TAKEOFF

PERFORMANCE
PSB KIRUBAKARAN (MS)
Take Off

Performance & Calculations

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Take-off Segments

Take-off Runway Available (TORA)

Take-off Distance Available (TODA)
Accelerate stop Distance Available (ASDA)

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Take-off Segments

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Take Off
The take-off distance consists of two parts;
The ground run, and the distance from where the vehicle leaves
the ground to until it reaches 50 ft (or 15 m).
The sum of these two distances is considered the take-off distance.
(Note: sometimes a 35 ft altitude is used).
In order to evaluate the take-off characteristics, the following step-
by-step procedure is followed.
Step – I:
Evaluating the Ground Run and its Characteristics
Step – II:
Understanding the Runway Characteristics
Step – III:
Evaluating the Time for Ground run
Step – IV:
Evaluating the Distance for Ground run

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Step - I
Ground Run and its Characteristics
The equations of motion for the vehicle as it moves down the
runway.
A free-body diagram of the vehicle is shown to the right.
The forces that acting on it are the aerodynamic forces of lift
and drag (L and D), the thrust force (T), the ground normal
force (R) and the ground friction force (𝜇R), where 𝜇 is the
coefficient of rolling friction.
Now lets write the equations of motion along the runway and
perpendicular to it.
Perpendicular to the runway:

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Step - I
Ground Run and its Characteristics
Along the runway:

(WKT: from the previous resolving of forces perpendicular to the runway)

Rearranging the terms from the above equations, we have:

Writing in term of the the lift coefficient and the corresponding drag coefficient during the ground run.

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Step - I
Ground Run and its Characteristics
During the take-off ground run, it is assumed that the thrust varies with airspeed.
The above statement can be written as follows:

Substituting the above equation in the following equation

and rearranging it,

further,

where,
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Step - II
Understanding the Runway Characteristics

Performance Speeds
• True airspeed (TAS)—the speed of the aircraft in relation to the air mass in which it is flying.
• Indicated airspeed (IAS)—the speed of the aircraft as observed on the ASI. It is the airspeed without correction for
indicator, position (or installation), or compressibility errors.
• Calibrated airspeed (CAS)—the ASI reading corrected for position (or installation) and instrument errors. (CAS is equal
to TAS at sea level in standard atmosphere.)
• Equivalent airspeed (EAS)—the ASI reading corrected for position (or installation), for instrument error, and for
adiabatic compressible flow for the particular altitude. (EAS is equal to CAS at sea level in standard atmosphere.)

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Step - II
Understanding the Runway Characteristics

Performance Speeds
• VS0 —the calibrated power-off stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed at which the aircraft is controllable in
the landing configuration.
• VS1 —the calibrated power-off stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed at which the aircraft is controllable in
a specified configuration.
• VY—the speed at which the aircraft obtains the maximum increase in altitude per unit of time. This best ROC (Rate of
Climb) speed normally decreases slightly with altitude.
• VX—the speed at which the aircraft obtains the highest altitude in a given horizontal distance. This best AOC (Angle of
Climb) speed normally increases slightly with altitude.

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Step - II
Understanding the Runway Characteristics

Performance Speeds
• VLE—the maximum speed at which the aircraft can be safely flown with the landing gear extended. This is a problem
involving stability and controllability.
• VLO—the maximum speed at which the landing gear can be safely extended or retracted. This is a problem involving
the air loads imposed on the operating mechanism during extension or retraction of the gear.
• VFE—the highest speed permissible with the wing flaps in a prescribed extended position. This is because of the air
loads imposed on the structure of the flaps.
• VA—the calibrated design manoeuvring airspeed. This is the maximum speed at which the limit load can be imposed
(either by gusts or full deflection of the control surfaces) without causing structural damage. Operating at or below

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Step - II
Understanding the Runway Characteristics
Take-off speeds and take-off distance
When an aircraft takes off, one or more engines may fail suddenly and it may encounter a variety of situations. There are
four basic situations which should be researched for calculating the take-off performance of an aircraft, including:

(a) Take-off with all engines operating (AEO),

(b) Take-off with one engine inoperative (OEI),
(c) Rejected take-off with all engines operating,
(d) Rejected take-off with one engine inoperative.

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Step - II
Understanding the Runway Characteristics
Velocities & Speed Characteristics on the runway:
VEF is Engine failure speed, at which the critical engine is assumed to fail.
V1 is decision speed; Civil aircraft usually take 1 second as the time interval between VEF and V1.
VR is rotation speed.
VLOF is lift-off speed at which the airplane first becomes airborne.
V2 is take-off safety speed and is the velocity at the end of 10.7 m (35 ft) climb.
VMCG is the minimum control speed on the ground.
VMC is the minimum control speed airborne.
VMU is the minimum unstick velocity.
VS is stall speed.
VEF, V1, VR, VLOF andV2 are important take-off speeds.
VMCG, VMC and VMU is known when calculating the take-off performance.
VS occurs at the maximum aircraft lift coefficient.

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Step - II
Understanding the Runway Characteristics

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Step III

Evaluating the Time for Ground Run

To obtain the time for the ground run the following equation is taken into
consideration;

This particular performance parameter is generally not of much interest, but is

useful the thrust or lift characteristics at some time during the ground run.
Solving the above equation for dt, we have

A and B are constant.

In most cases we can assume that both A and B are positive numbers.
A certainly is always positive and B is positive unless the ground lift coefficient is
large (an unlikely event).

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Step - III
Evaluating the Time for Ground Run
Time for Ground Run Between any Two Speeds, Constant 𝜶g , A, B > 0

It may be possible to have the B in the second term in the expression for acceleration to be negative. Hence the time for
ground run can be evaluated as follows;

Time for Ground Run Between any Two Speeds, Constant 𝜶g , A > 0, B < 0

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Step - III
Evaluating the Time for Ground Run
The lift-off speed is designated to be 1.2 Vstall

Hence, the Time to take-off for the given take-off speed, is given by (using the above relation as a limit);

These above relations give the characteristic performance of an aircraft during take-off.

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Step - IV
Evaluating the Distance for Ground run
The more critical issue regarding the take-off ground run is the distance travelled estimation. This can be determined by
taking the following equation and dividing by velocity variation thus giving the distance variation.

Rearranging the terms, we have,

Integrating the above equation, we have,

Distance for Ground Run between two airspeeds, V1 and V2,

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Step - IV

Evaluating the Distance for Ground run

Similarly, the Distance for Ground Run between two airspeeds, V1 and V2,
using the take-off - stall speed relation and substituting the expressions we have,

Take-off Ground Run Distance

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END
OF
LECTURE