MODULE 1

TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
Having a good understanding of technical vocabulary is a requirement of many academic
disciplines. Often in the field of science, Engineering and Medicine, among others, there will be
a need to manipulate technical language with ease and fluency. Technical vocabulary is words or
phrases that are used primarily in a specific line of work or profession.Technical Vocabulary is
the specialized vocabulary of any field which evolves due to the need for experts in a field to
communicate with clarity, precision, relevance and brevity. Technical vocabulary also varies
from branches to different branches in the field of Engineering. For instance the technical terms
like, Arch, Excavation, Camber, Bricolage etc. are used in the field of Civil Engineering while
terms like Appliance, Breaker, Overcurrent, Service Panel etc. are used by Electrical Engineers.

VOCABULARY USED IN FORMAL

LETTERS/EMAILS/REPORTS
Writing Formal Letters
Starting
 We are writing you with reference to (the above order).
 With reference to your advertisement/letter of 10 March……
 We are pleased to have your inquiry of 25 of July….
 We acknowledge the receipt of your letter dated 12 April …..
 With reference to your letter inquiring about…
 With reference to our telephone conversation yesterday (about…),…
 We wish to remind you that…..
 I am writing this letter to request the cancellation of……..
 I am writing this letter to complain in the strongest terms about the poor service that I have
received from your company.
Action
 Please advise us as soon as the…….
 Payment can be made on any basis acceptable to you.
 Could you please supply us with information about the company’s standing.
 We have been informed (by one of our clients) that……….
 We regret to inform you, (however,) that….
 Please accept our apologies for the inconvenience caused.
 We must insist on…
 Please note that the closing date/deadline for the ……… is 30 September, so will you please
complete the attached forms and return them as soon as possible.
 Any information you supply will be treated confidentially.
 May we remind you that your statement is still outstanding.
 Will you kindly balance your account promptly.
 We are puzzled to have had no remittance from you.
 You already have an overdraft of….
 Please give the matter your immediate attention.
 We will be left with no alternative but to (take legal action)… unless payment is received
within the next seven days.
 Our circumstances do not allow us to wait/to go on waiting any longer.
 Please look into the matter.
 We were dissatisfied to find that….
 We shall have to terminate the contract.
 On examination we have found…
 We greatly appreciated your patience in this matter.
Enclosures and Attachment
 We would be grateful if you could forward/send any further information (you may have)
about…. (products and terms of payment/this case)
 We will be pleased to supply any further information you require.
 We are sending the herewith the……
 We look forward to doing business to our mutual advantage.
 We would like to make a decision on this as soon as possible.
 In the meantime, we suggest that you call the ………
 We hope to meet your requirements.
 Please send us by return the terms and conditions on …………..
 For purposes of quick contact a reply by telephone would be appreciated.
 We look forward to the opportunity of being at your service.
 Could you please let us know in your earliest convenience whether the above terms and
conditions are acceptable for you.
 We hope that the matter will be settled to our mutual satisfaction.
 We very much hope that you will be able to…..
 I would be grateful if you could spare me a few minutes.
 As our demand/request/issue is very urgent, a quick answer would be appreciated.
 Would you (also forward details of charges)………. at your earliest convenience?
 I should/would be pleased if you could send me …….
 We trust/hope you will find this condition acceptable.
 If there is any other information you need, please do not hesitate to contact us at the above
e-mail address.
 Thanking you in advance.
 I would be most grateful if you would reply as soon as possible so that this matter can be
resolved to everyone’s satisfaction.
 Please find enclosed….
 I am enclosing…….
 Please find attached….

SEQUENCE WORDS
Time order words signal the order in which events happen. They allow readers to
understand a sequence of events. For example, "First, we measured the perfume into the
beaker. Following that, we poured it into its designated bottle. Finally, we labeled the
bottle for display."Time order words establish clarity in our writing and take readers on a
clear and cohesive journey. These words work in academic writing, fiction writing,
 professional writing, and technical writing. Keeping a time order words list nearby will help
you move an essay or story forward.

List of Time Order Words

Time order words can be placed anywhere in a sentence. Their most popular placement is at the
start of a paragraph. When they come at the start of a sentence of paragraph, they're typically
followed by a comma. For example, "In conclusion, the final product was spectacular," or,
"Consequently, it went on to become an international bestseller."

Before First Next Sometimes

Earlier To begin After At times
Previously Starting with Consequently From time to time
Formerly Initially Following Occasionally
Previous to... Originally In turn Periodically
In the past At the onset Second Rarely
Prior to... At the beginning Soon after Seldomly
Preceding that To begin with Then Some of the time
Yesterday At the outset Henceforth Every so often
Last time Before all else Third On occasion
Until that time In the first place Subsequently Every now and then
In advance To start with Later Intermittently

Sequence words have a related function to transitional words. Time and transition words prevent
our writing from sounding stilted or choppy. They sew our lines and paragraphs together, making
our writing flow smoothly. For more on that, here are some examples of transitional words and
phrases.
Sample Sequence Sentences
 Earlier, I thought I saw you sitting in the courtyard.
 Consequently, I ran down the stairs to find you.
 In the end, it wasn't meant to be.
 She was writing a book but, preceding that, she was practicing law.
 She was very happy, at the beginning, until she wasn't.
 I find that, every so often, we could be happy if we practiced gratitude.
 Ultimately, life is what we make of it.
 Now we are free, at last.
 At the onset, my horse was trotting along happily.
 Periodically, he'd stop to pick a berry off a tree.
 At long last, we arrived at the castle.
 Every now and then, I find myself dreaming about those soft, golden fields.

COMPOUND WORDS
A compound word is formed when two words are combined to make a new word. It is one of
the ways in which the English language is flexible and always changing, as compound words
allow people to create new words as the need arises.
There are three types of compound words: closed form, open form, and hyphenated.
Closed compound words are formed when two fully independent, unique words are combined
to create a new word. These are the most common types of compound word. For example:
 bullfrog
 snowball
 mailbox
 grandmother
 railroad
 sometimes
 inside
 upstream
 basketball
 anybody
Open compound words are formed when two words remain separate on the page but are used
together to create a new idea with a specific meaning. For example:
 attorney general
 peanut butter
 Boy Scouts
 no one
 ice cream
 real estate
 high school
 living room
 sweet tooth
 hot dog
Hyphenated compound words are formed with two separate words are joined together by a
hyphen. For example:
 two-fold
 check-in
 merry-go-round
 father-in-law
 seventy-two
Note that hyphenated compound words are most commonly used when the words being joined
together are combined to form an adjective before a noun. For example:
 forty-acre farm
 full-time worker
 on-campus housing
 state-of-the-art features
 family-run business
However, these hyphenated compound words become open compounds when they are placed
after the word they describe. For example:
 The farm has forty acres.
 The worker is full time.
 The housing is all on campus for freshman
 Its features are truly state of the art.
 The business is still family run.

FINDING SUITABLE SYNONYMS

A synonym is a word or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word or phrase
in the same language. Words that are synonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of
being a synonym is called synonymy.
 Baffle: confuse, deceive
 Beautiful: attractive, pretty, lovely, stunning
 Bossy: controlling, tyrannical
 Fair: just, objective, impartial, unbiased
 Funny: humorous, comical, hilarious, hysterical
 Happy: content, joyful, mirthful, upbeat
 Hardworking: diligent, determined, industrious, enterprising
 Honest: honorable, fair, sincere, trustworthy
 Hypocrisy: duplicity, falseness
 Important: required, vital, essential, primary, significant, critical
 Intelligent: smart, bright, brilliant, sharp
 introverted: shy, bashful, quiet, withdrawn
 Kind: thoughtful, considerate, amiable, gracious
 Lazy: idle, lackadaisical, lethargic, indolent
 Lucky: auspicious, fortunate
 Mean: unfriendly, unpleasant, bad-tempered, difficult
 Old: antiquated, ancient, obsolete, extinct
 Outgoing: friendly, sociable, warm, extroverted
 Pacify: appease, placate
 Positive: optimistic, cheerful, starry-eyed, sanguine
 Recalcitrant: obstinate, stubborn
 Rich: affluent, wealthy, well-off, well-to-do
 Strong: stable, secure, solid, tough
 True: genuine, factual, accurate, correct, real
 Turbulent: disordered, violent
 Unhappy: sad, depressed, melancholy, miserable
 Valid: authorized, legitimate
 Weak: frail, infirm, puny, fragile

PARAPHRASING

Paraphrasing involves taking a passage - either spoken or written - and rewording it. Writers
often paraphrase sentences and paragraphs to deliver information in a more concise way. When
paraphrasing, it is important to keep the original meaning so that the facts remain intact.
Basically, you are writing something in your own words that still expresses the original
idea.Paraphrasing is common when writing an essay or research paper. It allows you to explain
important ideas in your own writing style and focus on the information that is most useful in
making your point. Even when you put someone else's ideas into your own words, you must cite
the source of your information. This gives credit to the original author for their ideas.
Paraphrasing is slightly different than summarizing. When you summarize a passage, you focus
on restating only the main idea in your own words. Paraphrasing, on the other hand, aims to
provide most of the information in a slightly condensed form. Summaries are much shorter than
the original passage, while paraphrasing can be shorter, longer or the same length.

Paraphrasing Sentences
Sometimes you only need to paraphrase the information from one sentence. Here are some
examples of paraphrasing individual sentences:
 Original: Her life spanned years of incredible change for women as they gained more rights
than ever before.
Paraphrase: She lived through the exciting era of women's liberation.
 Original: Giraffes like Acacia leaves and hay, and they can consume 75 pounds of food a
day.
Paraphrase: A giraffe can eat up to 75 pounds of Acacia leaves and hay daily.
 Original: Any trip to Italy should include a visit to Tuscany to sample the region's exquisite
wines.
Paraphrase: Be sure to make time for a Tuscan wine-tasting experience when visiting Italy.
 Original: Symptoms of influenza include fever and nasal congestion.
Paraphrase: A stuffy nose and elevated temperature are signs you may have the flu.
 Original: The price of a resort vacation typically includes meals, tips and equipment rentals,
which makes your trip more cost-effective.
Paraphrase: All-inclusive resort vacations can make for an economical trip.
 Original: He has tons of stuff to throw away.
Paraphrase: He needs to get rid of a lot of junk.

VERBAL ANALLOGIES
 In general, an analogy is a similarity that is drawn between two different, but sufficiently
similar events, situations or circumstances. A verbal analogy draws a similarity between one
pair of words and pair of words.

Pairs of words in verbal analogies can be related in many ways,

including the following types:
Type of Analogy Examples
things that go
bat/ball, bow/arrow, salt/pepper, bread/butter, fork/knife
together
big/small, stop/go, hot/cold, tall/short, wide/narrow, early/late,
opposites
graceful/clumsy, laugh/cry, dark/light, sharp/dull
big/large, stop/halt, cold/icy, thin/slim, small/tiny, sad/unhappy,
synonyms
show/reveal, hide/conceal, hint/clue
green/color, ants/insect, rabbit/mammal, table/furniture, pants/clothing,
object and
3/odd number, apple/fruit, lunch/meal, uncle/relative, sandal/shoe,
classification
spring/season
object and group whale/pod, kitten/litter, bird/flock, cow/herd, lion/pride, wolf/pack
object and related
plant/sprout, butterfly/caterpillar, cat/kitten, mother/baby, dog/puppy
object
object and a grass/green, sponge/porous, marshmallow/soft, elephant/big, desert/dry,
characteristic gold/shiny, party/happy, skunk/smelly, ball/round
car/garage, stove/kitchen, tub/bathroom, fire/fireplace, lion/zoo,
object and location
eraser/pencil
object and part of hand/fingers, book/pages, foot/toes, fireplace/bricks, year/month,
the whole turtle/shell
object and function pen/write, knife/cut, shovel/dig, book/read
performer and
teacher/teach, movie star/act, artist/paint, fish/swim, bird/fly
action
verb tenses eat/ate, win/won, buy/bought
cause and effect plant/grow, fire/burn, trip/fall, spin/dizzy
problem and
hungry/eat, thirsy/drink, itch/scratch, broken/repair, tired/sleep
solution
degrees of a
big/enormous, cold/freezing, hot/burning, wave/tsunami, small/miniscule
characteristic
SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT
Subject Verb Agreement simply means the subject and verb must agree in number. This means
both need to be singular or both need to be plural.
Here are some examples of subject verb agreement (the subject is bolded and the verb
underlined):
 My dog always growls at the postal carrier.
 Basketballs roll across the floor.
 I don't understand the assignment.
 These clothes are too small for me.
 Peter doesn't like vegetables.
Compound Subjects
Compound subjects (two subjects in the same sentence) usually take a plural verb, unless the
combination is treated as singular in popular usage or the two subjects refer to the same thing or
person. Here are some examples of subject verb agreement with compound subjects:
 Sugar and flour are needed for the recipe.
 Neither my dad nor my brothers know how to ski.
 Pepperoni and cheese are great on a pizza.
When using "or" or "nor" in a compound subject containing a singular and plural subject, the
verb agrees with the closest subject. Examples of compound subjects using or, neither-nor, or
either-or include:
 My mom or dad is coming to the play. (singular)
 Neither gray nor white is my favorite color. (singular)
 Either Grandpa or my sisters are going to the park. (closest subject is plural)
 Either my sisters or Grandpa is going to the park. (closest subject is singular)
 Neither she nor I am going to college. (closest subject is singular)
Singular Indefinite Pronouns
Here are some examples of subject verb agreement with singular indefinite pronouns:
 Each gets a trophy for playing.
 Somebody will pay for this.
 Anybody is more fun than you.
 Something is very wrong here.
 Everybody enjoys a good book.
 Nothing has been determined as of yet.
Plural Indefinite Pronouns
Here are some examples of subject verb agreement with plural indefinite pronouns:
 Both are qualified for the job.
 Many went to the beach and got sunburned.
 Few know what it really takes to get ahead.
 Several are already on location.
 Some sugar is required for taste. (sugar is uncountable so singular verb used)
 Most of the cookies were eaten. (cookies are countable so plural verb used)
Midsentence Phrase or Clause
Here are some examples of subject verb agreement with a phrase or clause between the subject
and verb:
 A theory of physics ascertains that a body in motion stays in motion.
 A virus in all the company's computers is a real threat to security.
 The causes of this prevalent disease are bad diet and lack of exercise.
 The couch and chair I got at the store look really nice in here.
 The members of the choir are very happy with the performance.
Collective Nouns
Collective nouns can be singular or plural depending on meaning. Here are some examples of
subject verb agreement with collective nouns:
 The committee meets here every Thursday. (singular)
 The crowd is getting angry. (singular)
 The jury has finally reached a decision. (singular)
 The majority rules most of the time. (singular)
 The staffs have gone their separate ways for the holidays. (plural)

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

In most English sentences with an action verb, the subject performs the action denoted by the
verb

These examples show that the subject is doing the verb's action.

Because the subject does or "acts upon" the verb in such sentences, the sentences are said to be in
the active voice.

Passive voice
One can change the normal word order of many active sentences so that the subject is no
longer active, but is, instead, being acted upon by the verb - or passive.

Note in these examples how the subject-verb relationship has changed.

Because the subject is being "acted upon" (or is passive), such sentences are said to be in
the passive voice.

NOTE: Colorful parrots live in the rainforests cannot be changed to passive voice because the
sentence does not have a direct object.

To change a sentence from active to passive voice, do the following:

1. Move the active sentence's direct object into the sentence's subject slot

2. Place the active sentence's subject into a phrase beginning with the preposition by

3. Add a form of the auxiliary verb be to the main verb and change the main verb's form
Because passive voice sentences necessarily add words and change the normal doer-action-
receiver of action direction, they may make the reader work harder to understand the intended
meaning.

As the examples below illustrate, a sentence in active voice flows more smoothly and is easier to
understand than the same sentence in passive voice.
It is generally preferable to use the ACTIVE voice.

To change a passive voice sentence into an active voice sentence, simply reverse the steps shown
above.

1. Move the passive sentence's subject into the active sentence’s direct object slot

2. Remove the auxiliary verb be from the main verb and change main verb's form if needed
 3. Place the passive sentence's object of the preposition by into the subject slot.

Because it is more direct, most writers prefer to use the active voice whenever possible.

The passive voice may be a better choice, however, when

 the doer of the action is unknown, unwanted, or unneeded in the sentence

Examples

 the writer wishes to emphasize the action of the sentence rather than the doer of the
action

Examples

 The writer wishes to use passive voice for sentence variety.

NUMERIAL ADJECTIVES

Numeral Adjectives
Adjectives are those words which describe nouns or pronouns. Numeral Adjectives also known
as Adjectives of numbers are one among seven types of Adjectives. Numeral Adjectives are
those adjectives which are used to denote the number of nouns or the order in which they stand.
They are also commonly called Adjectives of Number.
In simpler terms we can say that Adjective of numbers tell us the number of people or things and
maintain clarity by giving exact information.

Examples of Numeral Adjective and Their Usage

One, two, five, ten, first, second, third, tenth, twelfth, last, all, some, few, each, most, many, no,
several are common examples of numeral adjectives.

Numeral Adjectives can be divided into three types. They are:

Definite Numeral Adjectives

Definite Numeral Adjectives are the set of cardinal and ordinal numbers. The word definite
itself tells us that these adjectives tell us the exact number of people or things. Definite Numeral
Adjectives are:
Cardinal numbers Ordinal numbers

one first
two second
three third
five fifth
ten tenth
thirteen thirteenth
Examples:

 Michelle is the second girl in our class

 There are eight oranges in the bowl.
 He is going two sell his two cars.

Indefinite Numeral Adjective

Indefinite numeral Adjectives unlike Definite Numeral Adjectives only give tentative numeral
idea of nouns. They do not give us exact number. Indefinite Numeral Adjectives are:
Few, all, no, several, some, many, most
Examples:

 There are few bottles of wine in the fridge.

 He has sold all the books.
 Several men came looking for you.
Indefinite Numerals can also be used as Adjectives of Quantity as both have same set of words.

Distributive Numeral Adjective

Distributive Numeral Adjectives are same as Distributive Adjectives. Distributive Numeral
Adjectives denote singular number of noun among many. Distributive Numeral Adjectives are
always followed by a singular noun and a verb.

Distributive Numeral Adjectives are:

Each, every, either, neither

Examples:

 Everything he said is true.

 Each student is responsible for littering classroom.
 Either of the ways is correct.
Be careful, If there is the word 'of' immediately after the distributive numeral adjective like in
the above sentence, we have to use plural noun instead.
Distributive Numeral Adjective can also be used as Distributive Adjectives as they both have
same set of words.

EMBEDDED SENTENCES

An embedded clause is a clause used in the middle of another clause.In other words, an
embedded clause is a clause (a group of words that includes a subject and a verb) that is within a
main clause, usually marked by commas.Information related to the sentence topic is put into the
middle of the sentence to give the reader more information and enhance the sentence.
Commas are usually (but not always) used to separate the clause that has been embedded from
the main clause.

If you removed the embedded clause the main clause would stand alone as a complete sentence.
However the embedded clause is reliant on the main clause so it does not make sense on its
own (it's a subordinate clause).

For example:

The coat, which was old, had a hole in the pocket.

The main clause makes sense on its own: The coat had a hole in the pocket.
The embedded clause doesn't make sense on its own: which was old
The embedded clause has to be supported and explained by the main clause in order to make
sense.
An embedded clause usually begins using the words which, who or where and relates to
the noun or pronoun in the main clause.
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
Conditional Sentences are also known as Conditional Clauses or If Clauses. They are used to
express that the action in the main clause (without if) can only take place if a certain condition
(in the clause with if) is fulfilled. There are three types of Conditional Sentences.

Conditional Sentence Type 1

→ It is possible and also very likely that the condition will be fulfilled.

Form: If + Simple Present, Will-Future

Example: If I find her address, I’ll send her an invitation.

Conditional Sentence Type 2

→ It is possible but very unlikely, that the condition will be fulfilled.

Form: if + Simple Past, Conditional I(would)

Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation.

Conditional Sentence Type 3

→ It is impossible that the condition will be fulfilled because it refers to the past.

Form: if + Past Perfect, Conditional II (= would + have + Past Participle)

Example: If I had found her address, I would have sent her an invitation.
 REPOTED SPEECH

Definition: Reported Speech (also called Indirect Speech) is used to communicate what
someoneelse said, think or believe, but without using the exact words. A few changes are
necessary; often a pronoun has to be changed and the verb is usually moved back a tense, where
possible.

For example:

 He said that he was going to come.

* The person's exact words were "I'm going to come".

Reported speech is usually used to talk about the past, so we normally change the tense of the
words spoken. We use reporting verbs like "say", "tell", "ask", and we may use the word "that"
to introduce the reported words. Reported speech doesn't use quotation marks to enclose what the
person said.

For example:

 Direct speech:
- "I'm going to the cinema", he said.
 Reported speech:
- He said he was going to the cinema.
 Direct speech:
- "I'm going to come", he said.
 Reported speech:
- He said that he was going to come.
 Direct speech:
- She said, "I saw him."
 Reported speech:
- She said that she had seen him.

Indirect Questions
When reporting questions, it is especially important to pay attention to sentence order. When
reporting yes/ no questions connect the reported question using "if". When reporting questions
using question words (why, where, when, etc.) use the question word.

 She asked, "Do you want to come with me?"

=> She asked me if I wanted to come with her.
 Dave asked, "Where did you go last weekend?"
=> Dave asked me where I had gone the previous weekend.
 He asked, "Why are you studying English?"
=> She asked me why I was studying English.
Examples:
The following chart includes sentences changed from direct speech to reported speech using a
past form. Note Simple past, present perfect, and past perfect all change to past perfect in the
reported form.

Direct speech Reported speech

He said, "I live in Paris." He said he lived in Paris.
He said, "I am cooking dinner." He said he was cooking dinner.
He said, "I have visited London twice." He said he had visited London twice.
He said, "I went to New York last He said he had gone to New York the week
week." before.
He said, "I had already eaten." He said he had already eaten.
He said, "I am going to find a new job." He said he was going to find a new job.
He said, "I will give Jack a call." He said he would give Jack a call.