13.

) EXPLAIN HOW OSCILLATIONS ARE SUSTAINED IN THE CAVITY

MAGNETRON, WITH SUITABLE SKETCHES, ASSUMING THAT THE 1T-
MODE OSCILLATIONS ALREADY EXIST. MAKE CLEAR WHY MORE
ENERGY IS GIVEN TO THE RF FIELD THAN IS TAKEN FROM IT.
THE PRESENCE OF OSCILLATIONS IN THE MAGNETRON BRINGS IN A
TANGENTIAL (RF) COMPONENT OF ELECTRIC FIELD. WHEN ELECTRON
A IS SITUATED (AT THIS INSTANT OF TIME) AT POINT 1, THE
TANGENTIAL COMPONENT OF THE RF ELECTRIC FIELD OPPOSES THE
TANGENTIAL VELOCITY OF THE ELECTRON. THE ELECTRON IS
RETARDED BY THE FIELD AND GIVES ENERGY TO IT (AS HAPPENED IN
THE REFLEX KLYSTRON). ELECTRON B IS SO PLACED AS TO EXTRACT
AN EQUAL AMOUNT OF ENERGY FROM THE RF FIELD, BY VIRTUE OF
BEING ACCELERATED BY IT. FOR OSCILLATIONS TO BE MAINTAINED,
MORE ENERGY MUST BE GIVEN TO THE ELECTRIC FIELD THAN IS
TAKEN FROM IT. YET, ON THE FACE OF IT, THIS IS UNLIKELY TO BE THE
CASE HERE BECAUSE THERE ARE JUST AS MANY ELECTRONS OF TYPE
A AS OF TYPE B. NOTE THAT ELECTRON A SPENDS MUCH MORE TIME
IN THE RF FIELD THAN ELECTRON B. THE FORMER IS RETARDED, AND
THEREFORE THE FORCE OF THE DC MAGNETIC FIELD ON IT IS
DIMINISHED; AS A RESULT, IT CAN NOW MOVE CLOSER TO THE
ANODE. IF CONDITIONS ARE ARRANGED SO THAT BY THE TIME
ELECTRON A ARRIVES AT POINT 2 THE FIELD HAS REVERSED
POLARITY, THIS ELECTRON WILL ONCE AGAIN BE IN A POSITION TO
GIVE ENERGY TO THE RF FIELD (THOUGH BEING RETARDED BY IT).
THE MAGNETIC FORCE ON ELECTRON A DIMINISHES ONCE MORE,
AND ANOTHER INTERACTION OF THIS TYPE OCCURS (THIS TIME AT
POINT 3). THIS ASSUMES THAT AT ALL TIMES THE ELECTRIC FIELD HAS
REVERSED POLARITY EACH TIME THIS ELECTRON ARRIVES AT A
SUITABLE INTERACTION POSITION. IN THIS MANNER, “FAVORED”
ELECTRONS SPEND A CONSIDERABLE TIME IN THE INTERACTION
SPACE AND ARE CAPABLE OF ORBITING THE CATHODE SEVERAL
TIMES BEFORE EVENTUALLY ARRIVING AT THE ANODE.
HOWEVER, AN ELECTRON OF TYPE B UNDERGOES A TOTALLY
DIFFERENT EXPERIENCE. IT IS IMMEDIATELY ACCELERATED BY THE
RF FIELD, AND THEREFORE THE FORCE EXERTED ON IT BY THE DC
MAGNETIC FIELD INCREASES. THIS ELECTRON THUS RETURNS TO THE
CATHODE EVEN SOONER THAN IT WOULD HAVE IN THE ABSENCE OF
THE RF FIELD. IT CONSEQUENTLY SPENDS A MUCH SHORTER TIME IN
THE INTERACTION SPACE THAN THE OTHER ELECTRON. HENCE,
ALTHOUGH ITS INTERACTION WITH THE RF FIELD TAKES AS MUCH
 ENERGY FROM IT AS WAS SUPPLIED BY ELECTRON A, THERE ARE FAR
FEWER INTERACTIONS OF THE B TYPE BECAUSE SUCH ELECTRONS
ARE ALWAYS RETURNED TO THE CATHODE AFTER ONE, OR POSSIBLY
TWO, INTERACTIONS. ON THE OTHER HAND, TYPE A ELECTRONS GIVE
UP ENERGY REPEATEDLY. IT THEREFORE APPEARS THAT MORE
ENERGY IS GIVEN TO THE RF OSCILLATIONS THAN IS TAKEN FROM
THEM, SO THAT OSCILLATIONS IN THE MAGNETRON ARE SUSTAINED.
THE ONLY REAL EFFECT OF THE “UNFAVORABLE” ELECTRONS IS
THAT THEY RETURN TO THE CATHODE AND TEND TO HEAT IT, THUS
GIVING IT A DISSIPATION OF THE ORDER OF 5 PERCENT OF THE ANODE
DISSIPATION. THIS IS KNOWN AS BACK HEATING AND IS NOT
ACTUALLY A TOTAL LOSS, BECAUSE IT IS OFTEN POSSIBLE IN A
MAGNETRON TO SHUT OFF THE FILAMENT SUPPLY AFTER A FEW
MINUTES AND JUST RELY ON THE BACK-HEATING TO MAINTAIN THE
CORRECT CATHODE TEMPERATURE.
14.) WITH THE AID OF FIGURE 11-13, EXPLAIN THE PHASE FOCUSING
EFFECT IN THE CAVITY MAGNETRON, AND SHOW HOW IT ALLOWS
ELECTRON BUNCHING TO TAKE PLACE AND PREVENTS FAVORED
ELECTRONS FROM SLIPPING AWAY FROM THEIR RELATIVE POSITION.
THE CAVITY MAGNETRON WORKING, LIKE THE KLYSTRONS, CAUSES
ELECTRONS TO BUNCH, BUT HERE THIS IS KNOWN AS THE PHASE
FOCUSING EFFECT. THIS EFFECT IS RATHER IMPORTANT. WITHOUT IT,
FAVORED ELECTRONS WOULD FALL BEHIND THE PHASE CHANGE OF
THE ELECTRIC FIELD ACROSS THE GAPS, SINCE SUCH ELECTRONS ARE
RETARDED AT EACH INTERACTION WITH THE RF FIELD. ELECTRON C
CONTRIBUTES SOME ENERGY TO THE RF FIELD. HOWEVER, IT DOES NOT
GIVE UP AS MUCH AS ELECTRON A, BECAUSE THE TANGENTIAL
COMPONENT OF THE FIELD IS NOT AS STRONG AT THIS POINT. AS A
RESULT, THIS ELECTRON APPEARS TO BE SOMEWHAT LESS USEFUL
THAN ELECTRON A, BUT THIS IS SO ONLY AT FIRST. ELECTRON C
ENCOUNTERS NOT ONLY A DIMINISHED TANGENTIAL RF FIELD BUT
ALSO A COMPONENT OF THE RADIAL RF FIELD, AS SHOWN. THIS HAS
THE EFFECT OF ACCELERATING THE ELECTRON RADIALLY OUTWARD.
AS SOON AS THIS HAPPENS, THE DC MAGNETIC FIELD EXERTS A
STRONGER FORCE ON ELECTRON C, TENDING TO BEND IT BACK TO THE
CATHODE BUT ALSO ACCELERATING IT SOMEWHAT IN A
COUNTERCLOCKWISE DIRECTION. THIS, IN TURN, GIVES THIS ELECTRON
A VERY GOOD CHANCE OF CATCHING UP WITH ELECTRON A. IN A
SIMILAR MANNER, ELECTRON D (SHOWN IN FIGURE 11-13) WILL BE
 RETARDED TANGENTIALLY BY THE DC MAGNETIC FIELD. IT WILL
THEREFORE BE CAUGHT UP BY THE FAVORED ELECTRON; THUS, A
BUNCH TAKES SHAPE. IN FACT, IT IS SEEN THAT BEING IN THE FAVORED
POSITION MEANS (TO THE ELECTRON) BEING IN A POSITION OF
EQUILIBRIUM. IF AN ELECTRON SLIPS BACK OR FORWARD, IT WILL
QUICKLY BE RETURNED TO THE CORRECT POSITION WITH RESPECT TO
THE RF FIELD, BY THE PHASE-FOCUSING EFFECT JUST DESCRIBED.
15.) WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF STRAPPING IN A MAGNETRON? WHAT ARE
THE DISADVANTAGES OF STRAPPING UNDER CERTAIN CONDITIONS?
SHOW THE CROSS-SECTION OF A MAGNETRON ANODE CAVITY SYSTEM
THAT DOES NOT REQUIRE STRAPPING.
STRAPPING IN MAGNETRON MEANS TO CORRECT THE ALTERNATE
MODE PLATES WITH CONDUCTING RINGS OF HEAVY GAUGE
TOUCHING THE ANODE. THIS IS DONE TO MAKE TWO Π ANODE POLES
TOGETHER. THE FREQUENCY OF THE Π MODE IS SEPARATED FROM
THE FREQUENCY OF THE OTHER MODES BY STRAPPING TO ENSURE
THAT THE ALTERNATE SEGMENTS HAVE IDENTICAL POLARITIES. FOR
THE Π MODE, ALL PARTS OF EACH STRAPPING RING ARE AT THE SAME
POTENTIAL; BUT THE TWO RINGS HAVE ALTERNATELY OPPOSING
POTENTIALS. FOR OTHER MODES, HOWEVER, A PHASE DIFFERENCE
EXISTS BETWEEN THE SUCCESSIVE SEGMENTS CONNECTED TO A
GIVEN STRAPPING RING WHICH CAUSES CURRENT TO FLOW IN THE
STRAPS.
16.)  WITH THE AID OF A CROSS-SECTIONAL SKETCH OF A COAXIAL MAGNETRON,
EXPLAIN THE OPERATION OF THIS DEVICE. WHAT ARE ITS ADVANTAGES OVER
THE STANDARD MAGNETRON? WHAT IS DONE TO ENSURE THAT THE COAXIAL
CAVITY IS THE ONE THAT DETERMINES THE FREQUENCY OF OPERATION?
- IN THE CROSS-SECTION OF A COAXIAL
MAGNETRON STRUCTURE, IT IS SEEN THAT
THERE IS AN
INTEGRAL
COAXIAL
CAVITY PRESENT
IN THIS TYPE OF
MAGNETRON.
THE TUBE IS
BUILT SO THAT
THE Q OF THIS
CAVITY IS MUCH HIGHER THAN THE Q’S OF
THE VARIOUS RESONATORS SO THAT IT IS THE
COAXIAL CAVITY THAT DETERMINES THE
OPERATING FREQUENCY. OSCILLATIONS IN
THIS CAVITY ARE IN THE COAXIAL TE0,1 MODE,
IN WHICH THE ELECTRIC FIELD IS CIRCULAR,
AS IS THE MAGNETIC FIELD IN FIGURE 10-13B
(TM0,1 MODE IN CIRCULAR WAVEGUIDES). IT IS
POSSIBLE TO ATTENUATE THE RESONATOR
MODES WITHOUT INTERFERING WITH THE
COAXIAL MODE, SO THAT MODE JUMPING IS
ALL BUT ELIMINATED. FREQUENCY PUSHING
AND PULLING ARE BOTH SIGNIFICANTLY
REDUCED, WHILE THE ENLARGED ANODE
AREA, AS COMPARED WITH A CONVENTIONAL
MAGNETRON, PERMITS BETTER DISSIPATION
OF HEAT AND CONSEQUENTLY SMALLER SIZE
FOR GIVEN OUTPUT POWER. THE MTBF OF
COAXIAL MAGNETRONS IS ALSO
CONSIDERABLY LONGER THAN THAT OF
CONVENTIONAL ONES. FREQUENCY-AGILE (OR
DITHER-TUNED) MAGNETRONS ARE ALSO
AVAILABLE. THEY MAY BE CONVENTIONAL
OR COAXIAL, THE EARLIER ONES HAVING A
PISTON THAT CAN BE MADE TO DESCEND INTO
THE CAVITY, INCREASING OR DECREASING ITS
VOLUME AND THEREFORE ITS OPERATING
FREQUENCY. THE PISTON IS OPERATED BY A
PROCESSOR-CONTROLLED SERVOMOTOR,
 PERMITTING VERY LARGE FREQUENCY
CHANGES TO BE MADE QUICKLY. THIS IS OF
ADVANTAGE IN RADAR, WHERE IT MAY BE
REQUIRED TO SEND A SERIES OF PULSES EACH
OF WHICH IS AT A DIFFERENT RADIO
FREQUENCY. THE BENEFITS OF DOING THIS
ARE IMPROVED RESOLUTION AND MORE
DIFFICULTY (FOR THE ENEMY) IN TRYING TO
JAM THE RADAR. DITHER TUNING BY
ELECTRONIC METHODS HAS RECENTLY BEEN
PRODUCED, YIELDING VERY RAPID
FREQUENCY CHANGES, DURING THE
TRANSMISSION OF ONE PULSE, IF REQUIRED,
WITH A RANGE TYPICALLY 1 PERCENT OF THE
CENTER FREQUENCY. THE METHODS USED
HAVE INCLUDED EXTRA CATHODES,
ELECTRON INJECTION, AND THE PLACING OF
PIN DIODES INSIDE THE CAVITY. VOLTAGE
TUNABLE MAGNETRONS (VTMs) ARE ALSO
AVAILABLE FOR CW OPERATION, THOUGH
THEY ARE NOT VERY EFFICIENT. FOR THIS
AND OTHER REASONS, THEY ARE NOT SUITED
TO PULSED RADAR WORK. THESE USE LOW-Q
CAVITIES, COLD CATHODES (AND HENCE
BACK-HEATING), AND AN EXTRA INJECTION
ELECTRODE TO HELP BUNCHING. THE RESULT
IS A MAGNETRON WHOSE OPERATING
FREQUENCY MAY BE VARIED OVER AN
OCTAVE RANGE BY ADJUSTING THE ANODE
VOLTAGE. VERY FAST SWEEP RATES, AND
INDEED FREQUENCY MODULATION, ARE
POSSIBLE.
17.) DESCRIBE BRIEFLY WHAT IS MEANT BY COAXIAL, FREQUENCY-
AGILE, AND VOLTAGE-TUNABLE MAGNETRONS.
FREQUENCY-AGILE – THE CAPABILITY TO TUNE THE OUTPUT
FREQUENCY OF THE RADAR WITH SUFFICIENTLY HIGH SPEED
TO PRODUCE A PULSE-TO-PULSE FREQUENCY CHANGE
GREATER THAN THE COUNT REQUIRED EFFECTIVELY TO
OBTAIN DECORRELATION OF ADJACENT RADAR ECHOES.
COAXIAL MAGNETRON – A COAXIAL MAGNETRON HAVING A
CYLINDRICAL CAVITY OPERATING IN A CIRCULAR MODE IS
 TUNED BY MEANS CIRCUMFERENTIALLY DISPOSED OF IN
THE REGION OF MAXIMUM ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY.
VOLTAGE-TUNABLE MAGNETRONS- A GENERATING DEVICE
OF THE MAGNETRON TYPE WHOSE OPERATING FREQUENCY
VARIES OVER A BROAD RANGE IN PROPORTION TO THE
ANODE VOLTAGE. IT IS SOMETIMES CALLED A MITRON.
18.) DISCUSS THE PERFORMANCE OF MAGNETRONS AND THE
APPLICATIONS TO WHICH THIS PERFORMANCE SUITS THEM.
- THE TRADITIONAL APPLICATIONS OF THE TYPES OF
MAGNETRON HAVE BEEN FOR PULSE WORK IN RADAR AND
LINEAR PARTICLE ACCELERATORS. THE DUTY CYCLE
(FRACTION OF TOTAL TIME DURING WHICH THE MAGNETRON
IS ACTUALLY ON) IS TYPICALLY 0.1 PERCENT. THE POWERS
REQUIRED RANGE FROM 10 KW TO 5 MW, DEPENDING ON THE
APPLICATION OF MAGNETRON AND THE OPERATING
FREQUENCY. THE MAXIMUM AVAILABLE POWERS RANGE
FROM 10 MW IN THE UHF
BAND, THROUGH 2 MW IN THE X BAND, TO 10 KW AT 100 GHZ.
CURRENT EFFICIENCIES ARE OF THE ORDER OF 50 PERCENT; A
SIGNIFICANT SIZE REDUCTION IS BEING ACHIEVED,
ESPECIALLY FOR LARGER TUBES, WITH THE AID OF TWO
ADVANCEMENTS. ONE IS THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN
PERMANENT MAGNET MATERIALS, WHICH HAS RESULTED IN
REDUCED ELECTROMAGNET BULK. THE OTHER ADVANCE IS
IN CATHODE MATERIALS. BY THE USE OF SUCH SUBSTANCES
AS THORIATED TUNGSTEN, MUCH HIGHER CATHODE
TEMPERATURES (1800∘C COMPARED WITH 1000∘C) ARE BEING
ACHIEVED. THIS HELPS GREATLY IN OVERCOMING THE
LIMITATION SET BY CATHODE HEATING FROM BACK
BOMBARDMENT. VTMS ARE AVAILABLE FOR THE FREQUENCY
RANGE FROM 200 MHZ TO X BAND, WITH CW POWERS UP TO
1000 W (10 W IS TYPICAL). EFFICIENCIES ARE HIGHER, UP TO 75
PERCENT. SUCH TUBES ARE USED IN SWEEP OSCILLATORS,
TELEMETRY, AND MISSILE APPLICATIONS OF MAGNETRON.
 FIXED-FREQUENCY CW MAGNETRONS ARE ALSO AVAILABLE;
THEY ARE USED EXTENSIVELY FOR INDUSTRIAL HEATING
AND MICROWAVE OVENS. THE OPERATING FREQUENCIES ARE
AROUND 900 MHZ AND 2.5 GHZ, ALTHOUGH TYPICAL POWERS
RANGE FROM 300 W TO 10 KW. EFFICIENCIES ARE TYPICALLY
IN EXCESS OF 70 PERCENT.

19.) WITH THE AID OF A SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM, DESCRIBE THE

TRAVELING-WAVE TUBE. WHAT IS A SLOW-WAVE STRUCTURE? WHY
DOES THE TWT NEED SUCH A STRUCTURE?

- TRAVELING WAVE TUBE WORKING IS A LINEAR-BEAM TUBE USED AS

A MICROWAVE AMPLIFIER. UNLIKE THE KLYSTRON, HOWEVER, IT IS A
DEVICE IN WHICH THE INTERACTION BETWEEN THE BEAM AND THE
RF FIELD IS CONTINUOUS. EACH OF THEM WAS DISSATISFIED WITH
THE VERY BRIEF INTERACTION IN THE MULTICAVITY KLYSTRON, AND
EACH INVENTED A SLOW-WAVE STRUCTURE IN WHICH EXTENDED
INTERACTION TOOK PLACE. BECAUSE OF ITS CONSTRUCTION AND
OPERATING PRINCIPLES, AS WILL BE SEEN, THE TWT IS CAPABLE OF
ENORMOUS BANDWIDTHS. ITS MAIN APPLICATION IS AS A MEDIUM-
OR HIGH-POWER AMPLIFIER, EITHER CW OR PULSED. IN ORDER TO
PROLONG THE INTERACTION BETWEEN AN ELECTRON BEAM AND AN
RF FIELD, IT IS NECESSARY TO ENSURE THAT BOTH ARE MOVING IN
THE SAME DIRECTION WITH APPROXIMATELY THE SAME VELOCITY.
THIS RELATION IS QUITE DIFFERENT FROM THE MULTICAVITY
KLYSTRON, IN WHICH THE ELECTRON BEAM TRAVELS BUT THE RF
FIELD IS STATIONARY. THE PROBLEM THAT MUST BE SOLVED IS THAT
AN RF FIELD TRAVELS WITH THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT, WHILE THE
ELECTRON BEAM’S VELOCITY IS UNLIKELY TO EXCEED 10 PERCENT
OF THAT, EVEN WITH A VERY HIGH ANODE VOLTAGE. THE SOLUTION
 IS TO RETARD THE RF FIELD WITH A SLOW-WAVE STRUCTURE.
SEVERAL SUCH STRUCTURES ARE IN USE, THE HELIX AND A
WAVEGUIDE COUPLED-CAVITY ARRANGEMENT BEING THE MOST
COMMON.

20.) HOW DOES THE FUNCTION OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD IN A

TWT DIFFER FROM ITS FUNCTION IN A MAGNETRON? WHAT IS
THE FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE BEAM-RF
FIELD INTERACTIONS IN THE TWO DEVICES?
- THE TRAVELING WAVE TUBE WORKING MAY BE CONSIDERED AS
THE LIMITING CASE OF THE MULTICAVITY KLYSTRON, ONE THAT
HAS A VERY LARGE NUMBER OF CLOSELY SPACED GAPS, WITH A
PHASE CHANGE THAT PROGRESSES AT APPROXIMATELY THE
VELOCITY OF THE ELECTRON BEAM. THIS ALSO MEANS THAT
THERE ARE A LOT OF SIMILARITIES HERE TO THE MAGNETRON, IN
WHICH MUCH THE SAME PROCESS TAKES PLACE, BUT AROUND A
CLOSED CIRCULAR PATH RATHER THAN IN A STRAIGHT LINE.
ELECTRONS LEAVING THE CATHODE AT RANDOM QUICKLY
ENCOUNTER THE WEAK AXIAL RF FIELD AT THE INPUT END OF THE
HELIX, WHICH–IS DUE TO THE INPUT SIGNAL. AS WITH THE PASSAGE
OF ELECTRONS ACROSS A GAP, VELOCITY MODULATION TAKES
PLACE, AND WITH IT, BETWEEN ADJACENT TUMS, SOME BUNCHING.
ONCE AGAIN IT TAKES THEORETICALLY NO POWER TO PROVIDE
VELOCITY MODULATION SINCE THERE ARE EQUAL NUMBERS OF
ACCELERATED AND RETARDED ELECTRONS. BY THE TIME THIS
INITIAL BUNCH ARRIVES AT THE NEXT TURN OF THE HELIX, THE
SIGNAL THERE IS OF SUCH PHASE AS TO RETARD THE BUNCH
SLIGHTLY AND ALSO TO HELP THE BUNCHING PROCESS A LITTLE
MORE. THUS, THE NEXT BUNCH TO ARRIVE AT THIS POINT WILL
ENCOUNTER A SOMEWHAT HIGHER RF ELECTRIC FIELD THAN
WOULD HAVE EXISTED IF THE FIRST BUNCH HAD NOT MADE ITS
MARK. THE INTERACTION BETWEEN THE BEAM AND THE RF FIELD IS
VERY SIMILAR TO THAT OF THE MAGNETRON. IN BOTH DEVICES,
ELECTRONS ARE MADE TO GIVE SOME OF THEIR ENERGY TO THE RF
FIELD, BY BEING SLOWED DOWN BY THE FIELD, AND IN BOTH
DEVICES, A PHASE-FOCUSING MECHANISM OPERATES. IT WILL BE
RECALLED THAT THIS TENDS TO ENSURE THAT ELECTRONS BUNCH
AND THAT THE BUNCHES TEND TO KEEP ARRIVING IN THE MOST
FAVORED POSITION FOR GIVING UP ENERGY. THERE IS AT LEAST
 ONE SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE DEVICES, AND IT
DEALS WITH THE METHODS OF KEEPING THE VELOCITY OF THE
BEAM MUCH THE SAME AS THAT OF THE RF FIELD, EVEN THOUGH
ELECTRONS IN THE BEAM ARE CONTINUALLY RETARDED. IN THE
MAGNETRON, THIS IS DONE BY THE DC MAGNETIC FIELD, BUT SINCE
THERE IS NO SUCH FIELD HERE (NO COMPONENT OF IT AT RIGHT
ANGLES TO THE DIRECTION OF MOTION OF THE ELECTRONS, AT
ANY RATE), THE AXIAL DC ELECTRIC FIELD MUST PROVIDE THE
ENERGY. A METHOD OF DOING THIS IS TO GIVE THE ELECTRON
BEAM AN INITIAL VELOCITY THAT IS SLIGHTLY GREATER THAN
THAT OF THE AXIAL RF FIELD. THE EXTRA INITIAL VELOCITY OF
ELECTRONS IN THE BEAM BALANCES THE RETARDATION DUE TO
ENERGY BEING GIVEN TO THE RF FIELD.

21.) DISCUSS BRIEFLY THE THREE METHODS OF BEAM FOCUSING

IN TWTs.
SOLENOID FOCUSING
CONCEPTUALLY, A SOLENOID IS SIMPLY JUST A PIECE OF WIRE
REPEATEDLY COILED AROUND, THAT FORMS MANY LOOPS WHICH
ARE PACKED VERY CLOSELY WITH RESPECT TO ONE ANOTHER. IF WE
ALLOW ELECTRIC CURRENT TO FLOW THROUGH THE WIRES IT WILL
PRODUCE A MAGNETIC FIELD. SOLENOID IS MAINLY USED TO FOCUS
CHARGED PARTICLE BEAMS IN A LOW ENERGY SECTION OF
ACCELERATORS. USING A PERMANENT MAGNET FOR FOCUSING IS
INCONVENIENT BECAUSE OF TWT’S LENGTH. ALSO THE
ELECTROMAGNET IS BULKY AND WASTEFUL OF POWER, A SOLENOID
FOCUSING INSTEAD WOULD DO WELL IN THIS AREA.
INTEGRAL SOLENOID FOCUSING
INTEGRAL SOLENOID FOCUSING(ISG) IS ALMOST THE SAME AS
SOLENOID FOCUSING HOWEVER, ISGS ARE USUALLY ATTACHED TO
TWTS WITH THREE-SECTION COUPLED-CAVITY AND SLOW-WAVE
STRUCTURE.
PERIODIC PERMANENT MAGNET FOCUSING (PPM)
PPM FOCUSING REDUCES THE TOTAL BULKINESS OF A TWT
BECAUSE ITS SYSTEM USES A SMALL SERIES OF MAGNETS AND
ARE LOCATED RIGHT ALONG THE TUBE, WITH SPACES BETWEEN
ADJOINING MAGNETS. THE BEAM DEFOCUSES SLIGHTLY PAST
EACH POLE PIECE BUT IS REFOCUSED BY THE NEXT MAGNET. NOTE
THAT THE INDIVIDUAL MAGNETS ARE INTERCONNECTED. THE
SYSTEM ILLUSTRATED IS THE SO-CALLED RADIAL MAGNET (AS
OPPOSED TO AXIAL MAGNET) PPM.
22.) What are the power capabilities and practical applications of the various types of
traveling-wave tubes? What are the major advantages of CW and pulsed TWTs?
Currently, there are 4 types of TWTs today: Broadband, CW, Pulsed and Dual-mode
TWT.
The first type of TWTs are Broadband TWTs. This type of TWTs were low-noise, low-
level amplifiers mainly used for receivers. Has a gain range from 25 to 45 dB, 4 to 17 dB
noise figures and has a 1 to 100mW typical power output. However, they are rarely used
today because there are other types of TWTs that are much better.
The second type is Continuous wave or CW power traveling-wave tubes. Most of CW
TWTs produce watts or even kilowatts of CW. The major application for this type of
TWT is in satellite communications, either in satellite earth stations or abroad the satellites
themselves. This type is also increasingly used in CW radar and electronic counter
measures. Looking upon the applications for this type of TWT has a power range-up to
about 100 W and over about 500 W and has output powers exceeding 10kW with gains
that may be over 50kB.
The third type is Pulsed TWTs. This type of TWT is considerably bigger and more
powerful than the preceding two types. Has a frequency range of approximately 2 to 100
GHz and are available with peak outputs from 1 to about 250 KW typically. However,
powers in megawatt range are also possible. Pulsed TWTs are used for higher peak RF
power required by radar, radar jamming and other pulsed RF applications. Some of them
are constructed with metal-ceramic that creates a rugged, lightweight device suitable for
any military airborne or ground-based platform.
The fourth type is still under development but the book says that it would be a dual-mode
TWTs (can be CW or Pulsed amplifiers). Has frequency ranges up to 2 to 18 GHz
spectrum. Power output ranges up to 3 kW for pulsed and 600 W for CW. These are
types also used for military applications. They are comparable in size, power, weight and
main requirements to the medium-power communications TWTs.
Compared to the first type which is the broadband TWTs, CW and Pulsed TWTs are
better because transistor amplifiers have much better noise figures, much lower bulk and
comparable bandwidths. The first types are only for receivers. Overall, the advantages of
CW and Pulsed are far from other types simply because they have larger frequency
ranges, power, output power, and gains which leads them to better and more advanced
applications.
23.) With the aid of a schematic sketch, briefly
describe the operation of the crossed-field
amplifier.
A cross section of a typical crossfield amplifier is
shown in Figure. Its similarity to coaxial
magnetrons stands out in its appearance. It would
 have been even more impressive if the slow wave
structure of the wing with waveguide connections
was shown, as it is actually used. Here, a spiral is
shown for the sake of brevity. Practical CFA and
magnetron are very difficult to distinguish by
appearance alone. Unlike the magnetron, the CFA
has an RF input connector, except for one feature.
Like the magnetron, the bundled electron clouds
are created by the interaction of different fields.
The input signal is applied and receives energy
from the electron cloud moving in the same
direction as the RF field. With TWT, the signal
strength increases along the slow wave structure
and results are obtained. In Figure, you can see that
there are regions without slow wave structures.
This creates space for the electrons to drift freely
and separates the input from the output to prevent
feedback and vibration. Attenuators may be used
as well as TWT placement. In the tube shown, the
direction of the HF field and the electron bunch are
the same. This is a forward wave cross field
amplifier. There is also a reverse wave CFA in
which the two directions are opposite. Some CFAs
have a grid near the cathode in the drift space area
and an accelerating anode nearby. They are known
as Injection Jet CFA.
24.) Compare the multicavity klystron, traveling-wave tube, and crossed-field amplifier from
the point of view of basic construction, performance, and applications.
Cost, Complexity, Maintenance, and Power Consumption
Magnetron
Advantages:
low system price (approximately 30-35% cheaper than Klystron, and 10% than TWT-
pulse compressed system),
Magnetron market is more competitive due to a higher number of manufacturers
(especially low-cost),
Low price of the tube itself, available from several suppliers (3 times cheaper than
Klystron),
Low technical complexity,
Small size, small dimensions, and weight,
 Lower operating voltages, generally no oil-isolated housings are needed, which
simplifies maintenance significantly,
Excellent efficiency in terms of input/output power ratio,
Less electrical power consumption (Magnetrons operate on single-phase power drawing
approximately 12-14 amperes during normal operation),
Less heat dissipation (lower costs for air conditioning),
Long expected lifetime of the tube,
Lower maintenance costs (lower costs for spare parts and lower mean time to repair),
Better for higher powers like 1000kW (cooling easier than Klystron)
Disadvantages:
No significant disadvantages compared with klystron and TWT
Klystron
Advantages:
Long expected lifetime of the tube (comparable to magnetrons),
Disadvantages:
Large size, dimensions, and weight (tools like hand crane are required for installation
and maintenance),
Higher operating voltages, generally oil-isolated housings are needed (higher mean time
to repair and Klystrons require 3 phase power at 30-40 amps per phase during normal
operation),
Higher electrical power consumption (about +10%, therefore higher operational costs
also),
Higher heat dissipation (higher costs for air conditioning), (problems arising from power
supplies and air conditioning systems)
High price of the tube itself (about 3 times), available from only one supplier,
High technical complexity, more parts, therewith also the theoretical system availability
reduces, (with more components, more units can fail, and more spare parts of different
type are needed)
Higher maintenance costs, (higher costs for spare parts and higher mean time to repair),
Better for higher powers like 1000kW (cooling easier than Klystron)
Needs higher cooling (like high technology water cooling systems)
Higher training costs
TWT
Advantages:
Low peak power(~7-8kW) with pulse compression technique
Higher duty cycle;
Long pulse width possible (~ 50 us);
Smaller in dimensions and weight;
Low power consumption
Low Initial Price
 Some methods have been developed for problems like “Range Sidelobe” and “Blind
Range”, but more research may be expected for operational and common usage of PC
TWT Radars from leading manufacturers. There is a
The probability that full solid-state transmitters can be used instead of TWTs in the
future according to research.
TWT may operate at a lower cathode (beam) voltage, which simplifies the construction
of the modulator.
Disadvantages:
Higher initial and operational costs than magnetron systems
Supply is limited (only one manufacturer)
Still not commonly used in operational networks.
Operating costs still not clear (TWT price and lifetime)
Higher training costs
25.) Briefly compare the applications of the multicavity klystron, TWT, magnetron and
CFA. What are the most significant advantages and disadvantages of each tube?
It is generally desired that all systems have more or less the same configuration. Inhomogeneity is
more critical for maintenance than complexity. A network all of the same radar type is the easiest to
maintain. The same type & technology from different suppliers is often the first degradation of
maintainability. Different types from different suppliers are the worst case for a maintenance team.
Depending on the number of systems, this inhomogeneity endangers the reliability of a whole
network. Magnetrons in Doppler weather radars are adequate and cost-effective for general
operational purposes since they provide the necessary transmitter stability at reasonable costs.
National Met Services are often more interested in long-range measurements and country-wide
coverage. If clutter has a more negligible impact, magnetron systems are suitable for this application.
Dual polarization magnetrons are a good solution also for the basic operational systems. Especially
for new, inexperienced customers, a magnetron radar is the first choice. It has lower complexity, and
lower price and covers typically more than 90% of all standard meteorological tasks to the general
satisfaction of the customer. So, it is a good choice to start with. The Magnetron market is more
competitive due to a higher number of manufacturers and its low cost. There are regional trends to be
considered: CIS countries, South America, and emerging countries in Asia, these are typical
Magnetron users. According to information gathered from manufacturers Magnetron and Klystron,
radars shared the market almost equally over the last five years. But in the last five years magnetron
radars have increased their share fairly. In summary, the international market is more or less stable
and shows a slight preference for Magnetrons.
In general, klystron radars are safer with regard to investment protection. The ability to tune their
pulse shape and frequency by external sources is technically quite attractive. It is an additional level of
“design freedom”, which magnetrons do not have. Finally, there is a tendency to use radar data also
as input for the numeric weather modeling. This application of radar data becomes more important in
the future as radars and models get closer to each other due to their constantly increasing data -
resolution, -volume, -quality as well as processing power, and update rate. This is supposed to
become another advantage for Klystron radars. It can be expected for TWT transmitter technology
with PC to spread out in the near future if positive feedbacks come from NHMSs and other
associations which are leading to the use of this technology.