 square
miles in West Pakistan

● The instrument of surrender was signed on December 16th. It was a written agreement
that enabled the surrender of the armed forces in Dhaka
○ It enabled the end of the war of 1971
○ Lieutenant-general Niaza (martial law administrator of East Pakistan) and General
Aurora (join commander of the Indian and Bangladeshi forces) signed it
○ Following it, India took 93,000 Pakistani soldiers as POWs
● Yahya resigned on 20th December
○ On 21st December, Bangladesh was created
○ On 23rd December, Mujeeb was released
○ On 3rd December, he became the first Bangladeshi Prime Minister
Instrument of Surrender:
● The instrument of surrender was signed on December 16th. It was a written agreement
that enabled the surrender of the armed forces in Dhaka
● It enabled the end of the war of 1971
● Lieutenant-general Niaza (martial law administrator of East Pakistan) and General Aurora
(join commander of the Indian and Bangladeshi forces) signed it
● Following it, India took 93,000 Pakistani soldiers as POWs
Reasons for Pakistani Loss:

● Geographical difficulties - the separation of the two wings made it difficult to transfer
troops and coordinate them
● Indian intervention
○ They trained the Mukhti Bahini
○ They went to all-out war against Pakistan on December 3 1971. It is their troops
that completely rolled over the Pakistan army
● India used superior Russian military technology and was also larger and stronger
● Bengali dedication to the cause and the valence with which they resisted
○ This was in retaliation to years of Pakistani neglect and war crimes
● Foreign allies did not help Pakistan due to the war crimes they committed
○ American aid was anticipated but never arrived
○ China, Pakistan’s ‘all weather ally’ didn’t help, either
● Some people give the reason that Pakistani forces were hesitant to fight their Muslim
brothers
○ The hesitance was not seen when they committed countless war crimes,
massacres, and rapes

● No proper dialogue took place with the elected representatives of East Pakistan
● Military action could not replace a political settlement
Reasons for the Creation of Bangladesh:

This is pretty much the same as the reasons for Bengali dissatisfaction
● Geographical Reasons:
○ The two wings were separated by more than 1000 miles of enemy territory,
which made it difficult for a central government to run
○ This made it extremely hard to defend as it was difficult to ship
● Indian Rhetoric:
○ There were many Hindus living in East Pakistan who spread anti-Pakistani
sentiments in Bangladesh
○ They highlighted the colonial nature of West Pakistani dealings with Bangladesh
● Role of Bureaucrats:
○ The bureaucrats were incredibly unkind to East Pakistan, exploiting it like a
colony
○ This sowed anti-West Pakistan sentiments which were easily riled up
● Cultural differences
○ See above
● Socio-economic inequality
○ See above
● Ambitious Politicians:
○ Both Mujib and Bhutto did not want to back down from their points, instead
desiring full power
■ This was seen in how Bhutto tore up the Polish Resolution (which called
for the withdrawal of troops by both India and Pakistan) and the hard line
Mujib took
○ As neither of them was popular everywhere, this led to conflict
● Awami League and Mujib:
○ The Awami League was a separated faction of the Muslim League which grew
popular in East Pakistan due to their manifesto, which involved nationalization,
autonomy, and workers’ rights
■ They also took an active part in the language issue
○ Thus, their manifesto, calls for decentralization, and one-sided support they had
led to conflicts between the two wings
○ Its leader, Mujib, was very ardent on his principles, too, refusing to share power
● Oppression and Operation Searchlight:

○ There was a systematic genocide of Bengalis under Yahya Khan’s reign during
which 58,000-3,000,000 people were murdered

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto
Background:
Who:
● Lifespan: 5th Jan 1928 - 4th April 1979
● He was a barrister and politician
● He was the 9th Prime Minister of Pakistan from 1973-77
● He was the 4th President of Pakistan
● He was the founder and chairman of PPP until 1979
● He was executed under Zia’s regime in 1979
Rise to Power:
● Following the disastrous war with India, Yahya resigned
● As Bhutto was the most popular politician in Pakistan according to the Elections of 1930,
he was given power
○ On 18th December 1971, he became the first civilian CMLA
● As he was not a military man, he immediately took steps for the democratization of
Pakistan and the controlling of the army
Reasons for Rise to Power (Past Papers):

● The army had been defeated by India and was at a low ebb
● Yahya Khan had been disgraced - Bhutto took this opportunity to seek power
● Bhutto took advantage of the fact that the army was blamed for the separation of
Bangladesh
● His program of reform was attractive for the electorate
○ Due to this, he won a reform in the National Assembly
● He was able establish further control by subjugating the army
○ The FSF also further established his power base
Reasons for Initial Success (Nigel Smith Textbook):

● He came to power via free and fair elections
● Bhutto was popular amongst the masses
● He led a relatively united party which provided a legitimate power base
● His cabinet composed of able professionals
● It was not a dictatorship - instead, there were checks and balances

Policies:
Political:
Controlling of the Military:
● 29 high officials were removed in his first four months
○ This included the head of the Air Force and the Commander in Chief of the army
○ General Tikka Khan was appointed as the Chief of Army Staff
● Martial law was lifted in 1972
● The Federal Security Force was set up in October 1972
○ It was a government-controlled military force to aid the police
■ Thus, the need for military intervention was reduced
○ However, as time went on, Bhutto used it as his own private militia to subdue
opposition
● In April 1972, martial law was lifted and a committee led by Hafeez ud din Peerzada was
appointed for the creation of the next institution
○ On 14th August 1973, the new constitution (which relied heavily on the
constitution of 1956) was implemented
● Power Structure:
○ President:
■ His power was reduced severely - he had to sign all Presidential order
from the PM
○ Prime Minister:
■ He had emergency powers and the power to make Presidential Orders
■ He could appoint the Chief Justice
■ He could advise the President to suspend the assemblies
○ Cabinet:
■ It could advice the PM
○ Two Houses:
■ The Senate contained memebrs from the Provincial Assembly
■ The National Assembly composed of 200 members
■ They could draft legislation
■ A 75% majority was required to amend the constitution
○ Provision for ‘Islamic’ Parties:
■ The President and Prime Minister were to be male Muslims
■ The Islamic Committee had advisory powers
○ Civilian Power:
■ The Constitution was to be a Federal Republic with a parliamentary form
■ The President had to accept binding orders
■ The Upper House and Senate were elected by an adult franchise
■ The Prime Minister was to be the elected leader of a party with a majority
in the assembly
■ The armed forces were to take an oath not to participate in the
government
○ Rights:
■ The fundamental rights such as speech were to be protected
■ The High and Supreme courts were to enforce these rights
■ The Federal government could violate these only in emergencies
Balochistan and KPK:

● Though the PPP had control of the National Assembly, the NAP and JUI were more
popular in Balochistan and KPK
● After forming a coalition, they pressured the PPP into signing an agreement with them
on 27th April
○ They would support the PPP in the National Assembly
○ In return, they would have a free hand in the provinces
● This was dissolved the next year when the Balochi assembly were dismissed. In protest,
the NWFP assembly resigned, too Reasons for dismissal:
○ Ataullah Mengal and the NAP were provincial autonomists who were providing
the Balochi Citizens rights
○ Mengal administration’s decision to repatriate 5500 (mostly Punjabis) civil
servants from Balochistan.
■ According to Mengal government, out of the 12000 government
employees in Balochistan, only 3000 were Baloch
○ The Mengal government also created a new police force, Balochistan Dehi
Muhafiz (BDM).
○ The Mengal government refused to allow the Coast Guards, a federal
○ force, to patrol the Makran coast.
○ Tribal conflicts and political/landlord opposition which created a difficult law and
order situation which prompted the request by Akbat Bugti for the Federal
government to intervene
○ The London Plan - a meeting of political leaders, including Mujib ur Rehman,
which supposedly met to plan to overthrow the government

○ Eventually, after the raid of the Iraqi embassy in 1973 (during which weapons
supposedly meant for Balochi insurgents were found), many of the NAP’s leaders
were arrested, supposedly for supporting this insurgency
○ Source:
■ https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.33428/jsoutasiamiddeas.42.1.0067.
pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A4f859389e6ffff4128538e8086c7a3fe
● This resulted in uprisings in Balochistan
○ These were quelled by the army
○ Both the opposition and the army were supported by foreign countries
● Importance:
○ The army was brought into politics at a time when they were not wanted
○ The ideas of provincial autonomy were destroyed
○ Rise of autocracy from Bhutto:
■ In April 1974, an amendment was passed which allowed the government
to:
● Limit press freedom
● Ban political parties which were a threat to the ‘sovereignty and
integrity’ of the country
■ In 1975, laws were announced to allow security forces to detain suspects
indefinitely
● The FSF could now hold people without bail
● They were also used more against opposition rallies and
politicians
■ The army was now used to crush workers’ resolutions in Karachi, Lahore,
an many other places, massacring and taking prisoner many peasants and
industrial labourers
● Read more about this on page 3:
https://sci-hub.se/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4366485?seq=1
Civil Service of Pakistan:

● Bhutto felt that the Civil Service was inefficient and bogged down by unnecessary
bureaucracy, due to which he attempted to reorganize it:
○ Old, unnecessary distinctions were removed by:
■ Unifying the pay scale
■ Removing the caste system and adding a smaller number of levels
■ The formation of service groups with combined training
○ Reformed entry requirements:

■ Lateral entry schemes under which one could join at every level
■ Corruption was purged
● However, it was also accusedly used by Bhutto to appoint his own supporters
○ Nepotism
Economic:
Industrialization and Nationalization:
● There were plenty of economic problems (such as the 25% inflation) in the country, due
to which he wanted to implement nationalization to solve them. He thought this policy
would:
○ Channel investment into industrialization and control outputs
○ Raise the workers’ living and owrking conditions
■ This included provisions for cheap housing
○ Allow workers to set up unions
○ Redistribute the concentrated wealth
○ Generate wealth for other governmental reforms
○ Gain urban support fo the PPP
● Steps:
○ Nationalization of steel and cement industries in 1972
■ Setting up of the first Steel Mill in 1973
○ The banking industry was nationalized in 1974
○ The flour, rice, and cotton mills were nationalized
○ In all, 70 major units were placed under the control of the Federal Ministry of
production
● Problems:
○ Lack of skilled labour resulted in a loss of efficiency as capable owners were
replaced with inadequate, often corruptly-placed civil servants
○ Due to the large amounts of coordination required, the system was bogged down
by bureaucracy
○ International instability:
■ Declining demand due to the global recession
■ Rising oil prices due to the Arab-Israel war of 1973
○ Labour problems:
■ There were many incidents in which they did not receive wages regularly,
or, if they did, being forced to say that they had received much worse
than they actually had

■ Corporations were overstaffed to, which increased the wages necessary
(which mere often stolen by the distributors) and decreased the
efficiency, for more people had to be communicated with
■ https://www.dawn.com/news/582822/the-question-of-nationalisation-by
-zubeida-mustafa
○ Corruption:
■ There was extreme corruption and nepotism at every level, which led to
the wastage of funds
■ This can be seen most in the nationalisation of the Banking Sector, which
led to it being put in control of the Pakistan Banking Council
● According to
http://www.virtusinterpress.org/IMG/pdf/10-22495cocv6i2c3p1.p
df, the lack of checks and balances led to “The operations of the
nationalised banks were gradually becoming focussed on
satisfying the requirements of the Banking Council which defeated
the main principle of the Nationalisation Act: serving the people.”
○ There was also massive opposition from the private sector
■ For one, the uncertain policies stagnated international investment
■ Oligarchs didn’t like their loss of profits, either
● Outcomes:
○ Successes:
■ National Steel Mill set up
■ Inflation fell to 6% in the beginning
■ As industries weren’t private, they continued to operate during the global
recession
○ Failures:
■ Inflation rose to 20% in 1974 due to devalued rupee
■ Negative growth
■ A sharp decline in investments
■ Bureaucratic inefficiencies and corruption
Agricultural:
● Reforms:
○ Limits were placed on individual, not familial land ownership:
■ Irrigated land: 12.5-250 acres
■ Unirrigated: 12.5 - 500 acres
● These were half the limits set by Ayub

○ Surplus land was sold to tenets for greater efficiency and to prevent the next
tenet from evicting them
■ They could not be evicted without reason, either
○ These land reforms only targetted Punjab, not Sindh, where he owned his
father’s stolen land
● It fell victim to many of the problems Ayub’s reforms faced, however:
○ With land caps:
■ Land was transferred to family members
■ Lack of political will to implement it
■ Incomplete records
■ Infertile land was relinquished for a higher cost than it was worth
■ Corruption and bribes in implementation and enforcement
○ With tenet rights:
■ Weak social position in tenets in contrast to landlords’ strong social and
political influence made it harder for them to take advantage of the
reforms
■ Premptive evictions
■ Lack of finance for lawsuits to fight corruption
■ Corruption to transfer land own paper while retaining ownership
Social:
Educational:
● Aims:
○ To eradicate ignorance
○ To provide education to all
○ To ensure the curriculum met Pakistan’s social, economic, and political needs
○ Uniformity of education in each institute of Pakistan
○ Development of self-confidence and potential/personality of each student
○ The development of a ‘Pakistani’ culture, identity, and national pride
● Steps:
○ According to an Article 37 of the constitution of 1973, the government was to
provide free and compulsory education to all
○ Missionary schools were set up in Sukkur
○ 1820 schools, 346 madrassas, and 155 colleges were set up in Sindh
○ Sindhi was made compulsory in Sindh
○ School curriculum was revitalized
○ Private schools were nationalized

○ Free primary and compulsory education till grade 10
● Problems:
○ Lack of efficient administrators
○ Only 13% of the education budget was allocated to primary schools
○ Social kickback:
■ People didn't place importance on it as:
● Girls weren’t allowed to attend due to cultural restrictions
● Parents couldn’t afford the loss of earnings
■ Lack of teachers
■ Decline in quality of private education due to the increase in students
■ Schools were too strict, due to which the dropout rate was high
■ Education takes time to implement
Healthcare:
● Pakistan had many healthcare problems:
○ High infant mortality
○ Low life expectancy
● In order to solve this:
○ Rural Healthcare Centres and Basic Healthcare Units were set up in rural and
urban areas
■ RHCs were to serve 60,000 people
■ BHUs were to serve 20,000 people
○ The sale of medicines under brand names/patents in pharmaceuticals were
banned
○ Training colleges for doctors and nurses were set up
■ Once qualified, doctors had to work fo the government for a year so that
they could be assigned to rural areas
■ Entry was to be on merit
● Outcomes:
○ Standard and availability of medical services incrased
○ Medicines became cheaper
○ Fake medications flourished
Labour:
● In order to satisfy the militant labour force, reforms such as the Labour Reforms of 1972
and the Labour Law Ordinance of 1975 and other such reforms were implemented
● Unions:

○ Initially, in 1972, unions were given more power with the formation of Work
Councils and Labour Courts
○ Later, the undue formation of unions was checked in the light of mass protests by
parties such as the Mazdoor-Kisan Party
● Pay:
○ Profit sharing was increased in big industries from 2-4%
○ New rules were announced regarding bonus, gratuity, leave compensation, and
requirement
○ Safeguards against arbitrary firings
● Medical and Educational Cover:
○ Factory owners were made responsible to bear the cost of education of at least
one child of every worker they employed
○ Labourers were given medical cover, compensation for injuries and group
insurance
Foreign Policy:
Simla Agreement:
● In the aftermath of the war of ‘71, 93,000 PoWs were held in Bangladesh and India
○ To deal with this situation, ZAK and Mrs Indira Gandhi met from 28th June - 2nd
July 1972 in Simlah
● On 2nd July, an agreement was signed that:
○ Prisoners of War were to be released
○ 5191 square miles of captured land were to be returned
○ The Kashmir problem wouldn’t be solved via international intervention such as
the UN
● Importance:
○ Bhutto didn’t give up the claim that Pakistan spoke for Kashmir
○ He reduced the dependence on the army by making future conflict less likely
○ He improved pakistan’s international status by portraying it as peaceful
○ He increased his popularity by bringing back captured PoWs
Organization of Islamic Conferences:

● The 2nd OIC was held in lahore in 1974
● 35 countries including the Palestine Liberation Organization met there
● The PLO’s head was recognized as the voice of its people and aid was pledged
● importance:
○ Pakistan was portrayed as a leading Islamic Nation

○ Bhutto prove himself as a competent leader
○ Pakistan became the 2nd largest supplier of military aid in the developing world
Nuclear Program:
● In 1974, India carried out nuclear tests in Rajasthan Desert
● In response, the Pakistan Nuclear Program was initiated
● On 24th June 1972, 50 scientists were gathered
● Help was sought from foreign countries:
○ China and North Korea
○ A Dutch centrifuge firm
● The program was carried on by Zia ul Haq
Miscellaneous:
● He toured 22 countries to explain his foreign policies
○ This included China and the USSR
● SEATO:
○ He left SEATO when Western countries recognized Bangladesh
● USA:
○ By improving public view of Pakistan there, he could now avail their economic aid
● Remittances from foreign workers increased substantially
Downfall:
Elections of ‘77:
● Bhutto, thinking he had the support of the masses, announced elections in 1977
● The opposition formed the PNA (Pakistan National Alliance)
○ It consisted of 9 parties
○ It promised to:
■ Bring back the prices of 1970
■ Enforce Nizam-e-Mustafa
○ They were headed by Asghar Khan, who said that they would not accept the
results, which would supposedly be rigged
● Due to the support the PNA gained, restrictions were placed on public meetings
● In the elections, PPP gained a majority of 155 seats
○ The PNA, which only got 36 seats, rejected it
Ensuing Events:
● A nationwide campaign against PPP was held
● To crush these, the FSF and rangers were involved
○ Negotiations were also initiated under which Friday was declared a national
holiday, the sale of alcohol was restricted, and the banning of parties was
restricted
● On 19th April, Pakistan was placed under martial law
○ Due to the dire situation, the PNA and its supporters were arrested
○ Negotiations with a PNA delegation ensued
● Due to the deadlock, the army, which Bhutto himself had called, took advantage of the
situation and launched ‘Operation Fairplay’
Operation Fairplay:
● On 5th July, there was a military coup
● Bhutto and other major political leaders were arrested that night
● It was led by Zia ul Haq
● Three days later, the constitution and assemblies were assemblied
Reasons for Downfall (Past Papers):

● One of the main weaknesses of his government was that the focal point of political
power lay with the party leadership and Bhutto in particular.
○ When things went wrong the blame was clearly laid at his feet.
● Domestic Policies:
○ Landowners and businessmen were against nationalization
■ They were even more bitter since he preserved his own land ownings
○ Education:
■ The changes in education led to overcrowding in existing schools whist
new ones could be built.
■ The reforms were not very successful since the building of new schools
and the recruitment of new teachers could not be achieved quickly and
was also very expensive
■ Many families resented the educational reforms since it meant a loss of
earnings to them.
○ Religious groups disliked gambling and alcohol
● The PNA:
○ The movements and civilian protests they held created a tense situation which
the army could take advantage of
● Execution:

○ Bhutto was finally accused of conspiracy to murder a political opponent and was
found guilty.
○ He refused to plead for clemency to the President.

Zia ul Haq
Background
Who:
● He was born on August 12th 1924 at Jalandhar
● Education:
○ He first attended the Government High School Simla
○ Next, he travelled to Delhi, where he did his BA Honours from St. Stephen
College
● Military Career:
○ He joined the British army in 1943
○ He served in Burma, Malaysia, and Indonesia during WW2
○ He participated in the War of 1865
○ He was elevated to the rank of COAS by Bhutto in March 1976
● As seen in Zulfikar Ali Bhutto’s document, Zia ul Haq seized power during ‘Operation Fair
Play’, a military coup staged on 5th July 1977
Consolidation of Power:
● At first, he said, that within 90 days, he would hold new elections
○ This was completely fake, however - in reality, he wanted to keep power for as
long as he could
● Therefore, in order to retain power, he started crushing the opposition, most
importantly the PPP
○ He declared their government corrupt (without evidence) and also accused
Bhutto of a murder on shaky grounds
■ A White Paper was issued which criticized the actions of the previous
government
● Lastly, saying that he wanted to implement accountability and islamization in the
country, he cancelled the upcoming elections
○ This was done after Bhutto had been declared not guilty in the Ahmed Qusuri
case so that he could be called in again
Bhutto’s Execution:
● Bhutto, along with other major political leaders, were released from arrest at the end of
July

○ However, when Bhutto made it clear that he was going to reassert his political
authority, he was rearrested on 3rd December
● Next, he (along with 3 other people) were implicated in the murder of Ahmed Qusuri’s
father
○ Ahmed Qusuri was a PPP MNA who quickly and vocally prove himself to be
Bhutto’s enemy
○ While returning from a marriage, he was ambushed and his father killed
● At first, he was released after 10 days by Justice KMA Samdhani, who found the
evidence “contradictory and incomplete”
○ However, he was then sacked from his job and replaced by someone Zia found
more satisfactory. Bhutto was again arrested 3 days later
○ On October 24, 1977, his case was again initiated, this time with 5 new judges in
the Lahore High Court
■ The judges were headed by Mushtaq Hussain, a known opposer of Bhutto
who made several rude comments to him during the trial
○ Four witnesses, the alleged assassins, were brought into the court, where they
testified that the Federal Security Force had organized the ambush on Bhutto’s
orders
■ However, one of them declared this confession had been extracted from
him under torture. The next day, he was not present in court as he had
‘fallen ill’
○ When Bhutto began his testimony, the courtroom was closed to all observers by
CJ Mushtaq Hussain
■ In reaction to this, the court was accused of bias and a retrial demanded
and rejected
○ On March 18th 1978, he was sentenced to death
● His case was then appealed in the Supreme Court.
○ This appeal was admitted by CJ Yaqub Ali just days before he was sacked and
replaced by Anwar Ali Haque, who was extremely close to Zia - they were from
the same hometown
■ He was woefully underprepared for this job - he had no legal training and
had entered the judicial service through its backdoor as an administrator
■ During his oath, the paragraph which contained the promise to “preserve,
protect and defend the constitution” was omitted
○ The appeal was admitted on 25th of March and hearings continued from 20th of
May to 23rd December. Judgment was delivered on 6th of February 1979.

■ The hearings took so long as Zia realised that 5 of the nine judges
supporting overturning the decision, due to which he adjourned the case
till the end of July so that one of the judges, Qaisar Khan, would retire
■ Another judge in support of him, Wahid ud Din, stepped down after
suffering from a stroke.
● Thus, now that the 5:4 majority had been reduced to a 4:3 minority, the appeal was
rejected in a judgement written by Anwar ul Haq
○ Though Bhutto had told his family not to plead for his life from Zia, in a last ditch
attempt, Hafeez Peerzada and two of his sisters submitted a mercy appeal
■ Several international appeals were received, too
○ Roedad Khan was appointed to deal with them.
■ He was told by Zia: “It’s his neck or mine … I have not convicted him and
if they hold him guilty, my God I am not letting him off!”
■ He was repeatedly told to speed up the process so that Bhutto could be
hung
● Sources:
○ https://web.archive.org/web/20120903040459/http://www.chowk.com/Views/
History/Judicial-Murder-of-a-Prime-Minister
○ https://dailytimes.com.pk/223769/the-judicial-murder-of-z-a-bhutto/
● Reasons:
○ When things went wrong, all blame was placed on Bhutto
○ The accusation of misuse of the FSF
○ Zia wanted to prove that he was a strong, authoritarian ruler who was not afraid
to hang even the person who appointed him as CoAS
■ Furthermore, some officers believed that it would be disloyal to sentence
Bhutto to too much of a punishment. He wanted to show that he was not
scared of them
○ Bhutto had made it clear that he was not going to lie low and was instead going
to be an opposer of his regime. He wanted to remove this source of opposition
○ Bhutto refused to plead for his life
Policies:
Islamization:
As Islamization was more of a socio-political attempt at the absolute subjugation of every
aspect of peoples’ lives, it is difficult to place it under a different heading, due to which it
deserves its own. However, in an essay, you can probably list most of these as social reforms

Reasons for Islamization:
● He wanted to counter ZAB’s liberal policies
● Zia wanted to implement his own interpretation of Islam - such as punishment of
blasphemy and ‘Islamic’ education - in the populace
● He wanted a strong government with a strict legal code to consolidate his power, thus
enabling him to ignore the legal process
● He wanted to associate his government with of Islam in order for it to be supported by
Muslims, thus manipulating religion for power
● He wanted to distribute some wealth to the poor via Islamic taxes
● He used it as a way to legitimize his support of the Afghani Mujahideen against the
Soviet Union.
● He wanted to win support from the religious political parties, notably the
Jamaat-e-Islami
Federal Shariat Court (Political):

● In 1980, a Shariat Court was set up. As per the new law, Shariat benches would be
established at provincial and federal levels
○ It could decide whether or not existing laws were Islamic or not
■ Any citizen could challenges law to the judges
○ One of its actions was to annul the punishment of stoning to death for adultery
(though this was reversed in 1982 as Zia and Islamic fundamentalists didn’t
support it, due to which he changed several judges)
● It consisted of 5 judges (one of whom was a chairman), 3 ulemas
○ The three Ulemas were appointed as judges in 1981 by Zia, due to which they
obviously held alliance to him
● In 1982, the ulemas were also appointed on the Shariat Appelate Bench of the Supreme
Court
● Ombudsman were introduced to make sure legal proceedings complied with Islam
Hudood Ordinances (Social):

● In 1977, the Hudood Ordinance was implemented
○ According to them, different punishments for various crimes were prescribed,
supposedly in the light of the Holy Quran and Sunnah
● Crimes and Punishments:
○ The preparation, transportation and usage of alcohol was prohibited and
punishable by 80 lashes

○ Theft was punishable by cutting of the right hand of the thief
○ If a person committed adultery, they would be stoned to death
○ People who falsely accused someone of adultery would be lashed 80 times
● Women:
○ Zina Ordinance - 1984:
■ The testimony of a woman was taken as half of that of a man
○ Four witnesses were required to prove a rape
■ This ignores the fact that a) Most people aren’t going to rape a woman in
front of four other people b) If four people just stand and watch while
someone’s being raped, they’re probably not very good people
■ One of many cases in which this went wrong is the case of Safia Bibi, a
blind woman who could not prove her rape and thus was accused of zina
because she got pregnant
Zakat and Ushr Ordinance (Economic):

● Taxes:
○ Zakat - A 2.5% tax was imposed on all savings above a certain amount
○ Ushr - A 5% tax was implemented on all agricultural income
● Shia Backlash:
○ Shia Muslims protested in Islamabad in 1984, for they believed that Zakat should
be voluntary
○ Due to this, Zia was forced to exempt them
● Distribution:
○ The money raised was sent to the Central Zakat Council, which redistributed it it
to the Provincial Zakat Council
○ The money was then distributed to the District and Tehsil Zakat Committees
○ Them, it was used by the local Zakat Committees to help the poor
Miscellaneous:
● Blasphemy:
○ Blasphemy against the Prophet was punishable by “death, or life imprisonment
and shall also be liable to fine”.
○ In 1982 the small Ahmadiyya religious minority were prohibited from saying or
implying they were Muslims in Ordinance XX, further solidifying Bhutto’s
declaration of Ahmadiyyas as non-Muslims

■ This has led to many people taking the law into their own hands: “They
have extra-judicially killed at least 52 persons; amongst them were 25
Muslims, 15 Christians, 5 Ahmedis, one Buddhist and one Hindu.”
■ “The liberal Islamic scholars assailed it on the basis that the Quran, the
holy book of Islam, does not postulate such provisions relating to severe
punishments. They plead the concept of ‘offev’ (Arabic) (forgiveness) as
the cardinal principle in Islamic jurisprudence. ”
■ https://www.ceceurope.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/MISUSE_OF_
BLASPHEMY_LAW_IN_PAKISTAN_-_Naeem_Shakir.pdf
● Education:
○ The study of Islamiat and Pakistan Studies was made compulsory (too far man)
○ People who had memorized the Quran were given priority in entry tests
● Open eating and drinking during Ramadan was punishable by a 3 months’ imprisonment
and fine
● Shia-Sunni differences aggravated
● Media:
○ Female announcers were told to cover their heads
○ Western dresses were only allowed to be worn by villains on TV
■ https://www.dawn.com/news/786019/the-hearts-filthy-lesson
● An Islamic system of interest-free banking was introduced wherein consumers shared
both the profit and loss of their banks
Political:
Balochistan:
● During Bhutto’s time, situations in Balohcistan worsened significantly
● In order to deal with this:
○ He disbanded the Hyderabad Tribunal, under which members of the NAP were
prosecuted
○ Military operation in the area was stopped
○ Amnetsy was declared for all who gave up their arms
Investigation into PPP’s Government:

● The FSF was disbanded in November 1977 as:
○ He knew how Bhutto had misused it
○ He wanted to show that Bhutto’s epolitical opression was a thing of the past
○ He wanted to put down the PPP and prevent them from gaining power again by
exposing the flaws in their rule
● Investigations began into corruption
● He looked into nepotism and came to the conclusion that the civil service and legal
system had been filled by Bhutto’s supporters
● A White Paper was issued which criticized the actions of the previous government
Majlis-e-Shoora:
● Instead of setting up a parliament, he set up a Majlis-e-Shoora in February 1982
○ This was a lame way to respond to the demands for a new election
● It had no actual power, instead just being a debating body
● Furthermore, all 350 members were to be nominated by the President, due to which it
was clearly unrepresentative
○ Only 20 members - 5.7% - of the members were to be women
Provisional Constitutional Order 1981 and Judicial Reforms:

● In 1977, the constitution of Pakistan was suspended and martial law was established
○ Nusrat Bhutto bought a case against this to the supreme court, which ruled
against her, invoking once again the "doctrine of necessity," permitting the
regime to "perform all such acts and promulgate all measures, which [fall] within
the scope of the law of necessity, including the power to amend the
Constitution."
■ In essence, it said that the Consitution of 1973 had not been rejected
and, except for a few provisions due to the “doctrine of necessity” was
being followed
○ The next year, the Presidential Order 21 of 1979 amended the Constitution by
inserting a new Article 212A.
■ Under this, military courts were established which could not be
questioned by the High or Supreme Courts
● Article 212A was put into question in many high courts as it went against the very logic
used to dismiss Nusrat Bhutto’s case
○ While it was upheld in most courts, the Quetta High Court ruled against it
■ It was appealed in the Supreme Court
○ In response to this, the Constitutional (Amendment) Order of 1980 was passed
which prevented the courts from challenging any political executive decision
■ It also established the Federal Shariat Courts mentioned befpre
● In 1981, before the hearing of the appeal of the Quetta High Court’s decision, the
Provisional Constitutional Order was passed

○ Under it, judges of the Supreme and High Court were required to take an oath
that they would follow the Order or be sacked
■ 19 judges in protest to this were sacked
○ The President was given the power to amend the constitution
○ The President could:
■ a) appoint ad hoc judges from the High Court to the Supreme Court for
such period as may be necessary
■ b) request one of the judges of the Supreme Court, irrespective of his
seniority, to act as Chief Justice of a High Court
■ c) transfer a High Court judge from one High Court to another without the
judge’s consent and without consultation with the Chief Justice of
Pakistan or the Chief Justices of both High Courts, for a period of not
more than two years.
● Sources:
○ https://www.icj.org/wp-content/uploads/1987/01/Pakistan-human-rights-after-
martial-law-fact-finding-report-1987-eng.pdf
○ http://countrystudies.us/pakistan/21.htm
○ https://www.dawn.com/news/1116762
○ http://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/constitution/orders/po1_1980.html
Civil Service:
● The civil service was brought under military control
● He filled many posts with military officers
○ A fixed quote of military men was to be transferred into the Civil Service
Academy every year
● Thus, he provided career opportunities for his supporters
● By 1982, 40% of Pakistan’s ambassadors were military men
● It is interesting to not that he earlier condemned Bhutto for filling the Civil Service with
his own supporters and then proceeded to do the same.
Referendum of 1984:
● On 1st December 1984, Zia announced that his government would hold a referendum
● It took place on 19th December 1984 to ascertain whether the people of Pakistan
wanted Zia to continue as President for another five years
○ However, it was phrased in a needlessly complicated way so that ot seemed that
anyone who voted against it was a kaafir:

■ “Whether the people of Pakistan endorse the process initiated by General
Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, the President of Pakistan, for bringing the laws of
Pakistan in conformity with the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the
Holy Quran and Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) and for the
preservation of the Islamic ideology of Pakistan, for the continuation and
consolidation of that process, and for the smooth and orderly transfer of
power to the elected representatives of the people.”
● It was boycotted by the Movement for the Restoration of Democracy, due to which
turnout was extremely low
○ However, it also meant that the votes were overwhelmingly in Zia’s favour
Elections of 1985 and the MRD:

● Movement for the Restoration of Democracy:
○ On February 6th, 1981, an alliance was created against Zia’s rule by officially
defunct parties
■ It consisted of 11 political parties, notably the PPP, ANP, Tehreek-e-Istaslal
and others
○ Demands:
■ End to martial law
■ Elections to be held under the suspended 1973 Constitution
○ Actions:
■ It launched mostly nonviolent massive protests in 1983
● However: “On August 14, the MRD workers waved black banners
at the tomb of Jinnah, and uprooted the railway tracks in interior
Sindh. On August 18 another incident took place when the MRD
workers attacked Dadu jail and enabled 102 prisoners to escape.
Government properties were destroyed and armed confrontations
with the law enforcing agencies generated an alarming situation.”
■ It boycotted the referendum of 1984 and the elections of 1985
○ Failure:
■ It was mostly based in Sindh and could not gain a foothold in the other
provinces
■ People could not believe the illogical alliance of PPP and many parties
which had opposed Bhutto’s rule
■ Indira Gandhi’s support for it made it suspicious in the eyes of the people
■ The participation of Jeay Sind and escaped criminals made it unpopular
○ Source:

■ https://historypak.com/movement-for-the-restoration-of-democracy/
● Announcement of Elections:
○ On 12th August 1983, national and provincial elections were announced to be
held in March 1985
○ It was to be on a non-party basis with adult franchise. If anyone wished to run,
they had to be supported by at least 50 people
■ The MRD took opposition to the non-party clause, but Zia ignored them
○ To make sure that the elections would not reduce his power, he passed several
amendments to the Constitution
● Preemptive Amendments:
○ All actions taken by the president were deemed to be legal
○ All military decisions and actions since 1977 were legal and could not be
questioned
○ No decision taken under martial law could be changed without the President’s
consent
○ The President could appoint the PM and other senior government officials
without consultation
● Elections and Results:
○ In February 1985, elections were held
○ Though the MRD boycotted it, saying that it would legitimize this dictatorship,
turnouts were still decently high (52%)
■ Most people voted for previous members of political parties or
landlors/their tribal chiefs
○ Results:
■ Nine cabinet memebrs were defeated
■ A tame and obedient Assembly not dominated by the PPP was created
■ Most of the elected members were loyal to Zia
■ The MRD were effectively defeated due to their failed boycott
○ Muhammad Khan Junejo, a non radical man, was appointed as Prime Minister as
Zia felt that he could easily be controlled
■ However, before martial law was lifted, the eight amendment was passed
Eight Amendment:
● The eight amendment altered the form of the constitution drastically from
parliamentary democracy to presidentiary
○ It was passed by the senate on November 14 1985, a month and a half before
martial law was lifted

● Important Amendments:
○ The President could tell the PM and Cabinet to alter any advice they gave him
and refuse to act upon it until they had done so
○ The President’s actions were made law and could not be questioned in any
grounds
○ The clause requiring the President to be elected was removed
○ He was allowed to dissolve the assembly pretty much whenever he wanted
according to Article 58(2) B
○ The President could appoint the PM, Governor, and other officials
○ The independence of the Governor was decreased while his power was
increased, such that they were a puppet of Zia
○ The parliament was forced to endorse all of Zia’s orders according to the
substitution of the Article 270A
● Criticism:
○ It created an extreme power imbalance, with the President overshadowing
everyone else
○ ‘Selective Accountability’ was introduced, with the PM being placed under the
President’s control while the President’s actions could not be questions
○ The government was no longer as efficient as everything had to be run by the
President
○ Article 58(2) B was abused four times in questionable dissolutions
Social:
Rights of Women:
● As women were encouraged to stay him, only 5.6% of women were in employment
● The Hudood Ordinances were terrible, as said before
● Only 20 members - 5.7% - of the members were to be women
● In response to this, several women’s right organizations were formed, the most notable
being the Woman’s Action Forum
● However, the represntation of women in the NA was increased to 20% in 1985
Rights of Minorties:
● Under Ordinance XX, the Ahmadiyya community was severely oppressed
Censorship:
● In 1984, all students’ unions were banned

Problems with the Afghan War:
● Smuggling:
○ Opiates, grown in Afghanistan, were smuggled across the border to Pakista,
leading to rising rates in drug addiction
○ The weapons supplied to the Mujahideen also ended up in civilian hands, leading
to the birth of the ‘Klashnikov Culture’, which ofset the benefits of the strict
Hudood Laws
● Refugees:
○ Millions of refugees were displaced to Pakistan, which had no place or money to
house them, due to which they were spread out around the country
○ Due to this, unemployment rose
○ There were also cultural clashes between the refugees and Pakistanis
Economic:
Denationalization:
● Many industries were returned to their former owners or were sold to new investors
● To confirm that nationalization wouldn’t occur again, laws were passed that industries
could only be nationalized in exceptional circumstances with fair compensation
● A few industries remained nationalized but were reformed to make them more efficient
● Interest free loans were given to farmers
● The existing policy was reformed such that bank’s customers shared both profits and
losses with each other
● There were 50,000 Pakistanis working abroad - they sent home ~$4 Billion per year
Results:
● The Growth rate of the GDP was 6.2%, amongst the highest in the world
Foreign:
The ‘Afghan Miracle’:
● On 25th December 1979, the Societ Union invaded and occupied Afghanistan in order to
prop up the government of President Mohammad Daud Khan
○ This was in the backdrop of nationwide protests due to the leftist government’s
new reforms
○ Capitalist Western countries overlooked Zia’s human rights violation when he
became a frontline state against Societ Agression

○ As long as he was on their side, they did not care how autocratic or merciless he
was - a very nice image of consistency which we should all strive to maintain in
our social interactions
● Why Zia got involved:
○ To protect Pakistan’s sovereignty - The Soviet Union’s ultimate aim was to invade
Pakistan for its warm water ports
○ To improve Pakistan’s foreign image and avail aid
○ To aid Muslim brothers in Afghanistan.
● Fighting:
○ The Afghans had long been excellent guerrilla warriors for centuries, even
managing to kick back the British forces in the 1800s
■ The mountainous areas were also difficult for Russia to invade
○ Due to this, Soviet Russia had captured most urban centres while the mujahideen
roamed free in the countryside
■ This led to Soviet bombing of civilians, many of which fled across the
border
○ Pakistan provided military and economic assistance to these guerilla warriors,
giving preferential treatment to the Islamic fundamentalist Gulbaddin Hikmatyar,
who was a Mujahideen leader
■ The long border was extremely helpful for this
■ Madrassas were also set up in Pakistan to brainswash people into killing
and murder. This sure won’t backfire…
● As Pakistan was the sole base for anti-Soviet activities in the region, they availed
unconditional economic and military support
○ Economic aid - at first, the US President Carter only offered $400M, which Zia
termed as ‘peanuts’. When Ronald Reagan took office, however, this changed
substantially. :
■ USA offered $1.6 billion in 1981 over 5 years
■ Further 1.5 Billion Euros were also availed at low interest
■ In 1986, an agreement for 4.2 Billion Dollars’ worth of military and
economic aid was signed
○ Military:
■ An arrangement was made for the purchase of forty F-16 fighter aircraft.
■ Zia was able to increase the military budget
■ He built up an effective military force that was able to sell military
assistance to other countries, becoming the second largest supplier of
military manpower in the developing world

○ Pakistan was also established as a leading country in world politics
India:
● Khalistan Issue:
○ Sikhs in Indian Punjab demanded liberation due to oppression by the Indian
government, which included:
■ Demolition of the golden temple
■ The Sikhs in the temple, who were supposedly plotting against the
government, had to face the Indian army
○ The Indian government, led by Indira Gandhi’s son, Rajiv, accused Pakistan of:
■ Supporting the Sikhs militarily
■ Having a hand in the assassination of Indira Gandhi in 1984 by her Sikh
guards
● Siachen Glacier Issue:
○ In 1977, an Indian colonel led a team of climbers to the Siachen Glacier
■ In 1981, he, Narinder Kumar, returned and walked its full length
○ Pakistan realized India’s occupation of the area when they found a discarded
Indian cigarette packet
■ When Pakistan moved up the glacier, they found 300 Indian soldiers who
had dug into the mountain tops
○ In 1987, Pervez Musharraf led an assault to gain control of Bilafond La Pass
● Whullar Bank Issue:
○ India was illegally building dams on the River Jhelum
● Cricket Diplomacy:
○ Due to the fighting in Siachen glacier (and the testing of nuclear bombs by India
in the Rajhastan Desert), tensions were extremely strained
○ Due to this, in February, Zia flew to India to watch a cricket game with the Indian
PM
○ Due to this, India agreed to call of the mobilization of its army
○ It was called by the press ‘cricket diplomacy’
Nuclear Programme:
● Zia ul Haq carried on Bhutto’s nuclear Programme
○ He did, however, try to convince Reagan that Pakistan had no such programme

Problems and Assassination:
Problems:
Provincialization and Radicalization:
● Punjab was a strong supporter of the government while Sindh was extremely against it.
○ Both KPK and Balochistan had general anti-government feelings
● “The muhajirs formed new organizations, the most significant-being the Refugee
People's Movement (Muhajir Qaumi Mahaz). The incendiary tensions resulted not only
from Sindhi-muhajir opposition but also from Sindhi fear of others who had moved into
the province, including Baloch, Pakhtuns, and Punjabis. The fact that Sindhi was
becoming the mother tongue of fewer and fewer people of Sindh was also resented. The
violence escalated in the late 1980s to the extent that some compared Karachi and
Hyderabad to the Beirut of that period.”
‘Afghan Miracle’:
● Mentioned before
Rescindment of Aid:
● By 1988, the cold war was ending as the worlds’ superpowers looked to end their
differences
○ The more relaxed Gorbacev had come to power in 1985
● Thus, in April 1988, Gorbacev signed a peace treaty wherein he agreed to withdraw from
Afghanistan
○ In return, America was told not to support the mujahideen
● Now that they were no longer as necessary, the foreign aid started to reduce
Junejo and the Muslim League

● Junejo called an all Party Conference in March 1988 to discuss the situation in
Afghanistan
○ This was in order to show that the civilian wing of the government could act
independently
● The army took note of this.
Ojhri Camp:
● On 10th April 1988, an army weapons dump at Ojhri Camp blew up
○ As it was in the middle of a densely populated area between Islamabad and
Rawalpindi, there were hundreds of civilian casualties
● It was so terrible that General Zia ul Haq had to quickly return from the OIC in Kuwait
● PM Junejo announced an inquiry into the event
○ As he was insistent on bringing its perpetrators to justice, even if it be against the
DG ISI of the area
● This was too much for Zia - in order to protect his friends, he suspended the assembly on
29th May 1988.
Assassination:
● On 17th August 1988, Zia flew from an army base in Southern Punjab
○ There were 31 people on board, including the US ambassador and senior officials
of the Pakistan Army
● 2 and a half minutes after it took off, the Bahwalpur control tower lost contact with it
○ For the next two minutes, it flew turbulently
○ Finally, it plunged and hit the ground and exploded
● An investigation was led into it by the Air Force Board of enquiry, it was ascertained that
it occurred due to sabotage

Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz
Sharif
Benazir’s First Term:
Who:
● She was the daughter of former Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto
● She was under house arrest while Bhutto was being tried and hung in 1981
● In 1984, she went on exile to London
○ There, she had no intention of returning or getting involved in politics
● However, in 1985, she returned for the funeral of her brother, Shanawaz, who was
poisoned
○ During this, she was arrested for participating in anti-government rallies
○ After she was released, she again went into exile
● When Zia ended martial law in 1986, she returned to Pakistan and became the
co-chairman of PPP (alongside her mother)
○ She then began campaigning for fair and free national elections and for Zia to
resign
Rise to Power:
● If President dies, chairman becomes the acting President
○ Thus, Ghulam Ishaq Khan became President
● In October 1988, elections were held, during which PPP was the single largest Party and
a majority in Sindh
○ This was in spite of her utter lack of political experience - she won due to her
surname, Bhutto, only
○ When Ghulam Ishaq Khan asked her to become president, she needed to form an
alliance (with the MQM) since she didn’t have an overall majority
● She faced strong opposition from:
○ Islamic extremist parties who believed women should not be President
○ The Islami Jamhoori Ittehad, led by Nawaz Sharif (who was incredibly rich, due to
which he had opposition to the Bhuttos), which had a majority in Punjab

Policies:
Aims:
● Moving away from Zia’s pro-Islamic policies
○ She wanted a country that was first democratic and second guided by Islamic
principles
● Restoring political freedoms
● Introducing social and health reforms
Foreign Policy:
● She again entered the commonwealth
● South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC):
○ She held the fourth SAARC in December 1988 in Islamabad
○ Relationships between Pakistan and India improved
○ 3 peace agreements were signed between Pakistan and India
■ They wouldn’t bomb each other’s nuclear installations
■ They would uphold the terms of the Simlah Accord
■ A hotline telephone link was set up
○ However, tensions increased when she started using tougher language in support
of the Kashmiri Mujahideen
● USA:
○ She visited its President, George Bush, and other government officials in 1989
Unions:
● The ban on trade unions was lifted
○ It had been enforced by Bhutto due to mass labour protests, some of which were
led by militant unions
● She restored student unions
Miscellaneous:
● Political prisoners released
● She took the first steps towards rural electrification
● A woman’s Bank (First Women’s Bank) was opened
● Women were recruited into the police and appointed as High Court Judges and Civil
Service Positions

Problems:
The IJI:
● The IJI accused her of being soft to India
○ She promised to improve relations with India during the elections
○ She was committed that Kashmir would self-determine their fate
● They organized a no-confidence motion in October 1989
○ It got 107 seats, just 12 short of the seats needed to get her to resign
● Because of the dominance of her opposition in the Senate, she was unable to pass any
major reforms
● The IJI reacted negatively to the appointment of Secretary-General Ghulam Mustafa
Khar as the Governor of Punjab by PPP
● The IJI arrested 3 FSF agents who were investigating tax evasion at a factory owned by a
minister in Punjab
Bank of Punjab:
● Nawaz Sharif established it in 1989
● Even though the provinces were allowed to do so, the PPP called it treason
● However, people thought she was in the wrong due to:
○ Poor roads and schools
○ The failure of the Pakistan Railways to provide wagons to move scrap iron from
Karachi to Lahore
Conflict with President:

● She wanted to repeal the Eighth Amendment introduced by Zia ul Haq, but she did not
gain enough political support for this cause and had to drop it
● Ghulam Ishaq Khan believed that appointments to the military and the judiciary were
the rights of the President, not the PM
Nepotism and Corruption:

● She appointed her mother, Nusrat Bhutto, as a senior minister
● She selected her father-in-law, Asif Ali Zardari, as chairman of the parliamentary public
accounts committee
○ He was accused of taking rake-offs on government deals and later jailed for 2
years for blackmail
● She set up the controversial Placement Bureau, which made political appointments to
the civil bureaucracy, although the bureau was later abolished
● Able political servants were fired due to their opposition to her father

● People claimed that loans were given to party supporters to start businesses
Economic:
● She could not deliver on her promises due to the opposition in the senate
● Unemployment was high
● Inflation increased
● The population rose, crippling the health and educational facilities
Drugs:
● Due to the “Afghan ‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘Miracle’’’’’’’’”, there was plenty of drug trafficking
● This led to growing drug abuse, which she was unable to contain
● Drug dealers and smugglers with automatic weapons ran free in some parts of the
country
Sindh:
● During Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s time, Sindh had been a stronghold as:
○ He had reserved posts in the government for Sindhis
○ He had made Sindhi a compulsory subject
● However, during Benazir’s time, the MQM rose
○ These were Urdu-speaking migrants who opposed separate rights for Sindhis
● Though at first, they formed a coalition, it was broken in October 1989 due to the fact
that she hardly shared any power
○ Furthermore, she could not deliver on her promise to protect the rights of all
inhabitants of Sindh, not only Sindhis
Balochistan:
● The Balochi National Assembly was dissolved by the Governor on the advice of the CM
within two weeks of the government coming into power
○ IJI blamed PPP for this, though Benazir denied any knowledge
● The Balochistan High Court declared the dissolution illegal and restored the assembly in
January 1989
Pucca Qila Massacre:

● On 30th September 1988, gunmen on motorbikes fired into crowds in Hyderabad
○ 250 casualties (most of whom were Muhajirs) were caused
○ There were crackdowns in Hyderabad during which MQM leaders were arrested

● In protest, the MQM organized a protest in Hyderabad
○ While the PPP claimed they were fired on due to snipers behind them, the MQM
claimed that the police were unprovoked
○ 40 protestors, including women and children, were killed
■ According to some accounts, they held Qurans over their head and
begged for mercy
● There were massive protests in Karachi following this
Dismissal:
● Ghulam Ishaq Khan dismissed the government under the eight amendment due to
corruption, incompetence, and inaction
● Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi, the leader of a coalition opposed to the PPP was asked to form a
caretaker government till elections in October 1990
Reasons:
You can list most of the stuff from the problems, this is just from the past papers:
● She was criticised by many for the alleged corruption of her husband Asif Ali Zardari and
PPP leaders were suspected of being involved; this tainted her own reputation.
● She came into confrontation with provincial governments especially as she had to work
in a coalition with the MQM which was a party that represented Muslims who had
migrated from India to Pakistan and settled in Sindh. This angered many PPP members in
Sindh.
● Violent protests throughout Pakistan led to the MQM leaving the coalition and joining
with the opposition which meant that her majority was gone.
○ Further violence and deaths led to her dismissal because she and her
government were blamed for the breakdown of law and order.
Nawaz’s First Term:

Who:
● Nawaz Sharif was a businessman and politician born on December 25, 1949, in Lahore
● He earned an LLB from the Punjab University in Lahore
● He joined his family’s influential Ittefaq Group
● He was appointed as the finance minister of Punjab in 1981
● He became the Chief Minister of Punjab in 1985
● He led the IJI and later PML-N
● He was the Prime Minister of Pakistan for 3 terms from 1990-3, 1997-8, and 2013-7
Elections:
● He won comfortably in the elections of 1990
● There were accusations of vote-rigging
● Benazir Bhutto became the leader of the opposition
Policies:
The Shariat Bill:
● In 1991, the Shariat Bill was passed
○ According to it, the Quran and Sunnah were to be the law of the land as long as
they did not go against the existing laws
○ It did not allow women to run
● Reactions:
○ Opponents disliked the increased role of Islam
■ Benazir did not allow it to go through
○ Fundamentalists were disappointed that it did not go further
● However, there were little actual changes due to this.
○ For example, when the Federal Shariat Courts asked for measures to be taken
about interest on loans, no action was taken
Economic Liberalization:
● He privatized 89 state-owned enterprise
○ The included telecommunications, shipping, and electricity
○ Profits and prices rose = loot and plunder
● Large scale projects to stimulate the economy were launched
○ The Barotha Hydro Power Project
○ The Gwadar Miniport
● Financial:
○ Government banks were successfully privatized
○ Exchange controls of foreign currency were lifted so that now, private money
exchange could occur
● Common Labourers:
○ A self-employment scheme was introduced which was later called the Yellow Cab
Scheme
■ Under it, many taxes were imported
■ People were given easy loans in order to buy them
○ A minimum wage of Rs 1500 was introduced from July 1992
● Effect:
○ Foreign Investment:
■ Foreign private investment up to 1997 totalled $3.5 Billion
■ Three foreign funds worth $58 million were set up for investment in the
equities of the company
■ The stock market was bullish - increased from 393->764. This was a rapid
increase of 93%
○ Few of the loans were repaid
○ More negative effects discussed below
Motorway:
● Aims:
○ He wanted to build a fast transportation network to central Asia, where countries
had recently become independent from Russia
○ He wanted to provide alternatives to already overburdened roads
○ He wanted to connect major cities
○ Stimulate rural economies
● It was extremely expensive and was supposed to cost 989,000,000,000
● It did have some success:
○ The M2 was completed in 1997
○ It was the first major motorway in South Asia that connected Lahore and
Islamabad
● However, the project suffered continual delays
○ Eventually came to a temporary stop under Musharraf
Security:
● Kalashnikov Culture’s Effect:
○ It was part of the culture in many rural areas to carry guns
■ This was made easy due to smuggling of weapons across the Afghan
border as the result of Zia’s policies
○ Because of it, bombings, kidnapping, and robberies were commonplace
■ Even foreigners were not safe
○ It was a special problem in Sindh
○ By 1999, Pakistan had as many as 4 million heroin addicts
● Attempts to curb it:

○ He was forced to cancel an important trip to Japan to deal with the violence in
1991
○ In an attempt to control the flow of guns, Pakistanis were told to turn in their
weapons
○ The 12th Amendment set up Speedy Trial Courts
■ They were to give fast justice for murder and drug dealings
● Failures:
○ In 1991, the Narcotics Control Board was found to be incredibly corrupt
○ Few people actually turned in their weapons
○ The 12 Amendment was reversed in 1994 due to opposition over people’s rights
considerations and accusations of favouritism
● Overall, Nawaz Sharif’s policies were ineffective to control crime
Foreign Policy:
● Pressler Amendment:
○ The US stopped all aid to Pakistan under the Pressler Amendment
○ This was due to the secret development of nuclear weapons and the Nuclear
Power Institute
○ This continued despite the involvement in the Gulf War
● The Gulf War:
○ Four days before Bhutto was removed, the Gulf War was initiated
■ Iraq had annexed Kuwait, which they claimed was their property
■ The US-led an international coalition against them
○ Pakistan joined the US coalition against Iraq
■ US air forces and naval units allowed to refuel with this policy
■ A token battalion was sent to defend the holy places in Saudi Arabia
○ However, many people sympathized with Iraq
■ Due to this, there were protests over Pakistan’s involvement in the affair
Division of Resources:
● National Finance Certificate Awards:
○ According to the needs, demands, and size of the province, they received a
section of the national budget:
■
○ Effects:
■ It is why Punjab is more developed than other provinces
■ This created a problem with Balochistan as they were given only 5%

● Division of Water:
○ In order to solve the water conflicts
Problems:
Economic Problems:
● High government spending
● Reduction in overseas aid
● Decrease in remittances
● There was a rise of strong business groups, which increased the wealth gap
● A huge increase in unemployment due to downsizing of now privatized industries
The Bank of Credit and Commerce International (BCCI):

● The BCCI had been set up in 1972 by Agha Hasan Abedi
○ It became the seventh-largest international bank in the world at one point
○ Nawaz’s family company, Ittefaq Industries, was majorly involved in it
○ Despite being international, it was mostly set in Pakistan
■ It operated in Pakistani institutions and hired Pakistani workers
● The Bank Collapsed in 1991
○ The Bank of England closed their operations due to:
■ Losses
■ Fraud
■ Money laundering
○ However, Nawaz Sharif allowed them to stay open for several months
■ The government also refused to extradite Agha Hasan Abedi to the US
● Effect:
○ Nawaz Sharif was accused of profiting off this company’s illegal activities
○ It burdened Pakistan’s economy even more
Pakistan Cooperative Societies:

● The Pakistan Cooperative Societies was set up in Punjab
○ It was legally allowed only to make loans to poor people for the benefit of society
● However, it collapsed due to:
○ Mismanagement
○ Lack of governmental relation
○ Misuse of public money
● Effect:

○ 700,000 people lost their savings
■ Most of them were from the lower classes
○ Rs. 23 billion were lost
○ It was found that Nawaz Sharif’s family company, the Ittefaq group, had been
granted billions in rupees of loans from it
■ Though he quickly paid them back, he received criticism for his blatant
corruption
Corruption:
● Privatization:
○ The programme was largely controlled by favoured insiders
○ There was a lack of competition in bidding for the institution
○ There were accusations of favouritism in the sale of industrial and banking units
● Industrialization:
○ It focused mainly on KPK and Punjab, Nawaz Sharif’s native provinces
■ Due to this, he was accused of corruption
○ He was also accused of obtaining permits to build factories for himself
Sindh:
● He had a conflict with the MQM there
○ They were accusing him of corruption due to the fact that Sindh did not receive
much aid
● In order to curb their power, Operation Cleanup was launched
○ A large number of soldiers were deployed in Sindh against the MQM
■ Evidence of torture and large weapons dumps were found
Conflict of the President:

● After the death of the CoAS, NS wanted to place his own candidate.
○ Instead, Ishaq appointed Abdul Waheed Kakar
○ Nawaz Sharif was told about his appointment just minutes before it was
announces
● There was a conflict over the 8th Amendment
Others:
● He was accused of the death of Asif Nawaz
● It was difficult to promote his economic and religious ideas at the same time
● Opposition from Benazir Bhutto and her supporters

Dismissal:
● In the backdrop of unrest in Sindh, Ishaq Khan dismissed Nawaz Sharif for the peace of
the country and due to corruption and economic mismanagement
○ However, the Supreme Court ruled against this action
○ Due to this, both Ishaq and Nawaz resigned
■ Ishaq replaced by Wasim Sajjad
■ Nawaz Sharif was replaced by Moeen Qureshi and elections were
announced in October 199
Moeen Quraishi’s Interim Government:

● He took actions to cut down on Pakistan’s death:
○ Tax on landowners
○ A list of 5000 people who owed money to state banks was released
■ They were not allowed to run for elections
● Removal of Inefficiencies:
○ The State Bank of Pakistan was made autonomous to prevent political
interference
○ The oversized administration was trimmed
● The Nuclear Programme was curbed
● However, due to the devaluation of the rupee, food prices increased substantially
Benazir’s Second Term:

Elections of 1993:
● During the elections of 1983, Benazir Bhutto’s PPP was the single largest party:
○ She won 86 seats
■ She was followed by the Pakistan Muslim League, led by Nawaz Sharif,
who had 73 seats
○ The MQM boycotted the elections
● In order to form the government, the PPP formed coalitions with independent parties
Policies:
Change of President:
● Farooq Ahmed Leghari was appointed as President by the PPP
○ He promised to but failed to remove the 8th Amendment

Foreign Policy:
● UN:
○ The UN peacekeeping operation was restored
○ Due to this, 5000 troops were sent to Somalia
● US:
○ A cooperative agreement with the US was signed
○ Hillary Clinton visited Pakistan with her daughter in 1995
■ Due to this, Pakistan was seen as a progressive country
○ She instigated the Brown Amendment, under which economic and military
sanctions were raised
○ She took a stance on the transfer of the F-16 fighter planes which Pakistan had
already paid for and $388 million worth of military equipment was given
Women:
● She had many plans for the rights of women:
○ She planned to set up women’s police stations
○ She displayed concern for women’s social and health issues
● However, there was little actual legislation passed
Economic:
● She raised 42 Billion dollars from the privatization of national assets
● She availed 20 Billion dollars from foreign investment
● Due to this, the trade deficit was reduced
Problems:
Political Opposition:
● After Benazir Bhutto installed her government in KPK, Nawaz Sharif instigated the train
march
○ In 1994, he travelled from Karachi to Peshawar
○ Large crowds gathered along the way to listen to his critical speeches
■ In response, several opposition leaders were arrested, but that only riled
them up
○ Throughout September and October 1994, he organized massive strikes
■ He criticized her for nepotism
● Because she didn’t have a large majority, she couldn’t implement most of her promised
legislation (such as the reforms for women)

Economic:
● The US had still imposed a financial embargo due to the Pakistani nuclear weapons
programme
● Privatization was opposed by biased governmental officials
● Statistics:
○ 30% decrease in the value of the rupee
○ Growth slowed to 4% from 6
○ Large scale manufacturing to 2.3 from 8
● The rich statistically improved while the poor became even worse
United Bank:
● Benazir Bhutto attempted to privatize the United Bank to get some capital for the
struggling
○ However, offers for the bank were extremely low
● Eventually, she tried to sell it to an apparently Saudi based company
○ Stopped when accusations of corruption and that actually a group of Pakistani
businessmen
Appeal to the IMF

● She was forced to turn to the IMF for several factors, including:
○ The conflict with India
○ The loans Pakistan was burdened with
○ Plant diseases affected Pakistan’s agricultural output
● The IMF told her to implement some very unpopular policies, including:
○ The raise of taxes in 1995
○ The Rupee was devalued by 30%
○ Due to this, the costs of living were extremely high and there were mass protests
India and Kashmir:

● The relations with India deteriorated severely:
○ Indian intelligence agents were blamed for a fire in the Parliament building
○ India had stationed 500,000 troops along the Line of Control
■ There were occasional clashes
■ In 1996, Indian rockets reportedly killed 19 people and destroyed a
mosque

● Involvement of the UN:
○ Pakistan unsuccessfully appealed to the UN, which India did not want to get
involved in
■ India forced the withdrawal of a Pakistani resolution alleging human
rights abuses
○ Pakistan intensified its stances by rallying against India at an Inter Parliamentary
UN meeting
■ The Indian delegation was extremely angered
■ Both countries expelled each others’ diplomats
● Pakistan attacked the Indian Nuclear Programme, too
○ She denied the Indian accusations of Pakistan’s alleged nuclear tests
○ She warned India of ‘tragic consequences’
Instability in Sindh:
● Violence in Sindh was at its peak, due to which something needed to be done
○ The MQM reached out the Bhutto and asked to form an alliance on her terms
○ However, she refused and launched Operation Blue Fox
● Operation Blue Fox was the second such operation which aimed to eradicate MQM
○ Under it, thousands of majority-Urdu speaking people were killed or gone
missing
Political Instability:
● Dismissal of Judges:
○ The Supreme Court dismissed 20 judges, including 3 women, appointed by
Benazir’s government
■ In response, it is alleged that efforts were made to intimidate the Chief
Justice
○ The government’s refusal to carry out this decision caused a crisis
● The Removal of the CM of Punjab:
○ Manzoor Wattoo, the CM of Punjab, was removed for governing in an
independent manner
Family Feuds:
● She had a conflict with her mother over who would control the PPP
○ Her mother supported her brother, Murtaza, who accused her husband of
corruption
■ He was the founder of Al Zulfiqar, a left-wing terrorist organization

● Her brother was murdered in Karachi in 1996 during a police ambush on his convoy near
his house in Karachi.
○ Rumours were spread both by the opposition and government leaders that the
other party was responsible for it
○ No police officers were arrested
● A judicial review of the situation suggested a possible governmental role, which didn’t
help Benazir in the slightest
Military
● In 1995, Benazir Bhutto was worried that military officers were planning to overthrow
her in a Coup d’etat
○ The conspirators had obtained weapons from tribal areas
● A tip from intelligence Agencies resulted in the arrest of 36 army officers and 20 civilians
in Rawalpindi
○ A court-martial was formed
○ All of the officers were jailed by 1996
Dismissal:
● Despite his initial promises to revoke the 8th Amendment, he used it to dismiss Benazir
Bhutto in 1966
● Army units stationed at key points in Islamabad to prevent a conflict
● Soldiers arrested Asif Ali Zardari
Reasons:
● List any of the problems above
● Economic difficulties
● The inefficiency of the government
● The rights of the people had not been maintained
Nawaz’s Second Term:

● He took office with:
○ An overall majority
○ Cooperative Civil Service and military
○ Support from the business community

Policies:
Constitutional Amendments::
● 13th Amendment:
○ The President could no longer dissolve the assembly without being advised to do
so by the Prime Minister
○ He could no longer remove the Prime minister
● The 14th Amendment - The Anti-Defection Bill:
○ Members of the assembly could not change power
○ This prevented the opposition from growing too strong or him from being
removed in a no-confidence vote
● The 15th Amendment:
○ The PM had all authority for religious laws
○ This was passed in reaction to Musharraf’s increasing power
Nuclear Tests:
● Pakistan successfully conducted the first nuclear tests in Chaghai Hills
Economic Reforms:
● He aimed to pay off loans ad launched the National Debt Programme
○ Many remittances were sent for this purpose
○ However, no loan was paid off due to corruption.
● M2 motorway between Islamabad and Lahorecompleted. It was extremely ambitious
and facilitated the transport of goods
○ However, there were misgivings as to whether this would ever be profitable due
to the lack of traffic
● Bait ul Maal:
○ A zakat committee was set up
○ However, nobody actually received money due to corruption
● He tried to improve accountability in the government, reprimanding some high-profile
people
Problems:
Supreme Court:
● In order to reduce the Supreme Court’s power, he tried to reduce from 17 to 12
members
○ The Chief Justice, Sajjad Ali Shah (who was appointed by Benazir Bhutto and was
critical of Nawaz Sharif) asked him to reinstate the 5 judges
○ In response, Nawaz Sharif told the National Assembly to dismiss him
● In 1997, Nawaz Sharif’s supporters stormed the Supreme Court when he was being tried
for corruption
○ The CJ and other judges had to flee for his safety
○ It could only be controlled by police with batons and tear gas
● In December, President Leghari resigned
○ He was appalled by the measures taken by the government and wanted to
dismiss it but no longer could due to the 13th Amendment
○ This was after he had been asked to dismiss Sajjad Ali Shah
● The Chief Justice was dismissed
○ Rafiq Ahmad Tarar, a retired judge nominated by PMLN took oath in Dec 1997
Censorship:
● Journalists who were critical of his government were arrested
○ For example, Nawaz’s secret police kidnapped Najam Sethi in 1997 who was
working with a group investing Nawaz Sharif’s corruption
■ He was released only due to international protest
● Newspaper editors were intruded upon with unexpected tax inspections
Nuclear Power:
● In May 1998, India tested its nuclear devices in Rajasthan
○ 2 weeks later, 6 nuclear devices tested in Balochistan
● Effects:
○ The US and other nations imposed sanctions on Pakistan
■ This is partially because neither of the nations signed the
Non-Proliferation Treaty
■ It was not helped by the refusal to hand over Osama bin Laden
○ Investor’s confidence was undermined
■ Due to this, the government froze foreign currency in Pakistani accounts
to prevent people from moving it out of the country
○ Despite the claims of the government, that area was in fact inhabited.
Balochistan to this day suffers from diseases such as cancer due to the radiation
from this testing
○ Govt froze money in Pak in foreign currency to prevent people move out of the
country

Economic:
● Due to corruption:
○ No loans were actually paid off
○ The Zakat committee was useless
Dismissal:
● When the previous CoAS, Karamat, asked for a position in the National Security Council,
he was forced to resign
○ He was replaced by Musharraf, who later overthrew the government in a military
coup
Kargil:
● Musharraf, without Nawaz’s or even the air force’s knowledge, dropped troops in
Siachen Glacier, which India had recently illegally occupied. Reasons:
○ Siachen glacier overlooked an important pass in India which would let Pakistan
know when Indian troops were gathering
○ They wanted to remind the world that the grievances in Kashmir hadn’t been
settled
○ They wanted to preempt any Indian attack
○ There are several official documents which outline the fact that Nawaz Sharif
knew not of this scheme
■ The fact that the Air Force didn’t get involved is proof in and of itself
● The Pakistani troops there fought valiantly, downing 3 Indian air crafts despite the
Pakistani aircraft not being informed
○ However, as many as 4000 of their men were killed, and this would soon be more
if India fully mobilized
○ However, due to international kickback, Musharraf denied that he had sent any
troops there, saying they were Kashmiri activists
■ They were left there to die, with some Indian reports outlining that they
were so abandoned that they were forced to eat grass
● When Nawaz Sharif put the blame on Musharraf, saying he knew not of it, Musharraf
stages a military coup
○ When Musharraf was returning from Sri Lanka, they tried to detour and arrest
him
○ In response, the Pakistan military arrested Nawaz and overthrew his government
■ Upon the Royal Family’s request, he was exiled to Saudi Arabia

Reasons for Dismissal (Past Papers):
● Sharif was giving support for the Taliban in Afghanistan and this damaged relations with
the USA, as they refused to hand over Osama bin Laden, suspected of bombing the US
embassy in Kenya.
● Pakistan also tested nuclear weapons, which angered a number of countries who then
halted aid to Pakistan and brought Sharif much criticism.
● He also blamed Musharraf for the embarrassing retreat from the fighting in Kashmir. The
army refused to accept this criticism.
● Sharif tried to sack Musharraf whilst he was visiting Sri Lanka and, as a result, the army
decided to intervene in the government and overthrew Sharif.

Pakistan’s Foreign Relations
India:
Reasons for Conflict:
Heritage:
● Many members of the INC, and many Indians to this day, believe that Pakistan should
never have come into existence
● During the partition, there was communal violence instigated by both sides, which there
is still a reason for hatred
Partition:
● Accession of Princely States
○ Mention Hyderabad and Junagadh
● Conflict over the borders
● Distribution of resources
Allies:
● Pakistan has largely allied with the US and India with the Soviet Union
○ As those two nations are enemies, this aggravates Pakistan and India’s relations,
too
● During the Afghan War, Pakistan was supporting the insurgents while India was allied
with Russia
Wars:
● War of 65 and 71
● Simlah Agreement: Pakistan had to refuse to take Kashmir to the UN
Kashmir:
● Yes.
Nuclear Development:
● See below
Sikh Movement:
● See below

Problems at Partition:
Refugees:
● After the partition, there was a large-scale migration from Pakistan to India and vice
versa
○ During this, there were many instances of communal violence
● In order to prevent further violence, in April 1950, Liaquat Ali Khan signed an agreement
with Nehru called the Minorities Pact
○ According to it, both countries promised to provide protection and freedom to
minorities in the hope of preventing further migration
● While the flow of people did ebb, it didn’t stop completely as:
○ People did not trust the government to fulfil their promises
○ They realized that even if they were protected, minorities would not have the
same level of opportunities as the majority
Resources:
● The unsavoury nature with which Pakistan and India dealt with the transfer of resources
(mentioned earlier) created a rift between the two nations
○ Pakistan was suspicious at India reluctance to release their assets
● Water resources have also created a huge problem
○ India owns the parts of Kashmir which contain the headworks to important rivers
which flow into Pakistan
○ On 1st April 1948, India cut off water supplies from the headworks it controlled,
which was a huge threat to pakistani agriculture
○ Due to this, the Indus Water Treaty was signed with the World Bank as a
supervisory, which guaranteed Pakistan a 10-year water supply, as discussed
earlier
The other conflict is the Kashmir conflict, which includes a variety of events which I shall list
later
Events:
Border of East Bengal and Assam:
● In 1948, at an inter-dominion conference, the borders between East Bengal and Assam
were agreed to

Indo-Pakistan War of 1948:
● This has been discussed earlier, but, as a recap, during the partition, Kashmir’s ruler
wanted to join India while his Muslim populace wanted to join Pakistan.
○ They protested, forcing the Nawab to run to India to safety, where he agreed to
join India if they gave him support
● Next, Pakistan armed Kashmiri tribesmen, which invaded the area.
○ India’s army retaliated, after which Pakistan’s army officially got involved, too.
● On August 13th, 1948, a ceasefire was agreed to, and a Line of Control was demarcated
in 1949
1950s:
● Little progress was made, during this time, with the situation remaining tense as ever
● India tried to integrate their portion of Kashmir into their nation in 1954-5
○ Pakistan appealed to the UN Security Council, which protested this action
● In 1957, the UN released a declaration re-confirming that Kashmir was disputed territory
and that its future was only to be decided by a plebiscite supervised by the UN
○ As of 2021, no plebiscite has been taken
India-Sino Relations:
● Seeing the aid Pakistan was receiving from the US, India signed a friendship pact with
China in 1954
● However, in 1962, India and China went to war over the position of the border
○ China advanced to where it believed the border should be and declared a
ceasefire
● After this, India began a rearmament programme
War of 1965:
● Reasons:
○ Seeing how easily India had been defeated by China, Pakistan though it would be
easy to capture the whole of Kashmir
○ Unresolved misgivings remained over the status of Kashmir and the War of 1948,
which Pakistan wanted to avenge
○ After a skirmish at the Sindh/Rajhastan border, India had to agree to a private
tribune taking care of the issue of who owned Rann of Katch
■ This gave Pakistan the confidence that the same could occur in Kashmir
● In 1965, Pakistan launched Operation Gibraltar, under which they armed Kashmiri
tribesmen in order to start an uprising against India. This failed

● On 1st September 1965, Pakistan attacked Indian forces in Kashmir
○ They aimed to capture Gurdaspur Road, the only link between India and Kashmir
● India retaliated on 6th September by invading Lahore
○ On battle which took place on that day is the Battle of Rohiwal, during which Lt
Colonel Syed Shirazie, who was commanding an infantry battalion (7 Punjab
Regiment), had to defend a position close to the village of Rohiwal
■ Indians who invaded were held back by the regiment until 4 tanks came
to support the Indians. Shirazie damaged one with an anti-tank gun, after
which the tanks retreated
■ Next, he was ordered to march almost 4000 yards to launch a secret
attack on the Indian forces to prevent them from consolidating their
position. They did so without being spotted, and the element of surprise
helped them repulse a much larger Indian force without a single casualty
● During this battle, both the US and UK placed an embargo on arms to the two nations,
which affected Pakistan more severely
● The UN intervened and persuaded both sides to stop fighting
○ On 10th January 1966, the USSR negotiated a treaty between Ayub Khan and the
Indian PM Lal Bahadur, which stated that both armies would pull back to the
positions before the war, PoWs would be transferred, and that the two nations
would not interfere with each other’s internal matters
○ Both sides agreed as they were too poor to afford a long-term war
War of 1971:
● On 31st March, India declared its support for East Pakistan and started training the
Mukhti Bahini, East Pakistani freedom fighters
● On 3rd December, Pakistan attacked India
○ India retaliated soon, launching an offensive by land, air, and sea. Pakistan was
unable to fight back due to the lack of foreign aid (China was threatened by
Russia not to help) and geographical difficulties whereas India had the full
support of the USSR
○ After only 14 days, Pakistan, having lost the entirety of East Pakistan and 5619
square miles in West Pakistan, had to resign
● On December 16th the Instrument of Surrender was signed. Soon, Bangladesh was
created
● In July 1972, the Simla Agreement was signed between Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and Indira
Gandhi for the return of PoWs. In exchange for this, Pakistan agreed not to take the
Kashmir Issue to the UN

● In 1975, the Kashmir Accord was signed by Indira Gandhi and Sheikh Abdullah (the
Kashmiri leader of the National Conference Party), reaffirming Kashmir as a part of India
(though it was still had special status under Article 370), and allowed Sheikh Abdullah to
become the CM of the area
○ This was signed partially due to the Pakistani weakness that became evident in
‘71
○ In 1977, when the State Congress Party withdrew its support for Sheikh Abdullah,
he, in retaliation, again started asking for a plebiscite
○ While this is not involved in the relations between Pakistan and India, it is
necessary to understand the insurgency in 1990
Zia ul Haq:
● When Zia ul Haq came to power, he became extremely involved with the war in
Afghanistan
○ Due to this, the Kashmir issue was not touched upon and relations remained
peaceful
● Sikhs:
○ In the 1980s, there were uprisings in the Sikh community in Punjab, who wanted
a separate homeland
○ In October 1984, Mrs Gandhi was assassinated by Sikhs
○ Her son, Rajiv, took over as PM and accused Pakistan of supporting the Sikh
movement and the assassination of his mother
■ Even though Zia declared a day of national mourning for Indira, relations
still deteriorated
● Due to this, by 1987, relations had deteriorated so much that the countries were close to
war
○ In order to intimidate Pakistan, India also initiated exercises (“Brasstacks”) in
Rajasthan
○ This conflict was resolved via ‘cricket diplomacy’ - Zia ul Haq flew to India to
watch a cricket match, meeting many Indian leaders (including Rajiv) while he
was there.
● Thus, the exercises in Rajasthan stopped, but relations were still shaky, especially as
both were developing nuclear weapons
Nuclear Power:
● In 1970, Pakistan did not sign the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
● In 1974, India carried out nuclear tests in Rajasthan.

○ Hearing rumours of this, Pakistan had started to develop nuclear weapons in
1972 and launched the KANUPP that year
● It is believed that Pakistan had nuclear capabilities since 1985 but kept this quiet till
1998 so that foreign aid wouldn’t be cut off
● In May 1998, India tested five nuclear devices in Pokhran
○ A few weeks later, Pakistan tested its own devices in the Ras Koh Hills, saying that
they had “settled the score” by giving its own citizens cancer by testing it in a
location too close to civilian areas
● The UN Secretary-General asked both sides to sign the Comprehensive Test Treaty Ban
○ Both nations refused but announced later that year that they were stopping
nuclear testing
1990 Kashmir Insurgency:

● In the early 1980s, the Abdullah government became more and more radical, issuing
pamphlets about the replacement of Kashmiri Muslims and renaming villages to Islamic
names
○ After Abdullah’s death, the government became fully secessionist. However, his
son, Farooq Abdullah, lost the 1984 election
○ In 1986, violence against Kashmiri Pandits started. There was also the mass
radicalization of the youth in that decade
○ In 1987, another election was held, in which there were accusation of riggings,
sparking protests and the ramping up of actions by militant groups
● In 1889/1990, Kashmiri militants organized violence and mass protests against India in
the area
○ These were triggered after the JKLF (Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front) kidnapped
the Federal Home Minister’s daughter, following which a few of its men were
released, due to which there were mass protests in celebration which were
violently put down
○ Other groups quickly got involved, too, such as the Islamist Hizb-ul Mujahideen.
Initially, the ISI supported the secular JKLF, but cut off its support in favour for the
HM later. Other groups include the Lashkar-e-Taiba and Harkatul Mujahideen
○ The Governor of the area tried to stop the violence that followed in January 1990
on January 18th, by preventing the people from leaving their neighbourhoods
○ The next day is known as ‘exodus day’ by Kashmiri Pandits - violence got so
terrible against them that many were forced to leave the area

● The situation got so bad that Bush, fearing nuclear war, sent Robert Gates, who would
later become the U.S. Defense Secretary, to mediate between the two countries in May
1990
● Source:
○ https://thediplomat.com/2015/05/the-forgotten-india-pakistan-nuclear-crisis-25
-years-later/
○ https://sci-hub.se/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09584939508
719748
○ https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-18738906
○ https://web.stanford.edu/class/e297a/Kashmir%20Conflict%20-%20A%20Study
%20of%20What%20Led%20to%20the%20Insurgency%20in%20Kashmir%20Valle
y.pdf
○ http://issi.org.pk/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/4-SS_Muhammad_Sajjad_Malik
_No-1_2019.pdf
Treaties and Meetings 1988-1994

● In 1988, Benazir Bhutto invited the recently elected Rajiv Gandhi, who paid a visit on 21
December 1988
○ That day, the two Prime Ministers drafted the Non-Nuclear Aggression
Agreement and signed it ten days later
● On 1 January 1990, the agreement was ratified by both parliaments
○ Under it, the nations exchanged a list of nuclear installations and pledged not to
attack each others’ installations
● In April 1991, the two nations concluded an agreement to notify of military exercises,
troop movements, and maneuvers in advance. Furthermore, matters were also taken to
prevent airspace violations.
● In January 1994, during the backdrop of the destruction of the Babri Masjid by Hindu
extremists and the bombings of Bumbai in retaliation in 1993, the foreign Secretaries of
the two nations met
○ Little progress was made due to the Kashmir issue
Lahore Declaration
● On 21st February 1999, Altaf Bihari (the Indian PM) and Nawaz Sharif met at the border
and signed this bilateral agreement
○ It was drafted on 19 December 1998 - 19 January 1999
● According to it:
○ Both countries recognized the need to avoid conflict due to their nuclear power

○ Reiterated the determination by both countries to implement the Simlah
Agreement
○ Both countries promised to commit to the principles of the UN’s charter and
universally agreed principles of coexistence
○ Both countries committed to nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation
○ Both countries agreed peace in Jammu and Kashmir was necessary
● However, this spirit of cooperation did not last long due to the Kargil Conflict
Siachen Glacier:
● Siachen Glacier, the ‘world’s highest battleground’ is a glacier on the Line of Control that
is supposed to be no-man’s land
○ It is a symbol of control and also gives you view of the enemy’s gathering troops
if you capture it
● In 1981, Pakistan, finding Indian officers already in the area, themselves, too dug in
○ Since then, India and Pakistan are believed to spend 500 million USD/year to
prevent enemy forces from occupying it
○ There has also been regular fighting, which have cost up to 5000 soldier’s lives
● In 1984, under Operation Meghdoot, India seized control of the area
○ After that, many attempts were made by both nations to establish a foothold in
the nation
● In 1999, the Kargil conflict took place
○ During this, the Pakistan army, disguised as Kashmiri guerillas, crossed the border
and infiltrated the Kargil-Dras sector.
■ They aimed to block off the supply to Indian soldiers in Siachen
○ This was an extremely secretive operation - not even the head of the air force
knew about it
■ It is controversial as to whether Nawaz Sharif was aware of this.
According to some accounts given in the coup “From Kargil to the Coup:
Events that Shook Pakistan”, Nawaz was told of the plan extremely
vaguely on a map that didn’t even have the Line of Control
■ “There was no mention of Pakistani troops crossing the LoC, nor of the
Pakistani troop build-up five to 10 kilometres beyond the LoC.”
■ https://www.dawn.com/news/1417105
○ Since the air force refused to get involved, the Pakistani army was forced to deal
with the Indian army by themselves
■ They managed to shoot down two of the three Indian fighter jets that
came to support the Indians

○ There were heavy casualties from the Indian side, but Indian appeals to the
international community, followed by the pressure from the US President, Bill
Clinton, meant that there was heavy pressure on Nawaz to withdraw
■ He, and Musharraf, denied any involvement of the Pakistani army,
withdrawing some troops but leaving many stranded there. Later,
according to Indian autopsies, they were found starved to death with
grass in their stomachs
○ Due to this failed venture, international attention was shifted from Indian human
rights violations to Pakistani aggression
● However, the syllabus is full of absolute gibberish despite testimonies by high-ranking
officials such as Hamid Gul and General Shahid Aziz and even documents left behind by
dead soldiers. Given that it’s the syllabus, it is best for you to quote what’s in the
textbook while writing your answer:
○ “In 1999, Muslim Kashmiri guerrillas rossed into the Indian controlled area of
Kashmir. India sent two fighter planes to attack them, but they were shot down
after they crossed into Pakistan air space … US President Bill Clinton finally
intervened”
How Successful have Pak-India Relations been?

Successes:
● Agreement regarding the border between East Bengal and Assam
● Minority Agreement 1950
● UN declares Kashmir disputed territory and agrees to hold a plebiscite 1957
● Tashkent Agreement 1965
● Simla Accord 1971
● Cricket Diplomacy
● Non-Nuclear Aggression Agreement 1990
● Lahore Declaration 1999
● Bilateral trade:
○ India is one of Pakistan’s biggest trade partner
○ This usually gest banned during time of conflict, however
Failures:
● Conflict over distribution of resources and water
○ Event though the Indus Water Treaty was signed, it has been violated multiple
times
● War of ‘47-’48

● Indian efforts to inculcate Kashmir into their territory ‘54-’55
● War of ‘56
● War of ‘71
● Sikh unrest, Indira Gandhi’s assassination, and accusations of Pakistani involvement in
the affair
● Kashmir uprisings in the 1990s
○ Failure of the Foreign Secretaries to reach an agreement 1994
● Kargil Conflict
How Successful have Pakistan and India been in solving the Kashmir Crisis?
Successes:
● In 1948, Pakistan and India decided the borders between East Bengal and Assam
● UN declares Kashmir a disputed territory in 1957
● Tashkent Agreement
● Kashmir Issue remains quiet during Zia’s reign due to Afghan war
● Non-Nuclear Aggression Agreement
Failures:
● War of 47-48
● India tries to integrate Kashmir in 54 and 55
● War of 65
● Kashmiri uprising in 1990
● Kargil conflict
USA:
Reasons for Alliance:
For Aid:
● The US was a global superpower with an extremely advanced economy
● Pakistan aimed to take advantage of this for aid, which was necessary in order to
develop its military and industrialize
Ideological:
● Like the US, Pakistan believed in a free, private economy
● Pakistan is advantageous for US to oppose communism in the area, such as during the
Afghanistan conflicts

Religious:
● Many believe that Islam is anti-communist religion. This is important since Islam has a
huge influence in Pakistan
● The Soviet Union was considered anti-religion
○ Many prominent communist philosophers are against religion. Karl Marx: “Die
Religion ... ist das Opium des Volkes” (Religion … is the opiate of the masses)
Events:
Post-Partition:
● Initially, Pakistan was a bit alarmed by America’s attitude as:
○ The US took several years to send an ambassador to Pakistan
○ America often talked about the need for unity between Muslims and Hindus
● As Liaquat Ali Khan was frustrated by American abstinence from the formation of an
alliance, he accepted an invitation to the USSR in 1949
○ Following this, he immediately received an invitation, which he accepted and
visited the US in 1950
○ A Pakistani Embassy was then established in the US
Treaties:
● In contrast to India’s attitude, Pakistan was incredibly prepared to join US alliances for
aid
● In May 1954, Pakistan and America signed a Mutual Defence Assistance Agreement
● In September 1954, Pakistan joined SEATO. More information below
● In 1955, Pakistan joined the Baghdad Pact, which was later changed to CENTO. More
information below.
The Decline in Relations 1959-79:

● Despite visiting communist countries, Ayub Khan also managed to orchestrate good
relations with the US for some time
○ He allowed them to build air bases in Pakistan
○ During the U2 controversy, he remained loyal
■ In 1960, there were hopes that relations would improve, especially since
the ‘Big Four’ heads of state of the US, USSR, FRance, and Britain, agreed
to hold a summit
■ However, on 1st May, an American spy plane was shot down

● America had developed a plane which could fly at 75,000 feet that
could take pictures below - it could be sensed by radors but was
too high for Soviety planes to shoot down
■ Gary Powers, the pilot, parachuted, where he was captured and
confessed to being a spy
■ When Eisenhower refused to apologise, the summit was cancelled
■ Gary Powers was found guilty and sentenced to 10 years in jail. After ten
months, he was returned in exchange for a Soviet spy
■ Pakistan was involved in this since the plane had taken off from her.
Despite this, Pakistan denied any knowledge of the incident.
● Pak-Sino Relations:
○ In 1962, India and China went to war
■ During this, America gave India aid since they were fighting a communist
country. Pakistan objected to this, saying that they should’ve been
consulted, which America agreed to do next time
● This aid was partially because Keneddy came to power
■ As China was fighting their enemy, Pakistan started forming an alliance
with them, which angered the US
○ In 1962, Ayub Khan visited China and in 1965, the Soviet Union
■ The US Secretary of State visited Pakistan only to convince them to
change their policy towards China
■ When this failed, $4.3 million of US aid was suspended
● America started switching to a policy of detente (easing of hostility), such as during the
signing of the MAD (Mutually Assured Destruction) with the USSR
○ This reduced the need for Pakistan to contain Soviet expansion
● The US refused to help Pakistan in the war of 1965, placing an embargo on military aid
to the area
● Pakistan helped negotiate a US-China treaty in 1971
● The US refused to help Pakistan in the War of 1971
○ However, it did send a fleet to India warning them not to attack Pakistan
● In 1977, Bhutto accused the US of organizing the opposition against him
○ He also withdrew Pakistan from treaties, which angered America, who cut off aid
○ He also refused to sign the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, saying that Pakistan
had no nuclear
● Relations reached their worse when Zia took power since America did not support
military regimes

○ Furthermore, the US Embassy was attacked and burned down in Islamabad due
to rumours that America was involved in the overthrowing of the Shah of Iran
○ However, this attitude changed when Russia invades Afghanistan since America
has no morals and only hates military rulers when they are not of use to them,
even instating pro-American dictators in countries with otherwise functioning
democracies
Afghan Miracle:
● In December 1979, Russia invaded Afghanistan
○ America, needing Pakistan, put aside any hesitations over Zia’s policies and gave
Pakistan huge amounts of aid in return of their military support
● Aid received:
○ Initially, $400 million were offered to Pakistan, but those were rejected,
○ After this, $1.6 billion were offered over 5 years and a further $1.5 billion loan at
low rates of interest to enable Pakistan to buy modern US weapons
■ Due to this, Pakistan became a leading military nation
○ India objected to the aid, but they were not listened to
○ A further $4.2 billion worth of military and economic aid was signed in 1986
○ Pakistan was the third largest recipient of American aid at the time
● However, after the Soviet Union backed out, US aid reduced heavily
1988-1999:
● When Benazir took power, Pakistan aid was heavily reduced as:
○ The Afghan Crisis had ended
○ Under the Pressler Amendment (1985), the US could only supply aid to nations
without nuclear weapons (though this had been ignored during the Afghanistan
Crisis.
■ According to this, Bush refused to declare Pakistan nuclear free and
blocked aid to the country, stopping the sale of 28 F16 fighter jets which
Pakistan had already paid for
○ Rates of drug addiction and weapon-usage were rising heavily
● This heavily hit Benazir’s government, who took steps to mend her relations with the US
○ She visited the area in 1989, where she was allowed to address the joint session
of the Congress
■ There, she suggested the establishment of an organization of newly
emerging democratic countries against dictatorships

■ She also defended Pakistan’s rights to nuclear weapons while saying that
she would declare the subcontinent nuclear-free if India did the say. Shed
di say that Pakistan had no nuclear weapons
● In 1992, during the IJI’s reign, relations further declined and the US came close to
declaring Pakistan a state sponsor of terrorism and placed economic sanctions
● In 1993, President Clinton, who was more sympathetic to Pakistan, came into power
○ He agreed that the Pressler Amendment was unfair and suggested that, if
Pakistan stopped producing weapon-grade uranium, he would agree to the
shipping of the already purchased F-16s
○ In 1995, the Defense Secretary, William Perry, visited Pakistan and declared that
the Pressler Amendment had been a mistake
○ Bhutto visited the US in 1996, following which the Brown Amendment was
passed, under which the US reimbursed Pakistan for the F16s and provided $388
million in military equipment
● In 1996, Hillary Clinton and her daughter visited Pakistan
○ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uH8owcMHc34
How Successful have Pak-US Relations been?:

Successes:
● Liaquat visits the US
● SEATO and CENTO
● US sends fleet to India warning not to attack in 1971
● Afghan Miracle
● Bhutto visits the US 1989
● 1993 Clinton agrees to reimburse Pakistan on already paid for F16s if Pakistan stops
producing military-grade uranium
● Brown Amendment 1996 after Bhutto visits
● Hillary Clinton visits Pakistan with her daughter
Failures:
● US provides military aid to India 1962
● US objects to Pak-China friendship
● US places embargo during 1965
● US doesn’t help Pakistan in 1971
● Pakistan leaves SEATO
● American aid suspended after Zia takes power in 1977 and again in 1979 after the attack
on the US embassy, after which all ambassadors were extracted

● US aid falls dramatically after the end of the Afghan Miracle
● 1989 - Bush blocks aid due to nuclear weapons
● 1992 - US comes close to declaring Pakistan a state sponsor of terrorism, places
economic sanctions
● 1998 - US condemns Pakistani nuclear tests
Soviet Union:
Events:
Initial Relations:
● Stalin quickly invited Liaquat to visit Russia in 1949
● While Liaquat initially accepted the invitation, he declined it in favour of America
● This angered the USSR, who, by the 1950s, were clearly supporting India over Kashmir
Pakistan Joins SEATO and CENTO:

● In 1954 and 55, Pakistan joined, SEATO and CENTO
○ The USSR was annoyed that Pakistan was preferring Western alliances instead of
those with its neighbour
● In retaliation, the USSR gave India substantial military and economic aid
○ In 1955, they officially backed India in Kashmir
● However, they also made it clear that they were still available if Pakistan wished to ally
with them. However, they still rejected them
○ For example, in 1956, they offered to build Pakistan a steel mill if they broke off
their alliance with the US
○ Furthermore, the Soviet Deputy PM visited Pakistan in 1956 and declared that
the Kashmir crisis should be solved via self-determination
1960 till the Afghan Miracle:

● Relations reached their lowest point during the U2 crisis mentioned before
● After this, relations started to become better as:
○ The USSR began exploring oil in Pakistan in 1961
■ After this, air links were established
○ When India accepted US aid against its war with China in 1962, Pakistan got
closer to the USSR
■ In 1963, Pakistan was loaned 11 million pounds for the purchase of heavy
machinery
■ In 1963, Russia declared neutrality over Kashmir
● In 1965, the USSR was India’s greatest supporter in the war
○ However, Ayub Khan managed to pay a visit to the area and negotiate
agreements on trade and oil exploration
● In 1966, the USSR hosted a peace conference between Pakistan and India at Tashkent,
which impressed the Pakistani representatives
● In 1968, when the US closed its airbase in Peshawar, the USSR started to supply arms to
Pakistan
● In 1971, when Pakistan helped arrange a China-US agreement, the USSR was heavily
annoyed
○ This was added on to by the fact that Pakistan was receiving aid from the US and
China/the US
○ In response, Russia signed a defence treaty with India as a part of the Asian
Security Scheme and pledged support in case of a conflict in Pakistan
○ During the war of 1971, Russia sided with India and openly threatened Pakistan’s
allies not to support it
● To try to mend relations, Bhutto visited Russia in 1972 and in 1974, when he required
assistance for the building of the Karachi Steel Mill
The Afghan Miracle:

● When the USSR invaded Afghanistan in 1979, Pakistan heavily opposed them by siding
with the US in support of the mujahideen, causing an open rift between the two
● Even though Zia ul Haq visited Moscow in 1984 for the funeral of Andropov, he got a
cold reception
● The USSR also disapproved of Pakistan’s nuclear programme and started bombing raids
on the nation
How Successful were Pakistan’s Relations with Soviet Russia?:

Successes:
● Soviet oil exploration 1962
● After the Indo-China war, there were trade agreements and military aid
● 11 million pound loan 1963
● Ayub Khan visits in 1965, secures further trade agreements and soviet arms supply from
1968
● Bhutto visits USSR 1972 and 4, secures funding for PSM
Failures:
● Liaquat declines invitation 1949
● USSR declares support for India in Kashmir 1950

● Pakistan joins SEATO and CENTO
● Russia supports India on Kashmir Issue
● U2 Incident
● Pakistan negotiates US-China Agreement
● USSR supports India in ‘71, signs defence treaty with it
● Afghanistan crisis, USSR disapproves of Pakistan nuclear program
China:
Events:
Initial Relations:
● In 1949, the CCP took power and the nationalists were exiled to Taiwan
○ India supported the new government where Pakistan opposed the Beijing
Government taking China’s seat in the UN security council
● While Pakistan did eventually accept the regime in 1950, relations were initially shaky
due to:
○ India’s positive attitude towards China
○ Pakistan receiving aid from western countries
● However, Pakistan did extend the hand of friendship to China by:
○ Supporting their entry into the UN
○ During the Afro-Asian conference, the Pakistani and Chinese Prime Ministers met
○ In 1956, Hussain Suhrawurdy visited China. Leaders of both nations visited each
other during the next several years
1960s:
● After China fought a war with India in 1962, Pakistan and China quickly formed close
bonds, partially because America supported India
○ In March 1962, they worked to resolve their border dispute, which was
completed in March 1963
■ China made concessions to Pakistan during this in the hope of getting
closer to them
● In 1963, Pakistan and China announced a series of trade agreements
○ Pakistan was given a $60 million interest free loan
○ China became the world’s largest purchaser of Pakistani cotton
○ Pakistan claimed that China pledged to support them in conflicts against India
○ China supplied Pakistan machinery and technical knowledge for the engineering
complex at Taxila and provided electrical equipment for WAPDA
● The same year, PIA started flying to China, the first international carrier to do so
● In 1964, China made a statement in support of Pakistan’s Kashmir policy
○ In exchange for this, Pakistan supported their entry into the UN
● In the war of ‘65, China provided military aid to Pakistan and pressured India
diplomatically to not attack by accelerating the movement of its armed forces on the
Indian border
1970-1999:
● In the War of 1971, China didn’t provide much aid to Pakistan due to diplomatic
pressure from the USSR
● In February 1972, Bhutto visited China, during which:
○ China agreed to convert many of its earlier loans into grants
○ China agreed to supply military aircraft and tanks
● In 1978, the Karakoram Highway opened
○ It had been under construction since 1966 and was the first major link between
the two countries
○ It was largely financed by Chinese money and built by Chinese engineers
○ The terrain it was built on was so dangerous that it is believed that for every
kilometer of the road built, one construction worker lost their life
○ While it is said that it follows the path of the old silk road, that is probably not
true: https://www.dawn.com/news/1377055
● In 1986, Zia chose China as one of the first countries to visit after taking power
○ In 1986, Pakistan and China signed a nuclear cooperation treaty
○ China aided in the construction of the Chashma Nuclear Plant, which became
operational in 1999/2000
How Successful have Pakistan’s Relations with China been?:

Successes:
● Pakistan supports China’s entry into the UN from 1950
● Leaders of both nations visit
● Border dispute solved in 1963
● 1963: Series of trade agreements
○ 60 million dollar interest-free loan
○ Machinery and technical knowledge for taxila/equipment for WAPDA
○ PIA starts flying to China
● In 1964, China declared its support for Pakistan on the Kashmir issue
● 1965: China aids Pakistan during the War of 1965

● 1972: Bhutto visits Pakistan, due to which many loans are decalred grants and military
aircraft and tanks were supplied
● In 1978, the KKH opened
● In 1986, Zia visited and a nuclear cooperation treaty was signed
Failures:
● Pakistan initially opposed its entry into the UN
● China was unable to help in ‘71 due to Chinese pressure
● During the 1990s, China pressured for the resolution of the Kashmir issue, which
annoyed Pakistan
Britain and the Commonwealth:

Events:
Post-Partition:
● Initially, Pakistan was eager to break off links with its former colonial master
○ They were critical of the appointment of Lord Mountbatten as India’s first
Governor General
○ The partition plan and borders also created problems for Pakistan
● However, British help was also extremely useful in setting up an independent country
○ Most top levels of the military were filled by the British
○ They gave officers for the civil service
○ They offered financial/technical aid and expertise
● Pakistan also chose to remain a member of the commonwealth
1950s and ‘60s:

● Both Pakistan and Britain were members of SEATO and CENTO
● However, Pakistan did not abstain from criticizing Britain’s involvement in the 1956 Suez
Canal Crisis
○ In response, Britain made it clear that SEATO and CENTO did not mean that it
would offer military support against India
● Britain played a major role in the tribunal to decide the Rann of Kutch dispute
● During the 1965 war, Britain did not get involved, placing an embargo on arms to both
countries. However, they played a major part in peacemaking
○ The final agreement was signed at the Commonwealth Conference in London in
June 1865

1970s and ‘80s:
● During the war of 1971, Britain did not get involved, saying that it was a private matter.
Furthermore, they abstained from voting in the UN on whether Bangladesh should be an
independent country
○ However, they recognized Bangladesh as a state on 2nd February 1971, due to
which Pakistan left the Commonwealth in protest
● During the Afghan Crisi, Britain firmly supported Pakistan’s role:
○ Margaret Thatcher was the first western leader to visit this nation after the
commencement of the crisis in October 1981
○ They offered 30 million pounds to help Pakistan deal with the influx of Aghan
refugees
■ A further 16 million pounds were given to Pakistan to help take the
refugees in KPK and Balochistan
● Trade links were also established, with ~376 million pound’s worth of trade occurring
between the two countries in 1986
● Pakistan rejoined the Commonwealth in 1989
The Commonwealth:
● Pakistan chose to remain a member of the Commonwealth, meaning that it was a part
of British dominion (it had its own government but recognized the British monarch as
the head of state
● In 1956, Pakistan declared itself a republic, meaning that the British monarch had no
involvement in Pakistan
○ However, they still remained a member of the commonwealth
● At a Commonwealth meeting in 1950, the ‘Colombo Plan’ was set up to provide aid to
Pakistan
○ More than 1 million pounds were given towards the Sui gas project and wealth
Commonwealth nations made individual contributions
■ For example, Canada gave 40 million dollars for the development of
railways
● Pakistan left the commonwealth in 1971 when Britain recognized Bangladesh
○ Other reasons for conflict included the fact that Pakistan did not receive the
political support it had hoped for (especially in the nuclear issue), and that
Commonwealth members have often argued against military rule
● In 1989, Pakistan rejoined the commonwealth

○ India had blocked previous attempts to do so due to the military rule in the
nation
● On 18th October 1999, Pakistan was suspended from the Commonwealth following
Musharraf’s coup
How Successful have Pakistan’s Relations with Britain been?:

Successes:
● British personnel remained in Pakistan’s civil and military service after partition
● Britain and Pakistan both became members of SEATO and CENTO
● Britain helped negotiate the Tashkent Treaty
● During the Afghan Crisis, they became important trading partners and aid was received
for the rehabilitation of refugees
● Commonwealth:
○ Colombo Plan and aid
○ Rejoined in 1989
Failures:
● Initial grievances due to colonial history and unfair borders
● Pakistan criticizes British involvement in the Suez Canal Crisis
● Britain refuses to get involved in the Kashmir crisis and refuses to send aid, placing an
embargo on arms during ‘65
● Commonwealth:
○ Pakistan left in 1971 when Britain recognized Bangladesh
○ Pakistan was suspended in 1999
Afghanistan:
Events:
Post-Independence:
● There was a border dispute between Pakistan and Afghanistan
○ The border was the Durand line, which had been demarcated by Durand in 1893
after a treaty with the Afghanis to secure the subcontinent from Russia. This was
viewed as illegitimate
○ Afghanistan laid claims to some part of KPK and Balochistan which voted in
favour of joining Pakistan
■ They claimed it had been annexed by Ahmed Shah Abdali but was
actually Afghani land

■ Afghanistan argued that the ‘Pakhtoons’ living in Pakistan wanted to join
with Afghanistan to form Pakhtoonistan
■ In fact, in 1947, the Pakhtunistan flag was raised alongside the Afghan
national flag in Kabul
○ Dr Khan Sahib, the leader of the ‘red shirt movement’, and Abdul Ghaffar Khan,
leaders of KPK, initially supported joining Afghanistan but changed their aim to
regional autonomy
● As Quaid-e-Azam did not want to give the impression that NWFP was occupied territory,
he took down the old British military posts along the old border with Afghanistan
○ Though he hoped this would be seen s a move of friendship, the Afghanistan
government remained hostile to Pakistan, being the only country to vote against
their entry into the UN
● In 1947, Pakistan invited Afghanistan for official talks in Karachi
○ During these talks, Afghanistan again demanded the establishment of
Pakhtoonistan and asked for a right to access the sea through Pakistan
■ Pakistan offered access to the sea if the demand for pakhtoonistan was
dropped
● Afghanistan did not accept this, instead signing a ‘trade and transit’ agreement with the
USSR, which gave them access to the sea via Russia
1949-1961:
● There were a number of conflicts on the Pak-Afghan border from 1949-51, including:
○ In 1949, while pursuing miscreants who attacked the Pakistani border posts from
Afghanistan, a PAF warplane bombed the Afghan village of Mughulai
○ 1950 - Pakistan and Afghanistan have a conflict over the Dobandi area
○ 1950-51 - Afghan led Lashkars attacked Pakistan, Afghanistan declared the rebels
‘Freedom Fighters’
● A Jirga decided not to form bilateral ties with Pakistan 1949
● 1951 - Liaquat shot dead by Afghan national Said Akbar
● In March 1955, Afghans attacked the Paksitani embassy in Kabul, angered by the
amalgamation of NWFP into West Pakistan under the One Unit Scheme
○ In protest, Pakistan closed their border and cut off domestic relations
● In 1956, Iskander Mirza visited Afghanistan, though Afghanistan was not interested in
formal ties or alliances
○ The Afghani PM reciprocated by visiting Pakistan the same year
○ In 1957, Hussain Suhrawurdy visited

○ In 1958, the Afghani King visited Pakistan and an agreement was signed to
improve the transit facilities for Afghani goods through Pakistan
● 1959 - the Afghani King and PM declare support for Pakhtoonistan
1960-71:
● Conflict over Bajaur:
○ September 1960 - Pakistan sends forces to drive back what it claims were Afghani
troops who had infiltrated into Bajaur. Afghanistan claimed that Pakistan was
fighting against local tribesmen.
○ March 1961 - Afghanistan claims that Pakistan was oppressing Pathans and
carrying out bombing raids on them
○ Later that month, Pakistan claimed that Afghani troops had attacked a few posts
in Bajaur, and, soon after deployed the air craft on the border
● In 1961, Pakistan closed their Afghani consulates and Afghanistan reciprocated by
cutting of diplomatic relations
● Afghanistan refused to join the RCD since Pakistan was a member
● The Afghani government stayed neutral in the war of 1965 even though most of its
populace was in support of Pakistan
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto:

● Relations again got worse when he disbanded the Balochi assembly and supported
Balochi insurgents
● 1974 - Daud does not participate in OIC, hosted in Pakistan
● Bhutto visited Kabul shortly after taking office as a part of his ‘Islamic’ foreign policy
● In 1973, Sardar Daud took power. He was against Pakistan, though Bhutto continued to
try to improve relations
○ Access to India through Pakistan was granted to Afghan traders
○ Pakistan made generous contributions to a fund to deal with consequences of an
earthquake in Afghanistan in 1976
● In 1976, Daud and Bhutto visited each other several times on the encouragement of the
Shah of Iran, who wanted his neighbours to be on good terms
Zia ul Haq and the Afghan Crisis:

● In 1977, Zia visited Kabul and Daud, returning in March 1978
○ There, he called for improved relations
● Shortly after, Daud was killed and the government overthrown by a communist
government

○ In December 1979, the USSR sent an army to replace the communist leader with
Barbrak Karmal, who promised to gaain independence for Pakhtoonistan. They
stayed afterwards ‘to ensure peace’
○ Soon, a war broke out between the USSR and mujahideen rebels
● Pakistan was heavily involved in the opposition to the soviets
○ They distributed military aid amongst the mujahideen
○ The ISI worked with the Afghans to plan operations against the Soviets
○ Madrassas were set up in Pakistan to train the mujahideen, which some say is a
major cause of radicalization
○ Though the Soviets started bombing raids on Pakistan, their involvement
persisted
○ More on the effects of the Afghan crisis here:
https://sci-hub.se/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41394475
● Furthermore, there was a huge influx of refugees
○ Over 3 million fled from the war to Pakistan in the first year
○ Initially, Pakistan received aid to help deal with them, but on 14th April 1988,
after the USSR withdrew, this aid ended, though the refugees did not
Post 1988:
● Nawaz Sharif tried to end the conflict in Afghanistan by inviting leaders of various
factions to talks
○ The fighting still continued as, even though the Soviets had withdrawn, the
Karmal government still remained
○ The Islamabad Accord was signed by 6 factions, but a lack of a strong central
organization meant that the violence persisted
● The Kalashnikov Culture, discussed before, spread into Pakistan, with some towns such
as Sakhot copying Russian automatic weapons, making them easily available to anyone
● Benazir Bhutto decided to support the Taliban (why), which she thought was the only
force strong enough to establish stability and allow Pakistan to trade with the CAS
Republics
○ The Taliban later became a huge problem for Pakistan as most of you know
How Successful were Pakistan’s Relations with Afghanistan?:

Successes:
● 1956-8: Bilateral visits
● 1965 - Afghanistan remains neutral
● Bhutto’s ‘Islamic foreign policy’:

○ Afghani traders given access to India
○ Pakistan gives aid to Afghanistan after earthquake in 1976
○ 1976 - Bhutto and Daud visit each other several times after pressure from the
Shah of Iran
● Pakistan rehabilitates refugees during the Afghan crisis
Failures:
● Territorial dispute over KPK/Pakhtoonistan
● Afghanistan votes against the Pakistan in the UN
● Afghanistan does not join trade agreement with Pakistan, signs trade transit agreement
with the USSR
● 1955 - Attack of embassy in Kabul
● 1956 - Iskander received coolly
● 1960 - Conflict in Bajaur
● Bombing raids on Pakistan due to involvement in the Afghan crisis
● Kalashnikov culture
● Benazir funds the Taliban
● Afghanistan refuses to join the RCD
Bangladesh:
Events:
● Pakistan officially recognized Bangladesh in early 1974 when their President, Sheikh
Mujib-ur-Rehman, was invited to the OIC in Lahore
● Initially, there was a problem as to how assets would be shared between Pakistan and
Bangladesh, though not to such a great an extent as there was between Pakistan and
India
○ In June 1974, when Bhutto visited Bangladesh, this issue was discussed. Mujibur
Rahman asked for over half of them, but this was dismissed as unrealistic
○ Mujib also suggested that all non-Bengalis be taken from Bangladesh - with or
without their consent - but this was not agreed to
● In 1975, Mujib-ur-Rehman was killed during a military coup.
○ After this, as a token of friendship, Pakistan donated cloth and 50,000 tons of rice
to Bangladesh and diplomatic relations were established
○ Telecommunication links were established in 1976
● In 1977, Khonkedar was replaced by Zia-ur-Rehman, who paid a visit to Pakistan and was
instrumental in setting up the SAARC, which brought the two countries much closer

○ A joint economic commission was also established in 1979, where trade
agreements were signed
● When the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979, Zia-ur-Rehman called a meeting of
the Foreign Ministers of Islamic countries, where solidarity for the Afghani people was
expressed
● Trade has also been developed between the two countries
○ In 1984, at the meeting of the Joint Ministerial Committee in Islamabad,
negotiations for trade were made.
○ By 1986, trade goods between the two nations reached the value of $40 million
● In 1985 and 1988, Bangladesh was severely affected by weather. Pakistan was one of the
first countries to contribute foreign aid
How Successful have Pakistan’s Relations with Bangladesh been?:

Successes:
● Mujib-ur-Rehman invited to OIC 1974
● 1975-6: Cloth and rice donated, telecommunication links established
● 1979 - Joint economic commission, trade agreements
● Afghan Crisis - Zia-ur-Rehman calls meeting of Islamic countries to express solidarity
● 1984 - negotiations for trade, goods reach value of 40 million dollars by ‘86
● Pakistan gives foreign aid ‘85 and ‘88
Failures:
● Conflict over division of assets
Iran:
Events:
Pre-Revolution:
● Liaquat visited the Iran and the Shah returned the favour
● Both countries joined the Baghdad Pact in 1955
● On 21st July 1964, Pakistan, Turkey, and Iran set up the RCD
○ It lapsed in 1979 and was reestablished in 1985
● Iran tried to persuade other nations to send aid to Pakistan during the war of ‘65
● Iran helped Pakistan put down an uprising in Balochistan in 1973
Post-Revolution:
● In 1979, the Shah of Iran was overthrown like he overthrew the previous
democratically-elected government 17 years prior. This was for several reasons:
○ The extravagant party he threw in 1971 on the 2500th anniversary of the Persian
empire
○ The lack of freedom of speech despite his promises to increases women and
human rights
○ Poor socio-economic conditions
● Though Pakistan was one of the first countries to recognize and support the new
government, relations between the two deteriorated as:
○ The new government was suspicious of the fact that Pakistan was such an
enthusiastic supporter of the Shah
○ The Iranian government was anti-American whereas Pakistan was receiving large
amounts of aid from the US
● From 1980, Iran was at war with Iraq and had little concern for Pakistan
● Some economic advancements were made:
○ A 13-member Irani delegation visited Pakistan in 1986. They agreed to mutual
cooperation in the telecommunication field
○ A two-year agreement was signed in 1987 was made for bilateral road
transportation of goods
○ In 1987, an Irani delegation visited Pakistan to make arrangements for industrial
units
How Successful have Pakistan’s relations with Iran been?:

Successes:
● Bilateral visits by Liaquat and the Shah
● CENTO
● RCD
● Attempt to raise support during war of ‘65
● Iran helps Pakistan put down Balochi revolution
● Economic agreements 1986 and ‘87
Failures:
● Suspicion following the revolution
Organizations:
UNO:
In October 1945, following World War 2, the United Nations Organisation was formed in order
to promote global peace, as outlined by the United Nations Charter.
Departments:
● In the General Assembly, every nation gets one vote on an issue.
● The Security Council, with five permanent members (USA, Britain, China, Russia, and
France) and ten temporary members gets to order military action.
● The Social and Economic Council has 27 members elected by the General Assembly and
coordinates the UNESCO, ILO, and WHO. It coordinates the work of:
○ UNESCO (The UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization), which aims
to promote international cooperation by agreement and the exchange of ideas
○ ILO (The International Labour Organization). This was founded in 1919 as a part
of the League of Nations to provide social justice and adequate living conditions
to the employees of the world. It holds regular conferences and sets minimum
labour standards which all members should meet
○ WHO (World Health Organization), which aims to elevate people to the highest
possible level of health.
■ It organizes cooperation between health specialists
■ It send s teams of medical experts to areas affected by natural calamities
■ It organizes conferences where experts exchange ideas, research, and
spread medical knowledge
■ Programmes are set up to promote medical health, particularly in
developing countries
■ In 1967, WHO launched a campaign to eradicate smallpox, which was
declared successful in 1979
● The Trusteeship Council supervises countries which control non self-governing countries.
It has now been disbanded.
● The international Courts of Justice have 15 judges from different countries which settles
disputes.
● The secretary-general of the UN is the chief administration officers elected by a majority
of the General Assembly who presents an annual report and budget to the General
Assembly and undertakes special missions on behalf of the UN
● UNICEF - The United Nations Children’s Fund
○ This was set up to meet the emergency needs of children in post-war Europe and
China
○ In 1950, it was changed to include the needs of children in developing countries
○ In 1953, it was declared that it should continue as a permanent body to improve
the conditions of children everywhere

○ It provides community-based programmes in teaching and child-related
healthcare such as midwifery and sanitation
○ Most of its work occurs in developing countries and concerns children under the
age of five
○ It promotes the implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child
which came into force in 1990
Pakistan’s Involvement:
● Advocacy for freedom:
○ It spoke up against the occupation of Indonesia by Holland
○ It spoke up in favour of freedom movements in countries such as Morocco and
Algiers
○ It has taken up the Palestinian Issue in the UN
● Pakistan has been elected to the security council thrice
● Benefits:
○ Acknowledgement as a member of the global community
○ The WFP provided aid for Afghan refugees and food/healthcare for women and
girls to promote primary education in rural areas
○ The World Bank was involved in the Indus Water Treaty and also provided
finance to help establish HEP and soil-reclamation prorammes
Pakistan’s Issues with the UN:

● Hyderabad’s complaint about being dismembered by India in 1949 is still before the
security council
● Kashmir Issue:
○ The LoC left Kashmir divided between India and Pakistan
○ The plebiscite was never held
● Bhutto was unhappy that the UN was not in favour of Pakistan’s case in ‘71, instead
trying to bring the conflict to an end
○ He was also concerned by the speed at which UN members recognized
Bangladesh
Why Membership was Important:

● Pakistan was newly independent and wanted to be seen as a sovereign nation
○ This was especially important due to its border conflicts with India and
Afghanistan

● To fight for the rights of Kashmiris (and internationally Hyderabad and Junagadh) on the
global stage
● To play its role in peacekeeping in the world according to the UN charter as a peaceful
nation in other country’s struggles
● To make economic alliances easier
OIC:
In 1969, the holy Al-Aqsa mosque in Jerusalem was burned. The global resentment of Muslims
to this act resulted in the Rabat Conference in the Kingdom of Morocco, during which 25
Muslim states (including Pakistan) passed a resolution that declared, amongst other things, that
“Their [Muslim] Governments shall consult together with a view of promoting between
themselves close cooperation and mutual assistance in the economic, scientific, cultural and
spiritual fields, inspired by the immortal teachings of Islam.”1 It was decided during the Islamic
Conference of Foreign Ministers that headquarter were to be setup in Jeddah until Jerusalem
was liberated from Israeli control. In 1971, one of the OIC’s meeetings was held in Karachi.
During that year, Bhutto toured many nations, including many Islamic countries, to ascertain
that relations were not soured following the War of ‘71. In 1972 the first OIC charter was
adopted In 1974, a summit was held in Lahore during which allegiance was pledged to the
Palestine Liberation Organization following the Arab-Israeli war in 1973. During this, many
countries decided to give monetary aid to Pakistan, such as Iran, who gave $730 million, the
UAE, who gave 100 million pounds, and Libya, who gave $80 million
There was a conflict with India that arised due to this organization - they sent a Sikh delegate to
observe the first summit and tried to join the organization due to its large Muslim populace.
However, largely due to Pakistan, who threatened to boycott the Rabatsummit, they were not
allowed to do so.
1: https://www.oic-oci.org/docdown/?docID=4404&refID=1237
Why has Pakistan supported Palestine:

● They are a fellow Muslim nation, due to which Pakistan understands their pain
● The objectives of the OIC is to promote harmony between Muslim nations. Solidarity
with Palestine is in following with this
● Pakistan wants Israel to stop the atrocities it is committing against Palestinian citizens
Pakistan and Muslim States:

● Negatives:
○ Egypt and Saudi Arabia did not like Pakistan signing the Baghdad Pact
○ Egypt was annoyed when Pakistan didn’t provide aid during the Suez Crisis
○ Pakistan is close to the US, which supports Israel
● Positives:
○ OIC, which Pakistan hosted, and the aid received from it
○ The Gulf States helped Pakistan industrialize by providing investment in areas
such as oil refining, shipping, and banking
○ Saudi Arabia:
■ One of the first countries to recognize Pakistan
■ Sent aid to Pakistan and invested in Pakistani industries when it grew
richer
■ Sent funds to help Afghan rebels and refugees
○ Pakistan’s second largest source of foreign exchange in the early 1980s was the
money remitted by workers in the Middle East
○ Military:
■ Export of military expertise to the Gulf States
■ 50,000 military personnel operating abroad
■ Pakistan signs agreements with Muslim states in the 1970s
○ Pakistan joined a coalition against the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait during the 1990-1
gulf war
■ This was opposed by radical Sunni parties such as the Jamaat-i-Islami
who feared it would lead to an increase in strength of the Shia
government in Iran
○ Turkey:
■ Due to its remembrance of the Khilafat movement and as an ally of Iran,
Turkey and Pakistan have remained close
■ They both signed the Baghdad Pact and joined the RCD
■ It supported Pakistan in the wars against India but was unsuccessful to
gain aid for it.
SEATO:
After the Second World War two expansionist states became the dominant global powers: the
communist Russia and capitalist America. In order to prevent Russian expansion, especially in
the context of the rise of communist China and the threat to Vietnam, this treaty (the South
East Asia Treaty Organisation) was negotiated by the US Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles to
provide protection for South-East Asian States. In September 1954, Pakistan, represented by
their foreign minister Zafarullah Khan signed the treaty pledging Pakistan’s support without
consulting the government. Other nations who pledged to provide troops to nations threatened

by communist expansion are the United States, France, Great Britain, Australia, New Zealand,
Philippines, and Thailand. Zafarullah Khan’s actions concerned the government, who was not
really in support of such a treaty as they wanted protection from not only Russia but also India.
However, in order to prevent angering America, they ratified it in 1955.
In 1972, Pakistan withdrew from the treaty due to its failure to help Pakistan during the war of
‘71. Four years later, in 1975, the Vietnam War ended. As the primary reason for the treaty’s
existence was now gone, it was disbanded in 1977
Why Pakistan Left:

● Pakistan’s joining: Even though Pakistan’s foreign minister signed the treaty, the
government took a while to ratify it, which showed that inhibitions existed from the start
● The organization did not help Pakistan during the war against India
● The organization did not provide military or economic aid to its members and did not set
up a permanent military force for protection either
CENTO:
In 1955, Turkey and Iraq signed the Baghdad Pact (also called the Middle East Treaty
Organization (METO)), an anti-communist alliance against the USSR. Britain, Pakistan, and Iran
joined later that year. While USA never officially joined to pact, it was instrumental in getting
individual nations to participate and formed separate treaties with most involved nations. In
March 1959, Iraq withdrew from the partition and adopted a more non-aligned policy following
its coup d’etat. In response to this, the name of the treaty was changed to CENTO (Central
Treaty Organisation) and its headquarters were changed to Ankara in Turkey. Other factors to
CENTO’s decline include British humiliation following its involvement in the Suez Crisis, the
dissatisfaction Pakistan faced when the organisation refused to aid it in its wars with India in
1965 and 1971, and Turkey’s invasion of Cyprus in 1974. Eventually, in 1979, following the
revolution in Iran, Iran withdrew from the treaty on 11th March 1979. The next day, Pakistan,
too, left. Due to this, on March 16, 1979, it was announced Turkey would call a meeting of the
pact’s council to dissolve the organization.
NAM:
Pakistan expressed desires to abstain from being used by superpowers during Bogra’s time,
when they, along with India, Indonesia, and Burma met at Bandung in Indonesia, where they
agreed to the ‘Badun Principles’ and outlined some major objectives. Furthermore, when the
Non-Aligned Movement was started by Tito of Yugoslavia, they expressed the desire to be a part

of it, but were not allowed to do so due to their membership of SEATO and CENTO. In the Sixth
Summit of the alliance in 1979, they applied for membership and were accepted.
RCD:
In 1964, Iran and Turkey set up the Regional Cooperation for Development which aims to
develop closer trade links between the three countries and for them to help each other with
industrial projects. Afghanistan did not join due to Pakistan’s presence.
In 1979, the agreement lapsed, but was reestablished in 1985.
SAARC:
The President of Bangladesh, Zia-ur-Rehman, was instrumental in the formation of SAARC
(South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) touring Nepal, Pakistan, India and Sri Lanka
from 1997 to 1980. On May 2, 1980, he proposed a framework for regional cooperation, which
had been discussed at least thrice before. The seven country’s foreign ministers met in
Colombo in April 1981. Afterwards, they met several times, till, during the conference at Dhaka
in 1983, the 7 foreign ministers (of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal,
Pakistan and Sri Lanka) created the SAARC and launched the first Integrated Programme of
Action (IPA). The first SAARC summit was held in Dhaka in December 1985. This organization
mainly focuses to promote economic, social, and cultural growth.
How Successful has Pakistan been as a Member of World Organizations?:

Successes:
● UN:
○ Raised question of Kashmir
○ Represents Asian states who had not gained independence in the 1950s
○ Supports Palestine cause
○ Contributed to peacemaking forces
● OIC:
○ Hosted a summit, proving itself as a leader of the Islamic world
○ Provided loans and grants
○ Supported the PLO
● CENTO:
○ Many fellow members were Islamic countries, strengthening bond with them
● RCD:
● World Bank:
○ Financial and technical support
○ Indus Water Treaty
○ Finances for HEP and soil reclamation
● Commonwealth:
○ Colombo plan and aid
Failures:
● UN:
○ No resolution to Kashmir problem - plebiscite still hasn’t been taken
● SEATO:
○ Did not provide military aid against India
○ No aid/permanent military force
● CENTO:
○ The US did not join
○ No military aid against India
● OIC:
○ Has done little actual work, just puts resolutions on paper
● Commonwealth:
○ Left in 1971 when Britain recognized Bangladesh
○ Suspended in 1999 following British military coup
Phases:
47-52: Exploration of Friendship with All
Liaquat chose to lean towards USA, creating a bitter situation between Pakistan and Russia
Non-alignment
53-62: Alignment with the West
62-71: Transition
72-79: Bilateralism
80-90: Afghan Crisis and US Ally
90-2001: Post-Cold War and Pakistan’s Dilemmas
2001-Present: Pakistan and Counter-terrorism
Objectives:
National Security:
Economic Interest:
Islamic Solidarity:
Peaceful Co-existance:
Non-alignment
Bilateralism

Languages of Pakistan
Most of this is taken from the textbook so just take it from there tbh
General:
Usage:
● Punjabi - 60%
● Sindhi - 12%
● Other - 9%
● Urdu - 8%
● Pashto - 8%
● Balochi - 3%
Why Regional Languages have been Promoted:

National Unity:
● They are spoken by a large number of people - over 80% of the population
○ Due to this, promoting languages would help promote pride amongst the people
of their heritage
● In order to prevent people from feeling that their langauges were being ignored in
favour of Urdu
Role in Independence:
● Pashto played an important role in the opposition to the British rule
○ In order to preserve this heritage, steps were taken
Prevention of Decline:
● Many important works of literature have been penned in regional languages, which the
government felt the need to preserve
● Balochistan was declining and had little development before 1947
○ In order to prevent it from being lost forever, it had to be promoted
How successful has been the promotion of local languages in Pakistan been since
1947? Give reasons for your answer. [14]
https://www.gceguide.com/resources/notes/pakistan-studies/answers-of-some-selected-questions-pakista
n-studies-2059/#sec1:q2 .

Urdu:
Why Urdu was made the National Language:
History:
● It dates back to the Sultans of Delhi
○ While some say that it formed in the Mughal army, that is actually a myth. From
what can be gathered, it originated in North-West India when Persian, Turkish,
and Punjabi interacted with the local dialects of Delhi
○ It was however, used to communicate with Muslim armies
● It has since evolved over the years into the language we currently speak
● It has an extremely rich literary background
○ Amir Khusrau is said to be the first Urdu poet
○ Bahadur Shah Zafar, Mir Taqi Mir, Mirza Muhammad Rafi Sauda, Khwaja Mir
Dard, and Mirza Ghalib are famous poets near the end of the Mughal era
○ The Aligarh University became a centre for the study of this language after it was
established, producing many famous writers such as Hasrat Mohani
○ During the early 20th century, writers such as Allama Iqbal and Maulana Altaf
Hussain Hali enriched Urdu prose and poetry by producing many literary
masterpieces in this language
● British educational institutes such as the Fort Willliam College took an interest in
promoting Urdu
Pakistan Movement:
● The Muslim League was formed partially to protect the Urdu language during the
Hindu-Urdu Controversy
● Sir Syed created the Two-Nation Theory after the Hindu-Urdu controversy made him
realise the cultural differences of the inhabitants of Pakistan
○ In fact, the Hindu-Urdu controversy is one of the major reasons for the souring of
relations between people in the subcontinent
● This is why Urdu was the language associated with the Pakistan Movement
Unifying Force:
● Due to its relation to Islam, it is a unifying force for all Muslims:
○ The translation of the Quran into Urdu is the root of this language’s relation with
Islam
○ Since then, many religious books have been written in Urdu
● Quaid-e-Azam put special emphasis on the fact that Urdu alone should be the national
language so that the populace would have one tongue to unite them
● On the other hand, it created a conflict between Western and Eastern Pakistan, but since
Bangladesh is no longer Pakistan the polarizing affect it had on the people can be
ignored
Development:
● A dictionary of Urdu office terms has been published
● It is the medium of instruction of many educational institutions
○ Urdu literature, political science, history, and other subjects are taught up till the
MA level in Urdu
● It is the medium for radio and television programs
● Urdu films and plays are very popular
Sindhi:
Background:
● It is an older language than Urdu, being spoken as far back as the 12th Century
○ It was spoken then in the same form as it is today
● It was written in the ‘Marwari and ‘Arz Nigari’ way of writing
○ After the arrival of Muslims, it was written in Arabic script
● It was further influenced by Turkish tribes of Central Asia who brought their Persian
language with them
● Some of its famous poets and writers include Makhdum Nuh of Hala, Qazi Qazan of
Thatta, Sachal Sarmast and Shah Abdul Latif
○ During the Soomro Persiod between 1050-1300, it was at a particularly high
quality
○ Most scholars consider its peak between 1685 and 1783
● Journals in the 19th Century such as Ta’alim Alkhashaf-o-Tauheed contributed to its
growth
Development:
● In 1948, the Sindhi Literary Board was set up
○ It printed many books and magazines in Sindhi
○ Important Sindhi Authors include Pir Ali, Faqir Nabi, and G. Allana
● Several books have been written on Sindhi folk literature
● The Bazm-e-Talib-ul-Maula was set up in 1954 to promote Sindhi literature
● A Sarmast academy has been established in the memory of Sachal Sarmast
● A Sindhiology department has been established at the Sindh University Jamshoro

Balochi:
Background:
● This is the language spoken in Balochistan
○ Persian and Brohi are also spoken in this province
● There are two types of Balochi:
○ Sulmanki, and
○ Mekrani
● This language was brought into Balochistan by nomadic tribes which migrated from
North-West Iran
○ Since they did not settle in one place for long, Balochistan remained largely an
oral language and there was little development in its poetry and prose
○ Early Balochistani poetry consisted mostly of folk songs, with Jam Darang being
an important Balochi poet
● It was first reported outside the region in 1930 by the British traveller W. Leech in the
Journal of Asiatic Society
● Before partition, it started to decline
Development:
● Radio Pakistan Karachi began broadcasting in Balochi
● The Balochi Literary Association was set up and there are now weekly and monthly
magazines published in the language
● There has been rapid progress in modern Balochi literature, with many famous:
○ Poets: Atta Shad and Ishaq Shamin
○ Writers: Gul Khan Nazir and Azad Jamal Din
Punjabi:
Background:
● This is spoken in Punjab, the most populous province in Pakistan, and in other areas such
as Pakistani Kashmir and KPK
● It is easily understood
● It has been given various names throughout history such as ‘Masoodi’, ‘Al-Hindi’,’ and
‘Hindko’
○ In 1080, Hafiz Barkhuda was probably the first person to use the name ‘Punjabi’
to describe the language
● It was initially written in Gurmukhi script
○ During the latter years of the Mughals, Arabic script was used

● It has been influenced by many other languages, such as Persian, Arabic, Hindu, Turkish,
and English
○ In Western Punjab, it has also been influenced by Sindhi and Pashto
○ There are several dialects
● Early Punjabi litearture consists of folk tales such as Heer-Ranjha, Sassi-Punnu, and
Sonhi-Mahiwal
○ There has been a long tradition of mystic literature extending from the 12th
century
○ Sufi poets such as Baba Farid Ganshakar and Sultan Bahu wrote famous works in
Punjabi
○ Bullhe Shah composed mystic lores and melodious kafis which are sung to this
day in this language
● In the 20th century, novels, shorts stories, and dramas were widely published in Punjabi,
and, later, academic texts
○ New mediums were included in Punjabi poetry such as the ghazal and nazm
Development:
● Punjabi literature is taught up to the MA level in the University of Punjab
● Punjabi media has been promoted and its film, theater, radio, and television is very
popular
● Muhammad Ali Faiq produced versified translations of the Quran in this language
● Ustad Daman, Sharif Kunjahi and others + their younger followers have instigated a
change in traditional patterns of Punjabi literature
Pushto:
Background:
● This is spoken by people in KPK and in northern areas of Balochistan
● It has been heavily influenced by languages such as Arabic, Persian, and Greek
Periods of Pashto Literature:

The history of Pashto literature can be divided into three periods:
● The first period dates from the ~2nd to ~13th century
○ The first Pashto poet was Amir Khan Pehivan
○ The most famous poet was Bayazid Ansari, whos most famous work,
Khair-ul-Bian, was probably the first book on sufism in Pahsot
● The second begins with the Mughal invasions of India in the early 13th century and
lasted for about a hundred years
○ The quality of Pashto prose grew to its peak at this time
○ Like all literature, the works written then reflected the time it was written in. due
to this, the growth of nationalism can be traced in this
■ In fact, Pashto literature played an important part in asserting Pashto
freedom
○ The greatest scholar was Hazrat Mian Umar and other famous personalities were
Saadat Ali Khan and Amir Muhammad Ansari
● The third period extends to the estbalishment of British rule
○ It is considered the golden period of Pashto literature due to the large amount of
high-quality writing produced
○ Famous writers include Akhund Dardeeza, Khusal Khan Kttak, and the Sufi poet,
Rehman Baba
● It played an important role in creating opposition to British rule
○ Sahibzada Abdul Qayam worked tirelessly to increase the political awareness of
the NWFP’s populace. His work led to the setting up of the Islamia College
■ Study in Pashto helped foster unity and the college became the centre of
the freedom movement
Development:
● Within three years of Independence, the Peshawar University was established
● An academy for the promotion of Pashto literature was set up in 1954
○ It was initially headed by Maulana Abdul Qadir
○ It published a Pashto dictionary
● Post-graduate classes in Pashto literature have been established at the university level in
KPK

Promotion of Education,
Healthcare, and Islam
Education:
Problems:
● In 1998, >30% of the population was literate, with female literacy being only 14%
● Lack of financial investment due to diversion of money to warfare
○ Pakistan’s budget expenditure on education never grew greater than 3%
● Social kickback:
○ Parents do not see the importance of school
○ Female education is opposed
○ Parents cannot afford to lose the income they provide
● Schools are too harsh due to which many drop out
● Children are expected to buy their own books and uniforms
● Private schools are extremely expensive
● Teachers are not paid properly and have little training
Policies:
● List problems
Ayub Khan:
● In 1958, a commission was set up to review the existing education system.
● It recommended the remaking of the syllabus and making primary education free and
compulsory till 8th grade
● It recommended a three year degree course opening of technical colleges and emphasis
on religious education
● Technical and vocational institutes were formed to train labour in East and West Pakistan
Bhutto:
● According to Article 37 of the constitution of 1973, the government was to provide free
and compulsory education to all
● Missionary schools were set up in Sukkur
● 1820 schools, 346 madrassas, and 155 colleges were set up in Sindh
● Sindhi was made compulsory in Sindh
● School curriculum was revitalized
● Private schools were nationalized
● Free primary and compulsory education till grade 10
● However, the quality was low and drop-out rates were high
○ Furthermore, there was conservative kickback
Zia:
● Nai Roshni Schools were established, but they were discontinued by Benazir
● Islamic inclusion in education
Healthcare:
Problems:
● Lack of institutions
● Rapid increase in population
● Low life expectancy - currently 67 years; used to be 55
● High child mortality - 90/1000 births
● Malnutrition
● Reliance on traditional medication
● Low budget - only 0.75% in 1990
Policies:
Bhutto:
● Rural Healthcare Centres and Basic Healthcare Units were set up in rural and urban
areas
○ RHCs were to serve 60,000 people
○ BHUs were to serve 20,000 people
● The sale of medicines under brand names/patents in pharmaceuticals were banned
● Training colleges for doctors and nurses were set up
○ Once qualified, doctors had to work fo the government for a year so that they
could be assigned to rural areas
○ Entry was to be on merit
NGOs such as the Edhi Foundation also play a large role in Pakistani healthcare

Islamization:
Objectives Resolution:
‘Successes’:
● Several references were made towards Islamic laws such as social justice, equality, and
religious freedoms
● Muslims were allowed to live their lives according to Islam
‘Failures’:
● Religious groups were not satisfied - they wanted Shariah
Revised Report of the Basic Principles Committee:

‘‘‘‘‘‘Successes’’’’’’:
● The head of state was to be a Muslim over the age of 40
● An Islamic advisory board would be set up
‘‘‘‘‘‘Failures’’’’’’’:
● It was rejected, partially due to fears that the religious Advisory Board would be given
veto powers
● Pakistan’s name was changed to ‘Islamic Republic of Pakistan’
● The head of state was to be a Muslim
‘‘‘‘‘‘Failures’’’’’’’:
● Not Shariah
Ayub Khan:
Successes:
● The Muslim Family Law Ordinance was established, according to which marriages and
divorces were to be registered and minimum age limits were defined for marriages
● Women were empowered via laws regarding marriage and polygamy
● An Islamic Advisory Council was set up
‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘Failures’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’:
● The Islamic Advisory Council had no executive power

● Opposition due to women’s rights issues
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto:

● Following protests by the PNA, restricted gambling and the sale of alcohol while also
declaring Friday a weekly holiday
● According to the constitutions of 1972, the PM and Presidents were to be male Muslims
and the Islamic Advisory board was set up
● Islamic concepts of citizen’s welfare were established via labour and health reforms
● Ahmadis were declared as non-Muslims
‘‘‘‘‘‘Failures’’’’’’’:
● Initial allowance of the sale of alcohol
● The Advisory Board was not listened to
● The labour and health reforms weren’t implemented well
Zia ul Haq:
‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘‘Successes’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’:
● Under Ordinance XX, Ahmadis could be killed for blasphemy if they declared their faith
● The Federal Shariat Court was set up
● Hudood Ordinances were set up with strict punishments for thievery, fornication,
adultery, and blasphemy
● Women’s rights were torn down
○ The testimony of a women was taken half as that to a man
○ Women could be charged with adultery if they were unable to find evidence for
their rape
● Zakat and Ushr Ordinances
● Educational
○ Islamiat and Pakistan studies were made compulsory
○ Memorizers of the Holy Quran were given extra marks
○ Arabic was promoted
● Women were not allowed to appear without hijabs on TV
Failures:
● Many human’s rights concerns but who cares about those am I right

1988-1999:
● Nawaz Sharif put forth the Shariat Bill in 1991 which restricted women in politics
● The 15th Amendment put all power of enforcement of the Shariat Bill in the PM’s hands
Failures:
● The Shariat Bill did not pass
● The 15th Amendment was only to increase his power


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Pakistan History

Motivations and Beliefs:

Aral Nadeem Pakistan History Notes araldocs.wordpress.com

Aral Nadeem Pakistan History Notes araldocs.wordpress.com

Inspiration for the Future:

Promotion and Protection of Unity:

Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi (1786-1831):

The Jihad Movement:

Reasons for Failure of the Jihad Movement:

Aral Nadeem Pakistan History Notes araldocs.wordpress.com

Motivations and Beliefs:

Aral Nadeem Pakistan History Notes araldocs.wordpress.com

The Faraizi Movement:

Motivations and Beliefs:

Aral Nadeem Pakistan History Notes araldocs.wordpress.com

Titu Mir (1782-1831):

Aral Nadeem Pakistan History Notes araldocs.wordpress.com

Who was Haji Shariat Ullah/what did he do:

Who was Mian Mohsin-ud-din-Ahmed:

Who was Titu Mir:

Why did Barelvi start the Jihad Movement:

Why did Haji Shariat Ullah start the Faraizi Movement:

Aral Nadeem Pakistan History Notes araldocs.wordpress.com

Negative Impacts of His Policies:

Bad Economic Measures:

Aral Nadeem Pakistan History Notes araldocs.wordpress.com

Loss of Rajput Support:

Vastness of the Empire:

Aral Nadeem Pakistan History Notes araldocs.wordpress.com

The Decline of the Mughal Empire:

Lack of a Law of Succession:

Corruption and Oligarchies:

Aral Nadeem Pakistan History Notes araldocs.wordpress.com

Foreign Invasions and Rebellions:

The Arrival of the British:

Aral Nadeem Pakistan History Notes araldocs.wordpress.com

Who was Nadir Shah:

Who was Ahmed Shah Durrani:

What were the Marathas:

Aral Nadeem Pakistan History Notes araldocs.wordpress.com

Why the EIC Entered India:

Aral Nadeem Pakistan History Notes araldocs.wordpress.com

Aral Nadeem Pakistan History Notes araldocs.wordpress.com

Aral Nadeem Pakistan History Notes araldocs.wordpress.com

Strategic Importance of India:

Mismanagement of India by the Eic:

Aral Nadeem Pakistan History Notes araldocs.wordpress.com

Aral Nadeem Pakistan History Notes araldocs.wordpress.com

First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-9):

Aral Nadeem Pakistan History Notes araldocs.wordpress.com

Conflict and Resolution

Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-4):

Aral Nadeem Pakistan History Notes araldocs.wordpress.com

Conflict and Resolution:

Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-2):

Conflict and Resolution:

Aral Nadeem Pakistan History Notes araldocs.wordpress.com

Conflict and Resolution: