SCHOOL COUNSELING

NOTES

MODULE 1: Introduction to School Counselling

TOPICS:
➢ Historical and Current Issues
➢ Need, Scope of School Counselling
➢ Difference between Educational Psychologist and School Counsellor
➢ Transformations of the Roles, Responsibilities & skills of School Counselors
➢ Professional and Ethical Codes of conduct in school counseling
➢ Guidance & Counseling
➢ Need and importance of guidance and counseling at school settings

Historical and Current Issues

Brief History

School counseling is 100-plus years old. It evolved shaped by various economic, social,
and educational forces guided by the work of many individuals. The ASCA National
Model, first published in 2003 and now in its fourth edition, is a product of this evolution.
By embracing knowledge from the past, school counseling evolved from a position to
service, to a program, and the organizational concept embedded in the ASCA National
Model.

School counseling began as vocational guidance in the early 1900s. It was established in
schools as a position occupied by administrators and teachers. No organizational structure
was provided other than a list of duties. In the 1920s school counseling began to change,
shaped by the mental hygiene, psychometric, and child study movements. As a result, a
more clinically oriented approach to school counseling emerged. This signaled a shift
away from economic issues to psychological issues with an emphasis on counseling for
personal adjustment.

During the 1930s, a discussion took place concerning the various personnel responsible
for school counseling, the duties they performed, and their selection and training. A
major milestone occurred with the creation of a new organizational structure called pupil
personnel services. Within that structure, the concept of guidance services emerged. The
field of school counseling had moved from a position with a list of duties to a position
with a list of duties organized by guidance services all under the overall structure of pupil
personnel services.
The 1940s and 1950s saw the expansion and extension of counseling in schools. The
literature during the years 1941–1945 focused on contributions to the war effort. After
1945, attention returned to the need for counseling in the schools and on ways to improve
the services provided. The selection and training of school counselors also received
attention and support with the passage of the Vocational Education Act of 1946 and the
National Defense Education Act (NDEA) of 1958. In addition, the American School
Counselor Association was established in 1952.

A major issue being debated in the 1960s and 1970s concerned the nature of school
counseling; whether it is more psychological featuring counseling as a major intervention
or educational featuring a broader array of interventions including counseling but also
information, assessment, placement, and follow-up activities. School counseling at the
elementary level became a reality in the 1960s. NDEA, amended in the 1960s, stimulated
training practices and procedures that set elementary school counseling apart from
secondary school counseling. There was also increasing concern about the services model
of school counseling. Calls for change came from a variety of sources ending up in the
beginning development of a comprehensive program approach to school counseling. The
concept of a program for school counseling began to take form in the 1960s and 1970s
and then became a major way to organize and manage school counseling in the schools in
the 1980s, 1990s, and into the 21st century. During this time many states developed state
models. Training programs to help personnel in school districts plan, design, and
implement comprehensive school counseling programs also were initiated. The role and
functions of school counselors were of concern during the 1980s and 1990s. Some writers
advocated the role of human development specialist; others recommended the role of
change agent. Predominating roles were coordinating, counseling, and consulting. They
faced the issue of terminology; is it guidance, guidance & counseling, or school
counseling?

Although progress was made in developing, implementing, and evaluating

comprehensive school counseling programs in the first decade of the 21st century,
discussion continued about program purposes and the work of school counselors. Should
the focus be educational (academic), vocational (career), or social/emotional (mental
health)? Some writers focused on academic achievement and career but not social/
emotional or mental health. Other writers urged the opposite with mental health issues
needing more attention. Still, other writers urged the adoption of a holistic approach
emphasizing attention to all three areas.

During this same decade, discussion about program purposes and school counselors’
roles continued with some writers emphasizing an advocacy change agent focus. Others
talked about the need to emphasize collaboration. Still, others recommended school
counselors do more indirect work and less direct work with students. Finally, there was a
movement for school counselors to become more data-oriented, using data to identify
school concerns and student needs.

The development and implementation of school counseling programs across the country
grew in the first decade of the 21st century. This growth was stimulated by the
publication of the ASCA National Model in 2003 and its adoption by many states and
school districts. A second edition was published in 2005, followed by the third edition in
2013 and the fourth edition in 2019.

As the second decade of the 21st century began, an ongoing issue for school counseling
was accountability. Although this has been part of the professional discussion since the
1920s, and much work was done over the ensuing years, there is a renewed sense of
urgency today concerning accountability. The literature makes it clear that evaluation is
here to stay and needs to be designed and carried out to not only demonstrate
effectiveness but also to improve the work of school counselors.

School counseling will continue to evolve. The forces that shaped school counseling so
far will continue to do so, and discussion about purposes and organization will continue.
So, while no one knows what the future holds, current literature suggests that at least for
the near future students and their parents in school districts across the country will
continue to benefit from having fully implemented school counseling programs.

TIMELINE

➔ The early 1900s: Vocational guidance begins in secondary schools as a position

without an organizational structure
➔ The 1920s: School counseling shifts from vocational guidance to counseling for
personal adjustment
➔ The 1930s: The concept of guidance services emerges as part of pupil personnel
services
➔ The 1940s/1950s: Federal legislation in 1946 and 1958 significantly increases
school counseling training and the number of positions
➔ 1952: American School Counselor Association formed 1960s School counseling
takes root in elementary schools
➔ The 1960s/1970s: The concept of a program for school counseling begins to take
shape
 ➔ The 1980s/1990s: The role and functions of school counselors are of concern;
many states adopt state models for school counseling programs
➔ 2001: Federal legislation acknowledges the terminology switch from guidance
counselor to the school counselor and the importance of the role of the elementary
school counselor
➔ 2003: ASCA releases a national school counseling program model, the ASCA
National Model, providing consistency to standardize school counseling programs
across the country
➔ 2003–Present: Many states and districts adopt the ASCA National Model as their
model for school counseling programs
➔ 2005: ASCA National Model, a second edition, adds the theory behind the ASCA
National Model
➔ 2013: ASCA National Model, a third edition, is the first major revision to the
ASCA National Model
➔ 2019: ASCA National Model, a fourth edition, streamlines and clarifies language
to reflect the current state of education

Current Issues

Some of the challenges school counselors are facing at present:

1. Getting access to students: With parents working from the house and siblings
jostling for space, many students miss their online classes and counseling sessions.
Some students even fail to come online due to being in an insecure environment or
because they are battling other problems like financial/food insecurity. All these
make it a tough task for counselors to reach their students. Still, many counselors
have tried to check on students who weren’t attending virtual classes or didn’t
return to school when they reopened. They could consider using an online
counseling service for the national college to schedule and make their sessions
more engaging and interesting to boost student participation. Several counselors
have also told how their focus has now shifted more on social-emotional learning
to help their students adapt to the changing world and cope with the existing
challenges.
2. Spending more time with students: Be it helping students navigate social,
emotional, or personal issues or helping them with their career planning, school
counselors need to spend a large chunk of their time with their students. But in the
changed scenario driven by the ongoing pandemic, counselors are often asked to
meet administrative or logistical duties. Though such duties are critical, they
nevertheless reduce the time that counselors could have otherwise spent to connect
 with and support their students. By automating some of these routine
administrative or logistical tasks via an online counseling service for the national
college, counselors can free up some of their time to engage and help their
students better. Some counselors are also swamped with such a high caseload that
they find it extremely challenging to handle while struggling to invest adequate
time for each of their students.
3. Lack of direction: Lack of clear and precise direction from the district and school
leadership is another big challenge that makes the lives of school counselors
tough. These professionals play an important role as educational leaders for their
school and its students. Be it helping students choose a college, decide on their
course load, sending applications, preparing for exams like SAT, ACT, etc., or
student interviews, they guide and steer students in the right way at every step. But
their job takes a beating when there isn’t adequate clarity on certain aspects in the
changed scenario where virtual or hybrid classes have become the norm.

High school counselors worry about the students’ mental health. They worry about their
stress level. As they are working hard for their future, counselors feel that they are always
able to get help whenever required. During online lectures, they also worry that the
students are feeling lonely on the other side of the screen. They have also felt a reduction
in their motivation level to do things. A lot of students have been struggling with just the
social unrest and tension in the city. They are not having an opportunity to process and
heal before something else happens. Teenagers are grieving, dealing with the pandemic,
cut off socially from their friends and school, which is like a happy place, an escape.
Counselors have to go after the kids and try to make sure they graduate and get the grades
they need. But in addition to that, they have to make sure they’re doing okay in a
situation where so many of them lost their loved ones, dealt with social unrest & unable
to step out of the house. They have to get up early in the morning, sit in front of laptops
to take classes to learn.

Due to the pandemic, the year felt like the longest year of one’s life. Counselors share
that it’s common to interact on Zoom and all, but the basic human interaction along with
body movements & facial expressions makes any communication effective, therefore
lacking credibility. Many students are even facing issues in financial terms especially
those coming from lower-income & even middle-income families as so many people
have lost their jobs during this pandemic.

Counselors need to learn how to identify stigma and general assumptions that are
associated with different cultures. School Counselors should learn to be aware of how
counseling traditions and one’s views may be based on culturally biased concepts.
Counseling techniques need to be changed to adapt to the different cultures represented in
our schools today. No longer should students and families from other cultures be forced
to assimilate a western culture to be able to benefit from counseling practices in public
education.

Need, Scope of School Counselling

Need of School Counselling

India, the world’s 2nd most populous nation of 1 billion+ and has one of the highest
suicide rates under the age group of 15 to 29. In our country, it’s very common to see the
school students living under a state of stress or anxiety and peer pressure and by the folks
living in surrounding who believe in keeping students under control, monitoring their
activity, and pushing them on the far side toward higher achievements in the competitive
world. School counseling takes place in public and private K-12 schooling institutions.
Counseling is intended to appreciate student’s achievement, improve student’s behavior
and attendance, and help students to develop mentally and emotionally; promote their
participation in the activities taking place in their school.

A dedicated mental health specialist with master’s degrees or beyond, a school counselor
both provide counseling and play a vital role in the education system in and around
schools. Many K-12 school institutions appoint professional counselors and Mental
Health Expert on school staff boards to share their support with the students who are
undergoing some personal or educational challenges, guide students choose better careers
and planning for further education, and get involved when students face communicative,
physical, or mental health or behavioral challenges. The role of the school counselor is
quite tough to perform as they get assigned to deal with different behaviors of the
students and counsel them to live a healthy life and perform better.

In 2015, the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) revealed the shocking data that in
India, every hour a student commits suicide. The major reason behind this situation is
nothing but the failures in examinations or mental disturbance due to academic pressure.

➔ The problem is, schools do not have a specially assigned person to help their
students in making the right choices in their career path. This responsibility is
usually managed by appointed counselors.
➔ Teachers can even observe the instability in the students’ minds and the state of
neurosis.
As time is passing and we’re moving ahead in the era, the role of a counselor is getting
expanded and likewise responsibility. Counseling sessions in schools serve students with
a great opportunity to make their confessions of academic problems, emotional and
mental health issues, social lifestyle, and many more.

The first job of a counselor is to listen to the students’ side problems and know the actual
reason behind their problems. A good counselor prefers listening rather than always
bursting out a bombastic lecture.

A student is always in search of a person who can listen to them completely and provide
them moral support to adopt behavioral changes taking place around them. A counselor is
always expected to be a good listener and an honest guide for the students.
➔ Counselors can work on the elimination of the gap between students and teachers;
contribute to building up a healthy relationship between them.
➔ Assist the students in processing out their problems and plan the academic/career
goals and bring them into execution successfully.
➔ Counselors in schools can provide the desired comfort to the students so that they
get enabled to share their daily life happenings and feel relaxed.
➔ School counselors can also assist the students in improving their social life and
make them more communicative.

Counselors in school can take creative workshops and seminars to encourage the students
to be comfortable in the school arena so that they perform well in their academic journey.
Students can also use that workshop content in their day-to-day life cycle for keeping
themselves charged with a high amount of motivation to live a healthy and transparent
life. Proper counseling practiced by a counselor can save students from splitting up their
original personalities and experiencing the positive transformation of their life.

The primary motive behind counseling at the school level is to address the emotional,
social, and behavioral needs of the students. And to create a seamless and friendly
environment to help each one of them with different approaches. Always remember that
school-based professionals provide counseling and not psychotherapy. It is always aimed
at enhancing the adaptive function of a child’s mind. On a lighter note, school-based
counseling aims at helping students function more effectively in school and with the elder
ones.

Scope of School Counselling

The programs created by school counselors use data to address many issues for the
individual students and the school at large. Some of the areas covered by counselors:
 ➔ Improve or enhance academic performance for all students
➔ Prevent or stop bullying, substance abuse, or other negative behaviors
➔ Help students with mental health issues
➔ Support minority students and deliver culturally competent counseling
➔ Ensure the counseling office supports the goals of the school
➔ Make and keep the school a safe environment for everyone
➔ Advocate for students, including advocating for proper resources for schools
● It assists students to draw up their plans for academic and non-academic pursuits
and arrive at the right decisions to implement the plans and solutions.
● It is intended to help the individual to realize his potentialities & to make an
optimum contribution to the growth of society.

School counselors impact the entire school community through their interactions with
students, teachers, parents/guardians, and other school personnel. They must be able to
take a big picture view of how their role can have the most positive impact while
remaining in the best interests of the students. The strength of the school counselor is
their ability to understand how each role intersects and that all of these together help
students succeed.

The trained school counselor must be an assertive advocate creating opportunities for all
students to pursue dreams of high aspirations. The counselor assists students in their
academic, career, social, and personal development and helps them follow the path to
success. The school counselor serves as a leader as well as an effective team member
working with teachers, administrators, and other school personnel to help each student
succeed. The school counselor as consultant empowers families to act on behalf of their
children by helping parents and guardians identify student needs and interests, and access
available resources.

School counselors must focus attention on students for whom schools have been the
least successful—low-income students and students of color. Counselors must
concentrate on issues, strategies, and interventions that will help close the achievement
gap between these students and their more advantaged peers. School counselors are
accountable and measure success by demonstrating how their activities contribute to
increasing the numbers of all students completing school academically prepared to
choose from a wide range of substantial post-secondary options, including college.

Difference between Educational Psychologist and School Counsellor

The most significant difference between these specialties is the target audience
demographics. An educational psychologist receives training to understand all types of
students – from the youngest learners to college students, as well as the academic and
non-academic professionals who work with these students. They usually are focused on
analyzing and researching group student performance in a district, school, or other entity.

Educational psychologists also tend to study more about the learning process itself. They
consider how the brain works and how students’ cognitive abilities affect learning
processes and outcomes. These psychologists often use quantitative testing and
measurement methods in their work.

On the other hand, school psychologists focus on the needs of young students from
pre-school and kindergarten through high school. They also use classrooms, parents, and
teachers to identify students’ complex learning needs. Their focus is on the individual
learner and improving their social and academic performance.

➔ Educational psychology deals with the psychology of educating humans, how

educational teaching and materials affect humans, evaluation of methods of
teaching and these teaching materials, and school organization effectiveness.
School psychology, on the other hand, deals with the treatment of learning
dilemmas of children and adolescents. They are also responsible for diagnosing
such conditions present in them.
➔ Educational psychology dates back a thousand years ago while school psychology
emerged during the 17th & 21st centuries
➔ In educational psychology, research methods are utilized to correlate findings and
to solve problems. They either used quantitative or qualitative methods. In school
psychology, they usually apply the principles of educational and clinical
psychology to carry out their duties and responsibilities.
➔ For one to become an educational psychologist, one must obtain a degree in
psychology and the required completion of training and internship.

Transformations of the Roles, Responsibilities & skills of School Counselors

Role in schools

● They help students

➔ They help understand the issues that may be behind the student’s misbehavior.
➔ They listen to the students and help them find solutions to those issues.
➔ They help students become better decision-makers within their best interest
● They assist with discipline problems
➔ Schools with active counselors have shown a decrease in discipline problems and
misbehavior with an increase in a positive attitude
➔ Counselors can create programs and activities to assist the bully and the victim. As
a result, there is a reduction in victimization and bullying which, in return, creates
a safer school environment
● They assist teachers
➔ When a teacher is stuck with ideas to help manage a child’s misbehavior, the
counselor helps to create a strategy to help the student.
➔ Counselors help create lesson plans that pertain to correct behavior within the
classroom and school.
➔ Counselors act as mediators to help students who do not get along together in class
● They collaborate with administrators
➔ For counseling to be effective in helping students and creating a positive school
environment, the counselor and administrators must work together to ensure a
clear understanding of school goals
★ MANAGE
➔ To be delivered effectively, the school counseling program must be efficiently and
effectively managed. School counselors use program focus and planning tools to
guide the design and implementation of a school counseling program that gets
results.
● Program Focus
➔ Beliefs
➔ Vision Statement
➔ Mission Statement
● Program Planning
➔ School Data Summary
➔ Annual Student Outcome Goals
➔ Action Plans
Classroom and Group
Closing the Gap
● Lesson Plans
● Annual Administrative Conference
● Use of Time
● Calendars
➔ Annual
➔ Weekly
● Advisory Council
★ DELIVER
➔ School counselors deliver developmentally appropriate activities and services
directly to students or indirectly for students as a result of the school counselor’s
interaction with others.
➔ These activities and services help students develop the ASCA Mindsets &
Behaviors for Student Success and improve their achievement, attendance, and
discipline. Through the school counseling program, school counselors ensure
equitable academic, career, and social/emotional development opportunities for all
students. Direct Services with Students
● Direct services with students
➔ Direct services are in-person interactions between school counselors and students
and include the following:
Instruction
Appraisal and Advisement
Counseling
● Indirect Services for Students
➔ Indirect services are provided on behalf of students as a result of the school
counselors’ interactions with others including:
Consultation
Collaboration
Referrals
★ ASSESS
➔ To achieve the best results for students, school counselors regularly assess their
program to:
determine its effectiveness in helping all students succeed
inform improvements to their school counseling program design and
delivery
show how students are different as a result of the school counseling
program
➔ School counselors also self–assess their mindsets and behaviors to inform their
professional development and annually participate in a school counselor
performance appraisal with a qualified administrator. The ASCA National Model
provides the following tools to guide assessment and appraisal.
● Program Assessment
➔ School Counseling Program Assessment
➔ Annual Results Reports
 ● School Counselor Assessment and Appraisal
➔ ASCA School Counselor Professional Standards & Competencies Assessment
➔ School Counselor Performance Appraisal Template

Role of the school counselor as program facilitator/coordinator (implementation of

new policies)

➔ To build a community of creative learning practice across the school involving all
appropriate departments
➔ To facilitate the long-term development of teaching and learning at a structural and
systematic learning
➔ To act as a facilitator in school by translating the school's vision of learning by
practical implications
➔ To ensure that all students play a meaningful and active role in learning that can
truly reflect their interests, needs, and areas of development needed
➔ To take overall responsibility for any new program that is introduced at a
curriculum and co-curriculum level
➔ Facilitating inter-class observations and mentor teacher meetings
➔ Organizing students into teams via various programs which aim at team building
and resilience building
➔ Build a relationship with members of the community to ensure that students have
adequate learning materials, classroom, and teachers

Role of the school counselor as Educational leader (make policies)

➔ Support planning and coordination of a program and its activities

➔ Ensure implementation of policies and new practices
➔ Maintain budgets and track expenditures
➔ Help build positive relations with the school community
➔ Schedule and organize events and meetings
➔ Ensure technology is used correctly for all the operations
➔ Prepare paperwork, keep records updated, and create appropriate reports
➔ Support growth and program development
➔ Having an impact on the educational policies, collaborating with educators, and
providing curriculum direction and guidance
➔ Support educators to effectively implement a cycle of planning to enhance
programs and practices
➔ Ensure that children's learning and development are guided by learning outcomes
 ➔ Meeting the needs of the students, encourage unity and participation which is
social development
➔ Working with the community that is family, administration, and teachers

Role of the school counselor as a Curriculum Leader (fulfilling the role of curriculum
guidance) - makes appropriate changes in the policies

➔ Take an active role in planning, preparing, delivering, and evaluating the core
counseling curriculum for all students to demonstrate their roles as leaders
➔ Coordinates between policymakers and educators
➔ Ensures that the student performance and learning outcomes match the curriculum
expectations
➔ Provides direction and guidance for curriculum at an individual and school level
➔ Ensures holistic growth and development of the students
➔ The guidance curriculum is designed to systematically provide lessons to students
that facilitate growth development and transferable skills in the areas of education,
career, personal, and social development
➔ Interpersonal and intrapersonal effectiveness, career readiness, personal health,
and safety are addressed through curriculum guidance

Responsibilities & skills of School Counselors

Responsibilities of School Counselors

➔ providing counseling to students who have disciplinary problems

➔ providing teachers with suggestions for effective classroom management
➔ providing teachers with suggestions for effective classroom management

The 5 main Responsibilities of the School Counselor are as follows:

1. Counsel Students: Counseling students is, of course, one of the school
counselor’s primary responsibilities. Research suggests that counselors spend at
least 80 percent of their time directly or indirectly serving students, and the
majority of this time is made up of direct counseling. School counselors use the
information they’ve learned through formal education to provide one-on-one or
group counseling to school students. This counseling may help students overcome
behavioral problems, improve their time management and organizational skills,
establish academic goals, resolve interpersonal problems with other students, or
work through personal problems. School counselors working in high schools may
also help students set career goals, ensure their classes will help them achieve
these, and identify potential financial aid and apprenticeship opportunities.
 2. Liaise with Teachers and Parents: School counselors don’t work with students
alone. In some cases, it may be necessary to involve a student’s teachers or parents
in the counseling process. For example, counselors may liaise with teachers to
develop strategies for assisting a student with learning difficulties. The counselor
may also meet with the child’s parents to discuss ways that they can help facilitate
learning in the home and maximize learning outcomes. School counselors may
also liaise with teachers and parents in cases concerning students with mental
health issues or those with severe behavioral issues.
3. Refer Students to External Agencies: In some cases, the problems that school
counselors see are too big to deal with at the school level. Under these
circumstances, a school counselor may refer students to external agencies that are
equipped to deal with the student’s concerns. For example, a school counselor may
recommend to parents that their child undergo psychological testing. Under child
welfare laws, a school counselor must also report incidents of child abuse or
neglect to the relevant authorities.
4. Participate in Student Welfare and Learning Support Committees: School
counselors are an integral part of a school’s student welfare and learning support
committees. School counselors discuss students of concern with other committee
members and collect and share information related to student welfare and learning
support matters. As part of these committees, school counselors also develop,
coordinate, and assess initiatives that promote student welfare and improve
learning standards.
5. Evaluate and Improve the Counseling Program: School counselors should
strive to make their school’s counseling program the best that it can be. It’s a
school counselor’s responsibility to cast a critical eye over existing counseling
practices and identify areas that could be improved. Counselors should then take
their recommendations up with the school board or principal and campaign for
changes that will benefit all staff members, students, and their family members.

Skills of School Counselors

The top 10 traits/skills a school counselor should have/has are as follows:

1. Be a good listener: The first thing that comes to mind is that school counselors
must be able to listen. To their students, parents, other faculty members. A large
portion of a counselor’s time is spent listening and processing the information
given to you by others. Remember to listen first and ask questions later. If you
need clarification on something, always speak up but be sure to add details that let
 the person know you heard what they said in the first place. Listening is a crucial
trait for any school counselor to possess.
2. Be able to assess: Part of a counselor’s job is to make accurate assessments of
their students to prepare them for life beyond school. If you want to work in a high
school setting, this includes being able to accurately assess a student’s successes
and shortcomings when it comes to making college choices, where to apply, and
helping them narrow down what can be a daunting list of choices. Making these
assessments accurately – and being able to report your findings to parents, another
faculty, or higher education institutions – is an important part of counseling.
3. Be an excellent communicator: Having excellent communication skills is one of
the most important skills a school counselor can have. Being able to communicate
ideas, thoughts, and feelings verbally is a trait that can never go unsung as a
school counselor. Often, you will be bouncing ideas off a student to help them
reach a crucial decision – or discussing a student with their parent or a team of
faculty members. Making sure that you can convey your assessment of your
student verbally is vital.
4. Appreciate diversity: Students come from a multitude of backgrounds, and being
able to accept and embrace diversity is another trait that is crucial for a school
counselor. Students come from all walks of life and all types of families, and
helping students learn to accept and embrace their diversity in a school setting is
critical to a counselor’s success.
5. Be friendly: School counselors must be warm and approachable to their students,
and also to parents and faculty members. Being open and gregarious will often
mean that students will trust you more than they trust their parents, and getting
students to open up and let go of their burdens is one of the most rewarding things
a school counselor can accomplish. Often, students are overworked and set with
heavy accomplishment lists, so having someone to listen to their troubles is a way
to make students feel less stressed.
6. Be authoritative: When the situation calls for it, a guidance counselor must cross
the boundary from a friend to a professional. If abuse or neglect is suspected or
present, or if a student is engaging in risky or harmful behavior, a counselor must
know when to show their authority and take the proper steps to ensure their
student’s safety.
7. Be well-rounded: A school counselor will often have a wide range of interests
outside of work, and you never know when one of these interests will resonate
with a student and prompt a connection that gets your student to open up to you.
Having a variety of hobbies and talents outside of the office makes for a happier,
 friendlier school counselor. Being able to speak about your experiences in life will
allow you to bridge gaps with students and offer advice and share tips and building
blocks for social development that you may not have otherwise had.
8. Be able to coordinate: Counselors serve as coordinators for many school
programs and activities. From college visits, setting standardized test schedules,
and even administrative tasks – the counselor must be able to coordinate several
tasks at a time. Making sure these things dovetail and all run smoothly (even when
they may look chaotic on the outside) is a vital part of what makes a successful
school counselor.
9. Have good evaluation skills: Counselors spend a lot of their time evaluating test
scores or administering tests to students. Being able to accurately evaluate and
translate these results to discuss a student’s academic performance, or aid a
professor in making an accurate assessment of a student’s skills is vital. Being able
to evaluate the results of these exams as more than just numbers on paper, and
seeing the meaning beyond the exam is a part of what makes an effective school
counselor. Often, students will see their test scores as very black-and-white
regarding their future prospects. It is the job of their guidance counselor to offer
the many shades of grey in between and explore all opportunities available to their
students, regardless of test scores.
10. Have a sense of humor: Often, having a sense of humor will be a school
counselor’s biggest asset in gaining a student’s trust. Being able to laugh at
yourself, and offer amusing anecdotes for what you have experienced in life will
show students that you’re surprisingly human, too! Being able to see things with a
side of laughter is a crucial trait for any school counselor, and goes a long way
toward making your days brighter.

Professional and Ethical Codes of conduct in school counseling

1. RESPONSIBILITY TO STUDENTS
● Supporting Student Development
School counselors:
➔ Have a primary obligation to the students, who are to be treated with dignity and
respect as unique individuals.
➔ Aim to provide counseling to students in a brief context and support students and
families/guardians in obtaining outside services if the student needs long-term
clinical counseling.
➔ Do not diagnose but remain acutely aware of how a student’s diagnosis can
potentially affect the student’s academic success.
➔ Acknowledge the vital role of parents/guardians and families.
➔ Are concerned with students’ academic, career, and social/ emotional needs and
encourage each student’s maximum development.
➔ Respect students’ and families’ values, beliefs, sexual orientation, gender
identification/expression, and cultural background and exercise great care to avoid
imposing personal beliefs or values rooted in one’s religion, culture, or ethnicity.
➔ Provide effective, responsive interventions to address student needs.
➔ Consider the involvement of support networks, wraparound services, and
educational teams needed to best serve students.
● Confidentiality
School counselors:
➔ Promote awareness of school counselors’ ethical standards and legal mandates
regarding confidentiality and the appropriate rationale and procedures for
disclosure of student data and information to school staff.
➔ Inform students of the purposes, goals, techniques, and rules of procedure under
which they may receive counseling. The disclosure includes informed consent and
clarification of the limits of confidentiality. Informed consent requires
competence, voluntariness, and knowledge on the part of students to understand
the limits of confidentiality
➔ Are aware that even though attempts are made to obtain informed consent, it is not
always possible. When needed, school counselors make counseling decisions on
students’ behalf that promote students’ welfare.
➔ Explain the limits of confidentiality in developmentally appropriate terms through
multiple methods such as student handbooks, school counselor department
websites, school counseling brochures, classroom lessons, and/or verbal
notification to individual students.
➔ Promote the autonomy of students to the extent possible and use the most
appropriate and least intrusive method to breach confidentiality, if such action is
warranted. The child’s developmental age and the circumstances requiring the
breach are considered, and as appropriate, students are engaged in a discussion
about the method and timing of the breach. Consultation with peers and/or
supervision is recommended.
➔ Protect the confidentiality of students’ records and release personal data following
prescribed federal and state laws and school board policies.
➔ Convey a student’s highly sensitive information (e.g., a student’s suicidal ideation)
through personal contacts such as a phone call or visit and not less-secure means
 such as a notation in the educational record or an e-mail. Adhere to state, federal,
and school board policy when conveying sensitive information.
➔ Advocate with appropriate school officials for acceptable encryption standards to
be utilized for stored data and currently acceptable algorithms to be utilized for
data in transit.
● Comprehensive Data-Informed Program
School counselors:
➔ Collaborate with administration, teachers, staff, and decision-makers around
school improvement goals.
➔ Provide students with a comprehensive school counseling program that ensures
equitable academic, career, and social/ emotional development opportunities for
all students.
➔ Review school and student data to assess needs including, but not limited to, data
on disparities that may exist related to gender, race, ethnicity, socio-economic
status, and/or other relevant classifications.
➔ Use data to determine needed interventions, which are then delivered to help close
the information, attainment, achievement, and opportunity gaps.
➔ Collect participation, Mindsets & Behaviors, and outcome data and analyze the
data to determine the progress and effectiveness of the school counseling program.
School counselors ensure the school counseling annual student outcome goals and
action plans are aligned with the district’s school improvement goals.
➔ Use data-collection tools adhering to confidentiality standards
➔ Share data outcomes with stakeholders.
● Academic, Career, and Social/Emotional Plans
School counselors:
➔ Collaborate with administration, teachers, staff, and decision-makers to create a
culture of postsecondary readiness.
➔ Provide and advocate for individual students’ PreK– postsecondary college and
career awareness, exploration, and postsecondary planning and decision making,
which supports the students’ right to choose from the wide array of options when
students complete secondary education.
➔ Identify gaps in college and career access and the implications of such data for
addressing both intentional and unintentional biases related to college and career
counseling.
➔ Provide opportunities for all students to develop the mindsets and behaviors
necessary to learn work-related skills, resilience, perseverance, an understanding
 of lifelong learning as a part of long-term career success, a positive attitude toward
learning, and a strong work ethic.
● Dual Relationships and Managing Boundaries
School counselors:
➔ Avoid dual relationships that might impair their objectivity and increase the risk of
harm to students (e.g., counseling one’s family members or the children of close
friends or associates). If a dual relationship is unavoidable, the school counselor is
responsible for taking action to eliminate or reduce the potential for harm to the
student through the use of safeguards, which might include informed consent,
consultation, supervision, and documentation
➔ Establish and maintain appropriate professional relationships with students at all
times. School counselors consider the risks and benefits of extending current
school counseling relationships beyond conventional parameters, such as attending
a student’s distant athletic competition. In extending these boundaries, school
counselors take appropriate professional precautions such as informed consent,
consultation, and supervision.
➔ Avoid dual relationships beyond the professional level with school personnel,
parents/guardians, and students’ other family members when these relationships
might infringe on the integrity of the school counselor/student relationship.
➔ Do not use personal social media, personal e-mail accounts, or personal texts to
interact with students unless specifically encouraged and sanctioned by the school
district. School counselors adhere to professional boundaries and legal, ethical,
and school district guidelines when using technology with students,
parents/guardians, or school staff.
● Appropriate Referrals and Advocacy
School counselors:
➔ Collaborate with all relevant stakeholders, including students, educators, and
parents/guardians when student assistance is needed, including the identification
of early warning signs of student distress.
➔ Provide a list of resources for outside agencies and resources in their community
to the student(s) and parents/guardians when students need or request additional
support. School counselors provide multiple referral options or the district’s vetted
list and are careful not to indicate an endorsement or preference for one counselor
or practice. School counselors encourage parents to interview outside
professionals to make a personal decision regarding the best source of assistance
for their students.
➔ Connect students with services provided through the local school district and
community agencies and remain aware of state laws and local district policies
related to students with special needs, including limits to confidentiality and
notification to authorities as appropriate.
➔ Attempt to establish a collaborative relationship with outside service providers to
best serve students. Request a release of information signed by the student and/or
parents/guardians before attempting to collaborate with the student’s external
provider.
➔ Provide internal and external service providers with accurate, objective,
meaningful data necessary to adequately assess, counsel, and assist the student.
➔ Ensure there is not a conflict of interest in providing referral resources. School
counselors do not refer or accept a referral to counsel a student from their school if
they also work in a private counseling practice.
● Group Work
School counselors:
➔ Facilitate short-term groups to address students’ academic, career, and/or
social/emotional issues.
➔ Inform parent/guardian(s) of student participation in a small group.
➔ Screen students for group membership.
➔ Use data to measure member needs to establish well-defined expectations of group
members.
➔ Communicate the aspiration of confidentiality as a group norm, while recognizing
and working from the protective posture that confidentiality for minors in schools
cannot be guaranteed.
➔ Select topics for groups with the clear understanding that some topics are not
suitable for groups in schools and accordingly take precautions to protect members
from harm as a result of interactions with the group.
➔ Facilitate groups from the framework of evidence-based or research-based
practices.
➔ Practice within their competence level and develop professional competence
through training and supervision.
➔ Measure the outcomes of group participation (participation, Mindsets &
Behaviors, and outcome data).
➔ Provide necessary follow up with group members
● Student Peer-Support Program
School counselors:
➔ Safeguard the welfare of students participating in peer-to-peer programs under
their direction.
➔ Supervise students engaged in peer helping, mediation, and other similar
peer-support groups. School counselors are responsible for appropriate skill
development for students serving as peer support in school counseling programs.
School counselors continuously monitor students who are giving peer support and
reinforce the confidential nature of their work. School counselors inform
peer-support students about the parameters of when students need to report
information to responsible adults.
● Serious and Foreseeable Harm to Self and Others
School counselors:
➔ Inform parents/guardians and/or appropriate authorities when a student poses a
serious and foreseeable risk of harm to self or others. When feasible, this is to be
done after careful deliberation and consultation with other appropriate
professionals. School counselors inform students of the school counselor’s legal
and ethical obligations to report the concern to the appropriate authorities unless it
is appropriate to withhold this information to protect the student (e.g. student
might run away if he/she knows parents are being called).
➔ Use risk assessments with caution. If risk assessments are used by the school
counselor, an intervention plan should be developed and in place before this
practice. When reporting risk-assessment results to parents, school counselors do
not negate the risk of harm even if the assessment reveals a low risk as students
may minimize risk to avoid further scrutiny and/or parental notification. School
counselors report risk assessment results to parents to underscore the need to act
on behalf of a child at risk; this is not intended to assure parents their child isn’t at
risk, which is something a school counselor cannot know with certainty.
➔ Do not release a student who is a danger to self or others until the student has the
proper and necessary support. If parents will not provide proper support, the
school counselor takes necessary steps to underscore to parents/guardians the
necessity to seek help and at times may include a report to child protective
services.
➔ Report to parents/guardians and/or appropriate authorities when students disclose
a perpetrated or a perceived threat to their physical or mental well-being.
● Underserved and At-Risk Populations
School counselors:
➔ Strive to contribute to a safe, respectful, nondiscriminatory school environment in
which all members of the school community demonstrate respect and civility.
➔ Advocate for and collaborate with students to ensure students remain safe at home
and school. A high standard of care includes determining what information is
shared with parents/ guardians and when information creates an unsafe
environment for students.
➔ Identify resources needed to optimize education.
➔ Collaborate with parents/guardians, when appropriate, to establish communication
and to ensure students’ needs are met.
➔ Understand students have the right to be treated in a manner consistent with their
gender identity and to be free from any form of discipline, harassment, or
discrimination based on their gender identity or gender expression.
➔ Advocate for equal rights and access to free, appropriate public education for all
youth, in which students are not stigmatized or isolated based on their housing
status, disability, foster care, special education status, mental health, or any other
exceptionality or special need.
➔ Recognize the strengths of students with disabilities as well as their challenges and
provide best practices and current research in supporting their academic, career,
and social/emotional needs
● Bullying, Harassment, and Child Abuse
School counselors:
➔ Report to the administration all incidents of bullying, dating violence, and sexual
harassment as most fall under Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 or
other federal and state laws as being illegal and requiring administrator
interventions. School counselors provide services to victims and perpetrators as
appropriate, which may include a safety plan and reasonable accommodations
such as schedule change, but school counselors defer to administration for all
discipline issues for this or any other federal, state, or school board violation.
➔ Report suspected cases of child abuse and neglect to the proper authorities and
take reasonable precautions to protect the privacy of the student for whom abuse
or neglect is suspected when alerting the proper authorities.
➔ Are knowledgeable about current state laws and their school system’s procedures
for reporting child abuse and neglect and methods to advocate for students’
physical and emotional safety following abuse/neglect reports.
➔ Develop and maintain the expertise to recognize the signs and indicators of abuse
and neglect. Encourage training to enable students and staff to have the knowledge
and skills needed to recognize the signs of abuse and neglect and to whom they
should report suspected abuse or neglect.
➔ Guide and assist students who have experienced abuse and neglect by providing
appropriate services.
● Student Records
School counselors:
➔ Abide by the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA), which defines
who has access to students’ educational records and allows parents the right to
review and challenge perceived inaccuracies in their child’s records.
➔ Advocate for the ethical use of student data and records and inform the
administration of inappropriate or harmful practices.
➔ Recognize the difficulty in meeting the criteria of sole-possession records.
➔ Recognize that sole-possession records and case notes can be subpoenaed unless
there is a specific state statute for privileged communication expressly protecting
student/school counselor communication.
➔ Recognize that electronic communications with school officials regarding
individual students, even without using student names, are likely to create student
records that must be addressed following FERPA and state laws.
➔ Establish a reasonable timeline for purging sole-possession records or case notes.
School counselors do not destroy sole-possession records that may be needed by a
court of law, such as notes on child abuse, suicide, sexual harassment, or violence,
without prior review and approval by school district legal counsel. School
counselors follow district policies and procedures when contacting legal counsel.
● Evaluation, Assessment, and Interpretation
School counselors:
➔ Use only valid and reliable tests and assessments with concern for bias and
cultural sensitivity.
➔ Adhere to all professional standards when selecting, administering, and
interpreting assessment measures and only utilize assessment measures that are
within the scope of practice for school counselors and for which they are licensed,
certified, and competent.
➔ Are mindful of confidentiality guidelines when utilizing paper or electronic
evaluative or assessment instruments and programs.
➔ Consider the student’s developmental age, language skills, and level of
competence when determining the appropriateness of an assessment.
➔ Use multiple data points when possible to provide students and families with
accurate, objective, and concise information to promote students’ well-being.
➔ Provide interpretation of the nature, purposes, results, and potential impact of
assessment/evaluation measures in language the students and parents/guardians
can understand.
➔ Monitor the use of assessment results and interpretations and take reasonable steps
to prevent others from misusing the information.
➔ Use caution when utilizing assessment techniques, making evaluations, and
interpreting the performance of populations not represented in the norm group on
which an instrument is standardized.
➔ Conduct school counseling program assessments to determine the effectiveness of
activities supporting students’ academic, career, and social/emotional development
through accountability measures, especially examining efforts to close
information, opportunity, and attainment gaps.
● Technical and Digital Citizenship
School counselors:
➔ Demonstrate appropriate selection and use of technology and software applications
to enhance students’ academic, career, and social/emotional development.
Attention is given to the ethical and legal considerations of technological
applications, including confidentiality concerns, security issues, potential
limitations and benefits, and communication practices in electronic media.
➔ Take appropriate and reasonable measures for maintaining the confidentiality of
student information and educational records stored or transmitted through the use
of computers, social media, facsimile machines, telephones, voicemail, answering
machines, and other electronic technology.
➔ Promote the safe and responsible use of technology in collaboration with
educators and families.
➔ Promote the benefits and clarify the limitations of various appropriate
technological applications.
➔ Use established and approved means of communication with students, maintaining
appropriate boundaries. School counselors help educate students about appropriate
communication and boundaries.
➔ Advocate for equal access to technology for all students.
● Virtual/Distance School Counseling
School counselors:
➔ Adhere to the same ethical guidelines in a virtual/distance setting as school
counselors in face-to-face settings.
➔ Recognize and acknowledge the challenges and limitations of virtual/distance
school counseling.
➔ Implement procedures for students to follow in both emergency and
non-emergency situations when the school counselor is not available.
➔ Recognize and mitigate the limitation of virtual/distance school counseling
confidentiality, which may include unintended viewers or recipients.
➔ Inform both the student and parent/guardian of the benefits and limitations of
virtual/distance counseling.
➔ Educate students on how to participate in the electronic school counseling
relationship to minimize and prevent potential misunderstandings that could occur
due to lack of verbal cues and inability to read body language or other visual cues
that provide contextual meaning to the school counseling process and school
counseling relationship
2. RESPONSIBILITIES TO PARENTS/ GUARDIANS, SCHOOL, AND SELF
● Responsibilities to Parents/Guardians
School counselors:
➔ Recognize that providing services to minors in a school setting requires school
counselors to collaborate with students’ parents/ guardians as appropriate.
➔ Respect the rights and responsibilities of custodial and noncustodial
parents/guardians and, as appropriate, establish a collaborative relationship with
parents/guardians to facilitate students’ maximum development.
➔ Adhere to laws, local guidelines, and ethical practice when assisting
parents/guardians experiencing family difficulties interfering with the student’s
welfare.
➔ Are culturally competent and sensitive to diversity among families. Recognize that
all parents/guardians, custodial and noncustodial, are vested with certain rights and
responsibilities for their children’s welfare by their role and according to law.
➔ Inform parents of the mission of the school counseling program and program
standards in academic, career, and social/ emotional domains that promote and
enhance the learning process for all students.
➔ Inform parents/guardians of the confidential nature of the school counseling
relationship between the school counselor and student.
➔ Respect the confidentiality of parents/guardians as appropriate and by following
the student’s best interests.
➔ Provide parents/guardians with accurate, comprehensive, and relevant information
in an objective and caring manner, as is appropriate and consistent with ethical and
legal responsibilities to the student and parent.
➔ In cases of divorce or separation, follow the directions and stipulations of the legal
documentation, maintaining focus on the student. School counselors avoid
supporting one parent over another.
● Responsibilities to the School
School counselors:
➔ Develop and maintain professional relationships and systems of communication
with faculty, staff, and administrators to support students.
➔ Design and deliver comprehensive school counseling programs that are integral to
the school’s academic mission; driven by student data; based on standards for
academic, career, and social/emotional development; and promote and enhance the
learning process for all students.
➔ Advocate for a school counseling program free of non-school-counseling
assignments identified by “The ASCA National Model: A Framework for School
Counseling Programs” as inappropriate to the school counselor’s role.
➔ Provide leadership to create systemic change to enhance the school.
➔ Collaborate with appropriate officials to remove barriers that may impede the
effectiveness of the school or the school counseling program.
➔ Provide support, consultation, and mentoring to professionals in need of assistance
when in the scope of the school counselor’s role.
➔ Inform appropriate officials, following school board policy, of conditions that may
be potentially disruptive or damaging to the school’s mission, personnel, and
property while honoring the confidentiality between the student and the school
counselor to the extent feasible, consistent with applicable law and policy
➔ Advocate for equitable school counseling program policies and practices for all
students and stakeholders.
➔ Promote cultural competence to help create a safer more inclusive school
environment.
● Responsibilities to Self
School counselors:
➔ Have completed a counselor education program at an accredited institution and
earned a master’s degree in school counseling.
➔ Maintain membership in school counselor professional organizations to stay up to
date on current research and to maintain professional competence in current school
counseling issues and topics. School counselors maintain competence in their
skills by utilizing current interventions and best practices.
➔ Accept employment only for those positions for which they are qualified by
education, training, supervised experience, and state/national professional
credentials.
➔ Adhere to ethical standards of the profession and other official policy statements
such as ASCA Position Statements and Role Statements, school board policies,
and relevant laws. When laws and ethical codes are in conflict school counselors
work to adhere to both as much as possible.
➔ Seek consultation and supervision from school counselors and other professionals
who are knowledgeable of school counselors’ ethical practices when ethical and
professional questions arise.
3. SCHOOL COUNSELOR ADMINISTRATORS/SUPERVISORS
School counselor administrators/supervisors support school counselors in their
charge by:
➔ Advocating both within and outside of their schools or districts for adequate
resources to implement a comprehensive school counseling program and meet
their students’ needs.
➔ Advocating for fair and open distribution of resources among programs
supervised. An allocation procedure should be developed that is
nondiscriminatory, informed by data, and consistently applied.
➔ Taking reasonable steps to ensure school and other resources are available to
provide appropriate staff supervision and training.
➔ Providing opportunities for professional development in current research related to
school counseling practice and ethics.
➔ Taking steps to eliminate conditions or practices in their schools or organizations
that may violate, discourage or interfere with compliance with the ethics and laws
related to the profession.
➔ Monitoring school and organizational policies, regulations, and procedures to
ensure practices are consistent with the ASCA Ethical Standards for School
Counselors.
4. SCHOOL COUNSELING INTERN SITE SUPERVISORS
Field/intern site supervisors:
➔ Are licensed or certified school counselors and/or have an understanding of
comprehensive school counseling programs and the ethical practices of school
counselors.
➔ Have the education and training to provide clinical supervision. Supervisors
regularly pursue continuing education activities on both counseling and
supervision topics and skills.
➔ Are culturally competent and consider cultural factors that may have an impact on
the supervisory relationship.
➔ Do not engage in supervisory relationships with individuals with whom they
cannot remain objective. Such individuals include, but are not limited to, family
members and close friends.
➔ Are competent with the technology used to perform supervisory responsibilities
and online supervision, if applicable. Supervisors protect all electronically
transmitted confidential information.
5. MAINTENANCE OF STANDARDS
When serious doubt exists as to the ethical behavior of a colleague(s) the
following procedures may serve as a guide:
➔ School counselors consult with professional colleagues to discuss the potentially
unethical behavior and to see if the professional colleague views the situation as an
ethical violation. School counselors understand mandatory reporting in their
respective districts and states.
➔ School counselors discuss and seek resolution directly with the colleague whose
behavior is in question unless the behavior is unlawful, abusive, egregious, or
dangerous, in which case proper school or community authorities are contacted.
➔ If the matter remains unresolved at the school, school district, or state professional
practice/standards commission, referral for review and appropriate action should
be made in the following sequence:
★ State school counselor association
★ American School Counselor Association (Complaints should be submitted in hard
copy to the ASCA Ethics Committee, c/o the Executive Director, American
School Counselor Association, 1101 King St., Suite 310, Alexandria, VA 22314.
6. ETHICAL DECISION MAKING
When faced with an ethical dilemma, school counselors and school counseling
program directors/supervisors use an ethical decision-making model such as
Solutions to Ethical Problems in Schools (STEPS) (Stone, 2001):
➔ Define the problem emotionally and intellectually
➔ Apply the ASCA Ethical Standards for School Counselors and the law
➔ Consider the students’ chronological and developmental levels
➔ Consider the setting, parental rights, and minors’ rights
➔ Apply the ethical principles of beneficence, autonomy, nonmaleficence, loyalty,
and justice Determine potential courses of action and their consequences
➔ Evaluate the selected action
➔ Consult
 ➔ Implement the course of action

Guidance & Counseling

INTRODUCTION

Guidance & counseling are twin concepts & have emerged as essential elements of every
educational activity. Guidance & counseling are not synonymous terms. Counseling is a
part of the guidance. Guidance, in an educational context, means to indicate, point out,
show the way, lead out & direct. Counseling is a specialized service of guidance. It is the
process of helping individuals learn more about themselves & their present & possible
future situations to make a substantial contribution to society.

DEFINITION OF GUIDANCE

● Guidance is assistance made available by a competent counselor to an individual

of any age to help him direct his own life, develop his point of view, make his own
decision & carry his burden. (Hamrin & Erikson)
● Guidance is a process of helping every individual, through his effort to discover &
develop his potentialities for his happiness & social usefulness. (Ruth Strang)

DEFINITION OF COUNSELING

● Counseling is essentially a process in which the counselor assists the counselee to

make interpretations of facts relating to a choice, plan, or adjustment which he
needs to make. (Glenn F. Smith)
● Counseling is a series of direct contacts with the individual which aims to assist
him in changing his attitude & behaviors. (Carl Rogers)

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING

GUIDANCE COUNSELING

Guidance is broader & Counseling is in-depth &

comprehensive narrow

Guidance is more external, helps a Counseling helps people understand

person understand alternative themselves & is an inward analysis.
solutions available to him & makes Alternative solutions are proposed to
him understand his personality & help understand the problem at hand.
choose the right solution.
Guidance is mainly preventive & Counseling is remedial as well as
developmental preventive & developmental

Intellectual attitudes are the raw Emotional rather than pure

material of guidance intellectual attitudes are the raw
material of the counseling process.

Decision making is operable at an Counselling operates at an

intellectual level in guidance emotional level

Guidance is generally education & Counseling is mostly offered for

career related & may also be for personal & social issues.
personal problems

PURPOSES OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

➔ Providing the needed information & assistance

➔ Helping individuals to make wise choices
➔ Improve the understanding of self
➔ Facilitate the adjustment
➔ Helps in adapting to the changes or new environment
➔ Making self-sufficient & independent
➔ Efficient use of capabilities & talent
➔ Promote the optimal personal & professional development
➔ Balanced physical, psychological, emotional, social & spiritual growth
➔ Helps in overall development & to live a productive life

OTHER FUNCTIONS OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

➔ To provide optimum development & well-being for individuals.
➔ To help individuals adjust to themselves & society.
➔ To help people understand themselves to the world.
➔ To aid individuals inefficient decision-making.
➔ To help individuals plan for a productive life in their social context by focusing on
their assets, skills, strengths & possibilities for further development.
➔ To bring about changes in the attitude & behavior of individuals.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GUIDANCE
➔ It is process
 ➔ It is a continuous process
➔ Choice & problem points are the distinctive concerns of guidance
➔ It is the assistance to the individual in the process of development rather than a
direction of that development
➔ Guidance is a service meant for all
➔ Guidance is both generalized & a specialized service
➔ Guidance is an organized service & not an incidental activity of the
school.
➔ Guidance is not a branch of any discipline
➔ Guidance has limits
➔ Guidance is more an art than science
➔ Guidance has its roots in the education system
➔ Guidance is centered around the needs & aspirations of students.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COUNSELLING
➔ Counseling involves two individuals-one seeking help & the other a
professionally trained person who can help the first.
➔ There should be a relationship of mutual respect between the two individuals.
➔ Counseling is aimed at bringing about desired changes in the individual for
self-realization & providing assistance to solve problems through an intimate
personal relationship.
➔ The counselor discovers the problems of the counselee & help him to set up
realistic goals
➔ If the counselee is a student, counseling helps him to make a decision,
make a choice or find a direction in matters related to an educational
program or career.
➔ It helps the counselee acquire independence & develop a sense of
responsibility.
➔ It is more than advice-giving.
➔ It involves something more than offering assistance to find a solution to an
immediate problem.
➔ Counseling is democratic.
➔ Counseling concerns itself with attitudes as well as actions Counselling is
centered around the needs & aspirations of students

SCOPE OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

➔ Guidance & counseling for personal needs/problems
➔ Guidance & counseling for educational needs/problems
 ➔ Guidance & counseling for physical, emotional, social, moral & marital problems
➔ Guidance & counseling for vocational, occupational & professional needs
➔ Guidance & counseling for career advancement
➔ Guidance & counseling for holistic individual development
➔ Guidance & counseling for situational problems

NEED OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

● Need for personal & social domain
➔ Personal & social development of individual
➔ To adapt in different stages of development
➔ Offering art of better living
➔ Proper use of leisure time
➔ Holistic personality development
➔ Best use of available opportunities
➔ Motivates for effective utilization & development of self

Need and importance of guidance and counseling at school settings

Guidance and counseling aim is to accommodate behavior change, enhance coping skills,
promote decision making, improve the relationship, and alleviate users’ potential.

Guidance and counseling help to perceive and comprehend one's talents and abilities,
help to foster an optimistic viewpoint, aids to develop resourcefulness and self-direction
in adjusting to changes in society. They likewise acquire recognition through their
services delivered in enhancing human happiness by being healthier, more productive,
achieving valuable lessons, and eliminating later stage issues as well.

The major aim of guidance and counseling services is to encourage students’ academic,
social, emotional, and personal development. Therefore they are an integral component of
education as well.

As schools play a massive role in young children’s life, guidance and counseling have
become very essential for them. Today these young minds need guidance to shape their
personality and also help to attend to the physical, social, psychological, educational, and
vocational needs of the school students.

Need & importance at various school setting levels:

1. PRIMARY/ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
● This level of education is the most important in all education levels. As it is the
early education process, it prepares a child for secondary school among other
benefits. The mind of the child at this level is pure and open, required to be filled
up.
● Early guidance and counseling programs at the primary level help the children to
live functional & meaningful lives & enhance positive adjustment procedures.
Guidance is simply a helping procedure through which the troubles faced by the
children can be taken care of while counseling is a soul of the whole guidance
program. The children can face a variety of problems like difficulty making
friends, teacher issues, lack of motivation, adjustment issues, academic issues,
suppression of their capabilities, time management, withdrawal problems, poor
study habits among others. They can even suffer from some disorders like
childhood depression, separation anxiety, learning disorders, intellectual
disabilities, etc. If counseling and guidance are properly applied then the children
will face fewer adjustment problems and will be able to grow & develop.
● Therefore they need guidance & counseling due to the following reasons: to
channelize the individual’s ability, interest, personality, talents, and aptitude as it
starts at this level for their developmental growth, to stem the tide of maladaptive
behaviors in the school system, and the general public, to identify and nurture the
gifted and talented children, for behavioral changes caused to due many social
problems, to provide the child with a stable foundation for future, academic,
psychological and personal growth as well.
● Guidance and counseling are important for primary school children in many ways.
It facilitates the smooth transition for children from home to school, & from
primary to secondary school. Guidance helps children to effectively handle issues
like friendship, teacher, study, etc. It is of foremost importance to address the
academic, vocational, personal, and social needs of the children. Through this,
they can develop a positive self-image and actualize their adjustment needs that
lead them into the future. The teachers can identify the pupil’s
strengths/weaknesses, abilities, interests, etc. unconditional positive regard is a
non-judgmental warmth/experience where the client feels accepted humanely.
Similarly, the pupils should believe that their teacher feels positively towards them
and should be unconditional not because the pupil has to become ‘an ideal child’.
Guidance and counseling help students to explore their emotions, feelings &
choices. It gives care and support to students learning to cope with the many
aspects of this transitional period and with their circumstances too. Students with
 disabilities face similar problems as the others like poor self-concept, time
management, disorganization in their thought processes, lack adequate expressive
language among others. Under proper counseling and guidance programs,
professionals can deal with these children as well.

2. MIDDLE SCHOOL
● When a student faces transition from primary to middle, they develop in 4 main
areas; physical, cognitive, emotional & social and sensory & motor development.
Students enter the adolescent phase which is quite a big change in their overall
personality & development and thus are prone to face more troubles. Some major
troubles include the following: the awkward phase (feelings of embarrassment,
unaware of changes, uncertainty in life), changing friendships (fewer
commonalities with childhood friends, unpredictable social & physical structure),
living in a culture of meanness (trying to acquire a sense of control, putting down
someone, bullying people which gives them a sense of power, unaware of the
damage caused), alone in groups (feel safe in a group till its strong, shallow levels
of trust & vulnerability, loneliness if no group is formed) & the independence vs.
dependence paradox (move to independence but crave for security & support from
parents, looks like an adult but having the mental ability of a child, wants parent's
guidance according to their requirements). This stage is best understood as a
critical period about puberty and also a revolution in a person’s life which starts
with biological transformation and finishes in adjusting to the challenges in
society. In this stage, the children are engaged in crimes, suffer from anxiety &
stress, depression among others.
● The need for guidance and counseling can be associated with adolescents as their
academic achievement can be one of the determinants for their mental health. A
counselor’s role also becomes sensitive when the final aim is students’ academic
achievement. The main idea behind guidance and counseling in schools is to make
progress in academic achievement, promote affirmative study attitudes and
behavior, and reduce school dropouts of the children, etc. It provides a clear
understanding to the students of the challenges, problems, and difficulties that they
face in adjusting to the contexts in which they live, grow and study.
● The importance of guidance and counseling help adolescents to recognize and
understand one's talents and abilities, develop an optimistic view for removal of
undesirable traits, aids to develop resourcefulness and self-direction in adapting to
changes in society. Counseling services help teenagers and their families to
identify ways to approach this time in a way that encourages their psycho-social
 development. Counseling helps teenagers to be safe, feel good about themselves,
and engage in respectful relationships. Guidance & counseling creates a positive
environment for the students so that they can share their feelings openly with a
person who is much older than him/her & to ensure that they are not being judged
as it's a safe environment & can be honest with their struggles. It boosts their
self-esteem which in turn helps them to understand they are accepted in society. It
also helps young people to pursue the right type of education. Whenever any
learner is confused between two career options, vocational guidance can help to
make a choice & motivate the individual as well. Guidance helps them to manage
their time & make sound decisions.

3. SENIOR SCHOOL
● The individual enters the later adolescent stage while transiting from middle to
senior school & thus suffers from a variety of problems/issues. Some major
problems faced during this stage include the following: sleep deprivation,
disorganization, unhealthy relationships, bullying, anxiety & depression, poor
eating habits, competitive academic environment, aggression, stream confusion
among others.
● The need for guidance & counseling for high school students includes effective
studying skills, time management, how to study and listen, improving social
problems like getting along with family members & other students better,
improving communication, making friends, dealing with relationship issues,
getting involved in extracurricular activities. It also consists of psychological
problems like reducing test/examination anxiety, concerns about smoking, helping
to gain self-confidence, stopping feeling sad, depressed, or stressed, and dealing
with anger. They also need guidance & counseling to help them evaluate their
experience, clear objectives & make plans for the future. It can help to measure
their vocational assets and abilities, prepare themselves for entry into the career of
their choice, and to get a suitable job.
● The importance of guidance & counseling assists the individuals to make
important decisions about their education. They have to know the choices that are
available in subjects, curricula, schools, or colleges to determine what exactly they
want to pursue. They have to know the subject combinations/options, what are the
subjects involved in the classroom, educational opportunities, etc. It helps students
to cope with examination anxiety as the fear of failure and a craving for high
grades are major stress factors among them & they are unable to handle this
pressure/stress. Therefore, guidance helps learners to overcome this fear and
 achieve good marks. It also guides students to develop effective study habits by
reading, note-taking, and listening. Guidance & counseling helps them to
understand the importance of self-assessment as it helps them to know about their
interest area, abilities, personalities, analytical level, and suited work styles. These
factors play a significant role in-stream and career selection. With proper guidance
& counseling, students will be able to overcome their daily as well as major
problems as well.

MODULE 2: Counselor in Educational Setting

TOPICS:
➢ The Profession of School Counseling: School Counselor as Program Coordinator,
Educational Leader, The Guidance Curriculum / Demonstrating Accountability,
Becoming a Systematic Change Agent- Advocacy
➢ Need for Counselling at various levels: Elementary School, Middle School,
Secondary School & Higher Secondary School
➢ Counseling & Curriculum Development
➢ Counseling & Family Intervention for Children
➢ Counselling & School Management

❖ The Profession of School Counseling: School Counselor as Program

Coordinator, Educational Leader, The Guidance Curriculum / Demonstrating
Accountability, Becoming a Systematic Change Agent- Advocacy
In the United States, the school counseling profession began as a vocational guidance
movement at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1907, Jesse B. Davis became the
principal of a high school and encouraged the school English teachers to use
compositions and lessons to relate career interests, develop character, and avoid
behavioral problems. From that grew systematic guidance programs, which later evolved
into comprehensive school counseling programs that address three basic domains:
academic development, career development, and personal/social development.
In North Carolina, one has to complete an approved master’s degree in school counseling
program in a regionally accredited college or university to be a licensed school counselor.
Within these counselor education programs, several standards are studied such as the
professional identity of school counseling, cultural diversity, human growth and
development, and career development. Also required are the core components for helping
relationships, group and individual work, assessment, research and program evaluation,
knowledge and requirements for school counselors, contextual dimensions of school
counseling, foundations of school counseling, and an internship under a highly qualified
school counselor.

School counselors are expected to apply their professional training in schools to support
student academic success. Through comprehensive school counseling programs of
developmental, preventive, remedial, and responsive services, school counselors address
academic development, career development, and personal/social development of
students. This job description is a guide for the implementation of such comprehensive
school counseling programs in the public schools of North Carolina.

Professional school counselors, formerly referred to as “guidance counselors,” are

professional educators who have a master’s degree or higher in school counseling (or the
substantial equivalent), and are certified or licensed by the state in which they work.
Professional school counselors possess the qualifications and skills necessary to address
the full array of students’ academic, personal, social, and career development needs.

Professional school counselors advocate for and care for students, and are important
members of the educational team. They consult and collaborate with teachers,
administrators, and families to help all students be successful academically, vocationally,
and personally.

The role and function of school counselors may be based on how they spend their time.
Individual counseling, guidance activities, consultation, and group counseling are major
activities as measured by time commitments. It is noted that for senior high counselors,
paperwork, scheduling, and administrative tasks are seen as significant time robbers that
deter counselors from allotting more time for individual and group counseling.

The variety in school settings will also account for some differences in the ways
counselors may carry out their roles. However, some common influences determine the
role and function of counselors regardless of the setting. These influences are:
i) Professional constants or determinants: These indicate what is appropriate and not
appropriate to the counselor’s role. These include guidelines and policy statements of
professional organizations, licensing or certification limitations, accreditation guidelines
and requirements, and the expectancies of professional training programs.
ii) Personal factors: These factors involve the interest of the counselor such as what he or
she likes to do, what the counselor gets encouraged to do and is rewarded for doing by
the school, community, or his peers, what the counselor has resources to do, what the
counselor perceives as the appropriate role and function for a given setting and finally
how life, in general, is going for the counselor. The counselor’s attitudes, values, and
experiences both on and off the job can influence how he or she views the job.

❖ Need for Counselling at various levels: Elementary School, Middle School,

Secondary School & Higher Secondary School

Elementary schools
Elementary schools are a powerful socializing force in human development. Every
individual carries important imprints for their elementary school experiences throughout
their lives. In this setting, the young pupil is expected not only to acquire knowledge but
also to learn to meet the school’s behavior and social expectancies. Failure to learn
generates behavior.

Counselors and teachers in the elementary school should focus on the following
developmental tasks for middle childhood:
• Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games.
• Learning to get along with age mates.
• Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating.
• Learning appropriate gender-specific roles.
• Developing concepts are necessary for everyday living.
• Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values.

In addition to counseling, consulting, and coordination functions, the elementary school

counselor has responsibilities for people’s orientation, assessment, and career and other
development needs as well as significant attention to the prevention of undesirable habits,
and behaviors.

1. Counselor: He should be available to meet individually or in groups with children

referred by teachers or parents or identified by the other helping professionals in
need of counseling. Counselors can anticipate individual pupils coming to the
counseling offices for assistance, advice, or support. Current social issues like
substance abuse, child abuse, divorce, and discrimination are a frequent basis for
individual counseling in elementary school.
2. Consultant: The counselor may confer directly with teachers, parents,
administrators and other helping professionals to help the student in a school
setting. He also helps others to assist the student–client in dealing more effectively
with developmental or adjustment needs.
 3. Coordinator: Elementary school counselors have a responsibility for the
coordination of the various guidance activities in the schools. Coordinating these
with ongoing classroom and school activities is also desirable.
4. Agent for Orientation: As a human development facilitator, the elementary
school counselor recognizes the importance of the child’s orientation to the goals
and environment of the elementary school. The counselor may plan group
activities and consult with teachers to help children learn and practice the
relationship skills necessary in the school setting.
5. Agent of Assessment: The school counselor while assessing the students should
also understand the impact of culture, environment of the school, and other
environmental influences on people’s behavior.
6. Agent of Prevention: In elementary school, there are early warning signs of
future problems for young children like learning difficulties, general moodiness,
and acting-out behaviors (fights, quarrels, disruptions, restlessness, impulsiveness,
and obstinacy). There is research evidence that children who cannot adjust during
their elementary school years are at high risk for a variety of later problems.
Further, substance abuse, violence among peers, vandalism has increased among
elementary school pupils raising concern for preventive efforts.

Middle school
The middle/ junior high school focuses on providing the orientation and transitional
needs and the educational and social-developmental needs of their populations. The
counselors working in a middle or junior high school will be involved in the following
roles –

1) Student Orientation: The counselor would orient the students and their parents to the
programs, policies, facilities, and counseling activities at this school level and later, their
pre-entry orientation to the high school they will attend.

2) Appraisal or Assessment Activities: Apart from school records and standardized test
data, counselors are involved in the use of observation and other techniques to identify
emerging traits of individual students during this critical development period.

3) Counseling: At this school level, both individual and group counseling would be used
by the counselors. It is observed that in the middle or junior high school, group
counseling is used more frequently than individual counseling.
4) Consultation: Another role of the counselor is to provide consultation to faculty,
parents, and also school administrators regarding the developmental and adjustment
needs of individual students.

5) Student Development: At this middle school level, school counselors, faculty and other
helping professionals should focus on student development. This refers to understanding
the developmental characteristics of this age group and their attending developmental
tasks and planning programs that are appropriately responsive.

Higher secondary school

The roles and functions of the secondary school counselor are in no way different from
those of counselors in elementary and middle high schools. The only difference is in how
counselors in the secondary school discharge their role and function and in various
emphases appropriate to secondary school testing. For instance, the emphasis at the
secondary school level shifts slightly from the preventive to the remedial in dealing with
many common counseling concerns. Many of these issues are serious liver problems such
as addiction to drugs and alcohol, sexual concerns, and interpersonal relationship
adjustments.

Further, there is less client emphasis on preparing for decisions and more emphasis on
making decisions. These include immediate or impending career decisions or further
education decisions, decisions relevant to relationships with the opposite sex, and perhaps
marriage, and decisions involved in developing personal value systems.

One of the thrust areas of secondary school counseling is guidance programs.

The goals of guidance programs are:
• To help students with their academic achievement in high school.
• To help students plan and prepare for postsecondary schooling.
• To help students with personal growth and development.
• To help students plan and prepare for their work roles after high school.

The secondary school counselor should focus on the following characteristics of

adolescents while providing counseling:
• It is a period of continuous physical growth and arousal of sexual impulses.
• It is a period of movement toward maturity with a focus on independence,
responsibility, and self-discipline.
• Many adolescents exaggerate their ability to solve the problems of the world and those
that are personal for them. Many become critical of adult solutions to social problems,
lifestyles, and values and deny that adults can evaluate the life of adolescents.

❖ Counseling & Curriculum Development

This responsibility addresses the extent to which the principal is directly involved in the
design and implementation of curriculum, instruction, and assessment activities at the
classroom level. This type of hands-on support has been a staple of discussions regarding
school leadership for decades. As the responsibility of Visibility (discussed later),
Involvement in Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment is considered critical to the
concept of instructional leadership. Stein and D’Amico (2000) attest to the importance of
this responsibility by noting that knowledge of subject matter and pedagogy should be as
important to administrators as it is to teachers. As a result of their synthesis of the
research on leadership, researchers at the National Institute on Educational Governance,
Finance, Policymaking, and Management (1999) noted that an administrator’s ability and
willingness to provide input regarding classroom practices was one of the most highly
valued characteristics reported by teachers. In that same brief, the authors reported that in
one large school district in the Northwest, both the superintendent and the principals
regularly visited classrooms to learn to recognize and describe good teaching and to
provide better instructional feedback to teachers. Relative to this responsibility, Reeves
(2004) emphasizes the principal’s involvement in assessment practices. He explains that
in an effective school the principal personally evaluates student work and participates in
collaborative scoring sessions in which the percentage agreement by the faculty is
measured and posted. The principal personally reviews faculty-created assessments as
part of each teacher evaluation and coaching meeting. (p. 50)
Specific behaviors and characteristics associated with this responsibility as defined by
our meta-analysis are the following:
• Being directly involved in helping teachers design curricular activities
• Being directly involved in helping teachers address assessment issues
• Being directly involved in helping teachers address instructional issues

To illustrate, the school leader demonstrates the responsibility of Involvement in

Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment when she regularly meets with teachers to
review the use of end-of-quarter tests that have been developed to determine if they can
be improved. The school leader also executes this responsibility when she meets with
members of the science department to discuss how they will ensure that the required
science courses address the content of the science section on the state test.

Knowledge of Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment

Whereas Involvement in Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment deals with a hands-on
approach to classroom practices, Knowledge of Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment
addresses the extent to which the leader is aware of best practices in these domains.
The focus here is on the acquisition and cultivation of knowledge, whereas the
responsibility of Involvement in Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment is
action-oriented. Fullan (2001) attests to the importance of this responsibility by
explaining that a counselor’s knowledge of effective practices in curriculum, instruction,
and assessment is necessary to guide teachers on the day-to-day tasks of teaching and
learning. Elmore (2000) adds that “leadership is the guidance and direction of
instructional improvement” (p. 13).

To accomplish this, principals must be students of best practices. Reeves (2004) echoes
that an extensive knowledge base regarding best practices is necessary to mentor
teachers. To develop an extensive knowledge base, Fullan (2001) recommends that
principals meet monthly with other administrators to stay abreast of current advances in
curriculum, instruction, and assessment.

As straightforward and obvious as this responsibility might appear, some believe that it
receives little attention in practice. To illustrate, in a 1999 policy brief, researchers at the
National Institute of Educational Governance, Finance, Policymaking, and Management
noted that “instructional knowledge has traditionally received little emphasis in the hiring
process for principals’ jobs” (paragraph 4). When describing the results of a study of
interview protocols used with principals, the researchers noted that “people who did well
in other stages of interviewing could not accurately describe the lessons they had seen”

Specific behaviors and characteristics identified in our meta-analysis and associated with
this responsibility are the following:
• Possessing extensive knowledge about effective instructional practices
• Possessing extensive knowledge about effective curricular practices
• Possessing extensive knowledge about effective assessment practices
• Providing conceptual guidance regarding effective classroom practices

❖ Counseling & Family Intervention for Children

School-Based Family Counseling (SBFC) is an integrated approach to mental health
intervention that focuses on both school and family to help children overcome personal
problems and succeed at school. SBFC is practiced by a wide variety of mental health
professionals, including psychologists, social workers, school counselors, psychiatrists,
and marriage and family therapists, as well as special education teachers. What they all
share in common is the belief that children who are struggling in school can be best
helped by interventions that link family and school. SBFC is typically practiced at the
school site but may be based in a community mental health agency that works in close
collaboration with schools.

Need for Counseling & Family Intervention for Children

Family problems, such as marital discord, divorce, financial difficulties, child abuse and
neglect, life-threatening illness, sibling in a gang, and poor parenting skills are associated
with a wide variety of children's problems, e.g. delinquency, depression, suicide attempts,
and substance abuse.
These family problems can harm children's learning and school behavior. However, there
is research showing that healthy families that cope effectively with their problems help
children succeed at school.

Some of the problems SBFC approaches have been used to address are bullying and
cyber-bullying, depression, marital problems, school violence, grief and loss, trauma,
life-threatening illness, school crises, learning disorders, immigrant families, suicide, and
school suspension.
When a student walks into a professional school counselor’s office, we are presented with
a rare opportunity. When a student and parent walk in together, we are handed an even
rarer opportunity.

Family counseling offers unique and engaging ways of reframing problems. Rather than
blaming an individual for a particular problem, family counselors look at the family
system. Perhaps a child’s acting-out behaviors allow parents to avoid looking at their
relational problems. Perhaps a child’s failing grades reflect more on family anxiety and
stress than on individual issues. Fundamentally, family counseling takes a larger, more
systemic perspective of presenting issues.

Professional school counselors possess wonderful skill sets. They understand rapport
building. They understand relational dynamics. They understand problem assessment and
the utility of interventions. The connection between families and school adjustment is
undeniable. At the same time, school counselors will likely find continuing education and
supervision indispensable in helping families.

In our experience, students and families can often benefit from a family counseling
perspective. With so many students in the schools coping with changing family
structures, we must expand our skill sets. Fortunately, there are multiple platforms
through which we can provide help. Some of these options include:

❖ Individual counseling from a family perspective

❖ Co-therapy with single families
❖ School-based divorce groups with multiple children
❖ Single-parent support groups

Major benefits experienced by students receiving SBFC included

(a) improved academic functioning,
(b) reduced problematic emotional and behavioral symptoms,
(c) decreased incidences of classroom disruption affecting other students,
(d) improved prosocial behaviors in the home,
(e) strengthened relationships between schools and families served by SBFC, and (f)
promotion of cost-effective access to counseling services.

❖ Counselling & School Management

An organizational structure that encourages collaborative efforts will demonstrate

evidence of administrative support for shared-decision-making; an organizational
philosophy that encourages integrated or multi-disciplinary efforts; leaders ready to
restructure with enthusiasm for change; recognition of the interdependence of
organizations in society; a collegial history; availability of financial support and time for
skill training; and opportunities to develop collaborative efforts.

● Consult with families and staff to highlight students’ needs and discuss strategies
necessary for improved social and academic performance
● Plan and organize classroom counseling sessions to address career, academic, and
personal development issues among students
● Develop and implement school counseling programs effective in meeting students’
needs for success
● Prepare students for the transition to higher institutions and colleges
 ● Ensure school curriculum meets the academic and developmental needs of
students
● Conduct student assessment and maintain records of test results
● Implement programs for students with special needs or learning disabilities
● Organize seminars to educate teenagers/parents on sensitive topics
● Listen to students’ concerns and proffer recommendations effective in addressing
academic or psychological issues and offer recommendations effective in
resolving such issues
● Guide and support school staff in implementing school advisory programs
● Employ responsive counseling in establishing positive relationships between
teachers, parents, and students.

MODULE 3: Role of Personal Guidance

TOPICS:
➢ Principal, Teacher, Counselor, Career Counselor, Parents & other Specialists
➢ Holistic Model- 5 aspects: Personal, Temperamental, Professional, Social,
Environmental
➢ Importance of Holistic Approach in School Counselling
➢ Overview of the other approaches to counseling children

Principal, Teacher, Counselor, Career Counselor, Parents & other Specialists

Principal

An effective relationship between the principal and school counselor is essential when
improving student achievement. To have an effective relationship, there must be
communication, trust and respect, leadership, and collaborative planning between the
principal and school counselor (College Board, 2011). Principals and school counselors
are both instrumental leaders in the schools and they are most effective when they can
carry out their appropriate roles. Principals must assign appropriate counseling duties and
responsibilities and not administrative and coordination responsibilities. Allowing the
school counselor to implement counseling programs will help principals to identify and
address issues that contribute to academic failure.

A collaborative relationship between the principal and school counselor

Benefits of collaboration.
When considering the relationship between school principals and school counselors, as
well as the potential barriers and conflicts of interest which they may face, the ultimate
goal is a collaboration between the two. Collaboration between school professionals can
enhance teaching practices, student achievement, and overall school environment, and
such collaboration is facilitated largely by the school’s principal or other administrators.
Rather than working as separate entities, principal-counselor collaboration allows both
parties to combine their unique skill sets and resources for the betterment of the school.
Bore and Bore (2009) suggest that while some principals may be hesitant to team up with
counselors, those who do will find that they can tap underutilized counselor skills and
resources which can create a more supportive and inclusive environment for the entire
school community. Schools with strong principal-counselor collaboration have lower
turnover, higher job satisfaction, and more effective school counseling programs. Not
only a benefit to the relationship of the principal and counselor, but such collaboration is
also beneficial to students, staff, and the school as a whole.

Methods of collaboration.

There are a variety of ways suggested in the literature in which principals and counselors
can collaborate. Young and colleagues suggest that building a collaborative culture starts
with the principal. School principals can do this by partnering with counselors to ensure
that they are provided the proper support and services they need to effectively do their
jobs, reducing inappropriate counselor tasks, and providing professional development
opportunities for areas in which counselors may need more training (Young et al., 2013).

When addressing specific school issues, such as bullying or identifying at-risk students, it
is imperative that school principals and counselors work together to create cohesive
programming and properly carry out school policy (Austin, Reynolds, & Barnes, 2016).
Many times, collaboration in these situations could be as simple as the principal
recognizing that the counselor has the specialized skills and training to handle such
student situations and allowing them the space and opportunity to address the need
(Johnson & Perkins, 2009). By working as a team in such situations, principals and
counselors can better ensure the quality and effectiveness of measures taken.

According to a study conducted by the College Board (Finkelstein, 2009), the 10

characteristics of a strong principal-counselor relationship include:

● Open communication that provides multiple opportunities for input decision

making.
 ● Opportunities to share ideas on teaching, learning, and schoolwide educational
initiatives.
● Sharing information about the needs within the school and the community.
● School counselor participation on school leadership teams.
● Joint responsibility in the development of goals and metrics that indicate success.
● Mutual trust between the principal and school counselors.
● A shared vision of what is meant by student success.
● Mutual respect between the principal and school counselors.
● Shared decision-making on initiatives that impact student success.
● A collective commitment to equity and opportunity.

Collaborating with Administration

It is very important that the school administration and the school counselors work
together to support teaching and learning throughout the school building. The following
are some ways that counselors can partner with administration:

● Provide targeted classroom management assistance to teachers.

● Provide support and counseling services to students identified by the
administration who are believed to be struggling behaviorally, academically, or
emotionally.
● Provide recommendations for the school's counseling budget.
● Sit on various committees and teacher team or department meetings to provide
insight into student needs beyond the classroom.
● Help administration identifies address, and mediate student issues.
● Assist in planning, coordinating, and implementing school-wide student programs.

Collaborating with Teachers

There are always opportunities for school counselors to collaborate with teachers. Below
is a list of ways in which counselors can support and collaborate with teachers.

● Observe students who have been identified as challenging and offer suggestions
for classroom management.
● Offer resources and guidance for teachers seeking to infuse social and emotional
topics into their lessons.
● Provide counseling to students who have been identified by teachers as in need of
additional support.
 ● Involve staff when planning college and career events for students. It's always
great for students to hear the success stories of positive adult influences.
● Help Address Behavior Concerns within the Classroom
● Classroom Management Techniques
● Provide Academic Resources
● Consultation on Accommodations

Holistic Model- 5 aspects: Personal, Temperamental, Professional, Social,

Environmental

Holistic education is a thorough way to deal with granting schooling where teachers try to
address the enthusiastic, social, moral, and scholarly requirements of students in a
coordinated learning design. Accentuation is set on certain school conditions and giving
scholastic and non-scholarly requirements of the understudies.

It urges students to ponder what their activities mean for other people and their general
surroundings, which requires more noteworthy thought and less spotlight on repetition
remembrance of realities and methods. It additionally puts an accentuation on applying
important abilities in a true setting since it reminds understudies that their choices sway
their current circumstances and others.

Comprehensive schooling permits teachers to outline the abilities that understudies

master inside a certifiable setting, and those abilities can be moved and utilized in
numerous conditions.

5 domains of the holistic model of guidance are:

● Personal
● Temperamental
● Vocational/ professional
● Social
● Environmental

Personal

Schools have an important role to play in helping learners develop and manage their
physical and emotional well-being. Institutions should include personal development
programs for students in their holistic schooling curriculum.
Teachers tend to focus mainly on academic work, forgetting important aspects, like
personal development, which can act as a stepping stone for graduates looking to join the
workforce.

Personal development is when students learn more about their interests and work towards
achieving them. During this process, one gets to also build confidence. Personal
development for students is important because of the overall benefits, especially when it
comes to higher learning programs. We can’t talk about academic development without
including personal development. Academic growth must be supplemented by personal
development so that when a student completes a higher learning course, they have what it
takes to be competitive in the job market.

It’s easier for a student, especially in the early stages, to change habits and attitudes if
helped by their instructors and parents.

In a holistic school setting, it can be argued that personal development is one of the
most important things students need to learn.

Schools can prepare students for success in life by incorporating lessons on

self-awareness, resilience, time management, and other personal development skills into
their daily curriculum.

● Teach Self-Awareness: Students must learn to recognize their strengths and

weaknesses before they can leverage them or develop strategies for improvement.
Self-awareness helps children understand themselves better so they can make
smart decisions about how best to tackle challenges in the future.
● Practice Resilience: Mental toughness and emotional intelligence are crucial
skills in today’s workplace and both begin with resilience training in school.
Students need to learn how to deal with failure, recover from challenges and
bounce back when things don’t go their way.
● Teach Time Management: Managing your time effectively is a vital skill for
students at all levels from infant school and into adult life. The earlier kids learn
how to effectively manage their time, the easier it will be for them in future years
when they’re juggling classes, jobs, and family responsibilities.
● Encourage Self-Discipline: All too often, people rely on others for motivation
and discipline that’s a short-term strategy with long-term consequences. Schools
should teach kids self-discipline through self-motivation and encourage kids to set
goals for themselves and take ownership over their success or failure.
● Teach Self-Acceptance: When we accept ourselves as we are, it makes it easier to
grow as individuals and build genuine relationships with other people. Students
need education in learning how not just value other people but learn to respect and
love themselves as well.
● Encourage Self-Expression: Creativity and personal development go hand in
hand. The more we express ourselves, whether, through writing, music, or other
forms of self-expression, then we become better at understanding our own
emotions and thoughts. Schools can encourage students to express themselves
through activities like creative writing courses or after-school clubs focused on
building creativity.
● Help Kids Find Meaning in Life: Many kids struggle with finding meaning in
their lives during adolescence and sometimes even into adulthood but it’s vital for
success later on that they learn how to find purpose by contributing something
positive to society, seeking happiness from within, and sharing what they have
with others.
● Emphasize Empathy: Schools should teach children how to be empathetic
because it helps them build better relationships, make smarter decisions and lead
healthier lives all qualities employers seek out in their workers today.

Temperamental

Temperament refers to individual genetic and personality differences in a disposition

that represent emotional reactivity and self-regulation.

Children’s temperament has been related to their academic outcomes, social success,
and mental health. Both reactive and regulatory temperament characteristics are
salient to the classroom environment; reactive temperament traits, such as shyness,
activity level, negative emotionality, anger, and regulatory temperament traits, such as
attentional focusing and inhibitory control are particularly relevant to children’s
success in school because of the inherently social, competitive, and academic nature
of the classroom context. Children are expected to interact positively with peers by
sharing and taking turns in group activities, as well as with teachers, by following
directions and responding well to new information, changing circumstances, and
redirection. These behaviors require children to enact behaviors that may be
challenging (i.e., staying quiet, remaining still, raising a hand to get the teacher’s
attention, and waiting for a turn to participate in a desirable activity).

A higher-quality classroom environment fosters increased social skills and academic

achievement as well as decreased aggression and externalizing behavior; this is
 particularly significant for children who are higher in reactivity and lower in
regulation.

Understanding temperament is a useful tool for early childhood teachers to promote

goodness-of-fit which occurs when teaching or caregiving practices positively align
with children’s temperament and classroom interactions. Teachers who are
knowledgeable about various temperament types and combinations are better
equipped to respond to the individual differences in their classrooms more
thoughtfully and effectively. Therefore, interventions that provide holistic education
with temperament-based strategies with better understanding and effective
management of children’s emotions and behavior help disrupt trajectories for negative
outcomes.

Vocational/ Professional

Vocational education focuses on the acquisition of appropriate skills, abilities, and

competencies as necessary equipment for the individual to live in adapt to the real work
situation and contribute to the development of his society.

It assists all young people to secure their future by enhancing their transition to a lot of
opportunities after school. Vocational education can be seen as an aspect of education
skills that utilize scientific knowledge in the acquisition of practical and applied skills
non-directive in the solution of technical problems.

Providing vocational education as a part of holistic guidance and counseling can have
various benefits, such as specialized training, better job opportunities higher earnings,
retraining for a new career, a better learning environment, and increase personal
development and growth

Importance of vocational education in holistic development:

● Vocational Education helps people in the better performance of their jobs as they
acquire a great learning experience.
● Vocational Education as the term itself denotes the students are specialized and
therefore, they have more chances of employment as compared to others.
● For many students who are in a dilemma whether they should attend college or
not, Vocational education opens a completely new door.
● It makes an individual a responsible and independent
● The career of one's own choice is one of the major benefits of this education. A
vast majority of people are caught in the wrong jobs because they were in it for the
 sake of job, money, lack of alternative and professional compromise whereas an
individual pursuing Vocational Education is already pursuing his dream job.
● Certain vocational skills acquired from Vocational Education teach students the
importance of manual work. The physical labor done under certain jobs makes
them strong, healthy, active.
● Another benefit is that Hands-on work activities allow direct application of
acquired knowledge.

Social

It can be said that schooling has as much to do with the socialization of children as it does
with teaching academic content. At school, students learn to interact and communicate
effectively with their peers and with authority figures. Schools must recognize this role
with an explicit social skills curriculum to help students of all ages and developmental
levels.

Social skills give kids a wide range of benefits. They are linked to greater success in
school and better relationships with peers.

● Better educational and career outcomes: Researchers from Penn State and Duke
University found that children who were better at sharing, listening, cooperating,
and following the rules at age five were more likely to go to college. They also
were more likely to be employed full-time by age 25.
● Better success in life: Good social skills also can help kids have a brighter future.
According to a study published in the American Journal of Public Health, a child’s
social and emotional skills in kindergarten might be the biggest predictor of
success in adulthood.
● Stronger friendships: Kids who have strong social skills and can get along well
with peers are likely to make friends more easily. A study published in the
International Encyclopaedia of the Social & Behavioural Sciences indicates that
childhood friendships are good for kids’ mental health. Friendships also give
children opportunities to practice more advanced social skills, like
problem-solving and conflict resolution.
● Improves students’ communication: Social skills learning improves students’
communication with peers and adults, improves cooperative teamwork, and helps
them become effective, caring, concerned members of their communities. At the
same time, it teaches them how to set and achieve individual goals and persistence,
skills that important for their successful development into adulthood, work, and
life
Researchers have found that children experienced a decrease in cortisol, a hormone
released during stressful situations, once they learned new social skills

Environmental

Environmental education provides important opportunities for students to become

engaged in real-world issues that transcend classroom walls. They can see the relevance
of their classroom studies to the complex environmental issues confronting our planet and
they can acquire the skills they’ll need to be creative problem solvers and powerful
advocates.

Importance of Environmental Education

➔ Imagination and enthusiasm are heightened; Environmental Education is

hands-on, interactive learning that sparks the imagination and unlocks creativity.
When Environmental Education is integrated into the curriculum, students are
more enthusiastic and engaged in learning, which raises student achievement in
core academic areas.
➔ Learning transcends the classroom; Not only does Environmental Education
offer opportunities for experiential learning outside of the classroom, but it also
enables students to make connections and apply their learning in the real world.
Environmental Education helps learners see the interconnectedness of social,
ecological, economic, cultural, and political issues.
➔ Critical and creative thinking skills are enhanced; Environmental Education
encourages students to research, investigate how and why things happen, and
make their own decisions about complex environmental issues. By developing
and enhancing critical and creative thinking skills, Environmental Education helps
foster a new generation of informed consumers, workers, as well as policy or
decision-makers.
➔ Tolerance and understanding are supported; Environmental Education
encourages students to investigate varying sides of issues to understand the full
picture. It promotes tolerance of different points of view and different cultures.
➔ State and national learning standards are met for multiple subjects; By
incorporating Environmental Education practices into the curriculum, teachers can
integrate science, math, language arts, history, and more into one rich lesson or
activity, and still satisfy numerous state and national academic standards in all
subject areas. Taking a class outside or bringing nature indoors provides an
excellent backdrop or context for interdisciplinary learning.
➔ Healthy lifestyles are encouraged; Environmental Education gets students
outside and active, and helps address some of the health issues we are seeing in
children today, such as obesity, attention deficit disorders, and depression. Good
nutrition is often emphasized through Environmental Education and stress is
reduced due to increased time spent in nature.
➔ Communities are strengthened: Environmental Education promotes a sense of
place and connection through community involvement. When students decide to
learn more or take action to improve their environment, they reach out to
community experts, donors, volunteers, and local facilities to help bring the
community together to understand and address environmental issues impacting
their neighborhood.
➔ Responsible action is taken to better the environment: Environmental
Education helps students understand how their decisions and actions affect the
environment, builds knowledge and skills necessary to address complex
environmental issues, as well as ways we can take action to keep our environment
healthy and sustainable for the future
➔ Students and teachers have been empowered: Environmental Education
promotes active learning, citizenship, and student leadership. It empowers youth to
share their voice and make a difference at their school and in their communities.
Environmental Education helps teachers build their environmental knowledge and
teaching skills.
➔ Improving Academic Achievement. Environmental Education improves test
scores by providing students with engaging lessons about the natural world that
can be applied to all subject areas and grades.
➔ Breaking the Indoor Habit. Environmental Education offers an antidote to the
plugged-in lives of today’s generation, which is the first to grow up indoors.
Children who experience school grounds or play areas with diverse natural settings
are more physically active, more aware of good nutrition, more creative, and more
civil to one another.
➔ Improving Student Health. Environmental Education gets students outdoors and
active, and helps to address common health issues in children today, such as
obesity, attention deficit disorder, and depression.
➔ Cultivating Leadership Qualities. Environmental Education emphasizes
cooperative learning with others, critical thinking and discussion, and a focus on
action strategies with real-world applications.
➔ Improving Focus and Cognition. Environmental Education increases the ability
of students to focus and improves their cognitive abilities. Children with the
 attention-deficit disorder also benefit from more exposure to nature–the greener a
child’s everyday environment, the more manageable are their symptoms.

Importance of Holistic Approach in School Counselling

➔ Builds Confidence: school counselors can instill and help students to build
confidence in themselves by providing them with various opportunities to succeed.
A holistic curriculum enables teachers to recognize students’ unique strengths and
treat them all equally.
➔ Incorporates Emotional Reflection: school counselors can provide moments for
students to reflect, contemplate, or meditate to encourage emotional reflection in
daily routines. Lessons to teach empathy could focus on effective listening and
observation techniques or literature that presents varying perspectives on social
issues.
➔ Improved Academic Achievements: Holistic education can improve academic
achievements, regardless of background and circumstances. It caters to individual
learning styles and provides a supportive learning environment.
➔ Enhanced Mental & Emotional Well-Being: In a supportive environment, where
social and emotional learning is emphasized along with academics, students can
have a better chance of emerging with self-awareness, confidence, and a sense of
social responsibility.
➔ Reduced Impact of Inequities: By emphasizing integrated learning concepts, the
whole-child approach to education has been shown to reduce the psychological
impact of issues
➔ It focuses on the physical, emotional, intellectual, spiritual, and social
development of the student.
➔ The teacher plays the role of a facilitator to induce development in students
➔ It enhances and develops the cognitive and creative sides of its students and helps
students discover an identity, purpose, and meaning in connection to the
community.
➔ It is an integrated education system that is transformative and the entire system is a
skill and knowledge-oriented
➔ There is a strong collaborative relationship among students, parents, and teachers.
➔ It tries to cultivate a constructive approach, Gandhi’s Basic Education, Values
Education, and Peace Education.
➔ It is more relevant to the life of the student as a whole and makes use of
classrooms that promote active learning.
 ➔ It provides a great level of freedom of the mind and heart while focusing on the
artistic, academic, and practical aspects of learning.
➔ It also helps in developing inspiration, imagination, and intuition in its students
while focusing on a curriculum that values the interests, needs, and abilities of its
students.

Overview of the other approaches to counseling children

Directive Counselling Approach

● It is also known as prescriptive counseling or a counselor-centered approach to

counseling.
● This approach of counseling is advocated by E.G.Williamson, a professor at the
University of Minnesota.
● In directive counseling, the counselor plays a leading role & uses a variety of
techniques to suggest appropriate solutions to the counselee's problem.
● This approach is also known as the authoritarian or psychoanalytic approach.
● The counselor is active & helps individuals in making decisions & finding a
solution to their problems.
● The counselor believes in the limited capacity of the patient.
● The patient makes the decision but the counselor does all he can to get the patient
to make a decision keeping with his diagnosis.
● The counselor tries to direct the patient’s thinking by informing, explaining,
interpreting & advising.

Steps of the directive counseling approach

E.G.Williamson has given the following six steps in providing directive counseling

1. Follow-up
2. Information gathering
3. Synthesis
4. Diagnosis
5. Prognosis
6. Counseling
Advantages of the directive counseling approach
● This approach saves time.
 ● It emphasizes the problem & not the individual. The counselor can see the patient
more objectively than the patient himself.
● It lays more emphasis on the intellectual rather than the emotional aspects of an
individual’s personality.
● The methods used in directive counseling are direct, persuasive & explanatory.
Limitations of the directive counseling approach
● The patient does not gain any liability for self-analysis or solve new problems of
adjustment by counseling.
● It makes the counselee overdependent on the counselor.
● Problems regarding emotional maladjustment may be better solved by
nondirective counseling.
● Sometimes the counselee lacks information regarding the counselee, which leads
to wrong counseling.
● It does not guarantee that the counselee will be able to solve the same problem on
his own in the future.

Nondirective Counselling Approach

● The chief exponent of this counseling approach, Carp R.
● It is also known as the permissive counseling approach where the counselor's role
is passive & the counselee’s role is active.
● It is a counselee-centered or patient-centered humanistic approach.
● The counselee makes the final decisions as individuals are thoughts to have full
right to make final decisions for the self & solve their problems.
● The counselor has to accept the counselee’s capacity to make adjustments & adapt
● The principles of acceptance & tolerance are extremely important in this approach.
The basic assumptions related to the non-directive counseling approach are:
1. The patient is given more importance than the counseling directions &
investigations
2. Emotional aspects are more significant than intellectual aspects.
3. The creation of an atmosphere where patients can work out their understanding is
more important than cultivating self-understanding in the patient.
4. Counseling leads to a voluntary choice of goals & a conscious selection of
5. courses of action

Steps of nondirective counseling approach

 1. Defining the problem situation
2. Counselee gives freedom to express his feeling
3. Identifying counselee’s feelings
4. Developing counselee’s insight
5. Termination of counseling

Advantages of nondirective counseling approach

● It is a slow but sure process to make an individual capable of making adjustments.
● No tests are used so one avoids all that is laborious & difficult.
● It removes emotional blocks & helps an individual bring repressed thoughts on a
conscious level thereby reducing tension.

Limitations of nondirective counseling approach

● It is a slow & time-consuming process.
● One cannot rely upon one’s resources, judgment & wisdom as the patient is
immature in making the decision himself.
● It depends too much on the ability & initiative of the patient.
● Sometimes difficult to control the pace of the interview discussion.
● This approach is individual-centric, it may not possible for a counselor to attend to
every patient equally well.
● It requires a high degree of motivation in the patient.
Eclectic Counselling Approach
● This approach is based on the fact that all individuals are different from one
another.
● The techniques are elective because they have been derived from all sources of
counseling.
● This approach is based on selecting the best & leaving out what is least required.
The basic assumption related to eclectic counseling approach:
1. There is objectivity & coordination between the counselor & the patient during
the counseling experience.
2. The patient is active & the counselor remains passive in the beginning.
3. The principle of low expenditure is adopted.
4. The counselor makes use of all the tools & methods in his armor.
5. The counselor enjoys the freedom to resort to directive & non-directive counseling
methods.
 6. The counseling relationship is built during the counseling interview. This helps the
patient gain reassurance & confidence.

Steps of eclectic counseling approach

1. Establishing rapport
2. Diagnosing the problem
3. Analyzing the case
4. Preparing a tentative plan for modifying behavior
5. Counseling
6. Follow up

Advantages of eclectic counseling approach

● It is a more cost-effective & practical approach.
● It is a more flexible approach to counseling.
● It is a more objective & coordinated approach to counseling.

Limitations of eclectic counseling approach

● The role of the counselor & the counselee is not predetermined.

● It requires more skilled counselors to handle the dynamic feature of this
counseling approach.

MODULE 4 & 5 (HANDWRITTEN NOTES)

MODULE 6: Indian Education System: The Changing Perspective

TOPICS:
➢ Growth & policies
➢ New Measures
➢ Psychology of deprived (Ch- 3,4 and 6)

GROWTH AND POLICIES

Education in India is primarily managed by the state-run public education system, which
falls under the command of the government at three levels: Central, state, and local.
Under various articles of the Indian Constitution and the Right of Children to Free and
Compulsory Education Act, 2009, free and compulsory education is provided as a
fundamental right to children aged 6 to 14. The approximate ratio of public schools to
private schools in India is 7:5. Major policy initiatives in Indian education are numerous.
Up until 1976, education policies and implementation were determined legally by each of
India’s constitutional states. The 42nd amendment to the constitution in 1976 made
education a ‘concurrent subject’. From this point on the central and state governments
shared formal responsibility for funding and administration of education. In a country as
large as India, now with 28 states and eight union territories, this means that the potential
for variations between states in the policies, plans, programs, and initiatives for
elementary education is vast. Periodically, national policy frameworks are created to
guide states in their creation of state-level programs and policies. State governments and
local government bodies manage the majority of primary and upper primary schools and
the number of government-managed elementary schools is growing.

In the 2011 Census, about 73% of the population was literate, with 81% for males and
65% for females. National Statistical Commission surveyed literacy to be 77.7% in
2017–18, 84.7% for males, and 70.3% for females. This compares to 1981 when the
respective rates were 41%, 53%, and 29%. In 1951 the rates were 18%, 27%, and 9%.
India's improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to its
economic development. Much of the progress, especially in higher education and
scientific research, has been credited to various public institutions. While enrolment in
higher education has increased steadily over the past decade, reaching a Gross Enrolment
Ratio (GER) of 26.3% in 2019, there remains a significant distance to catch up with
tertiary education enrolment levels of developed nations, a challenge that will be
necessary to overcome to continue to reap a demographic dividend from India's
comparatively young population.

Poorly resourced public schools which suffer from high rates of teacher absenteeism may
have encouraged the rapid growth of private (unaided) schooling in India, particularly in
urban areas. Private schools divide into two types: recognized and unrecognized schools.
Government ‘recognition’ is an official stamp of approval and for this, a private school is
required to fulfill many conditions, though hardly any private schools that get
‘recognition’ actually fulfill all the conditions of recognition. The emergence of large
numbers of unrecognized primary schools suggests that schools and parents do not take
government recognition as a stamp of quality.

As per the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2012, 96.5% of all rural children
between the ages of 6-14 were enrolled in school. This is the fourth annual survey to
report enrolment above 96%. India has maintained an average enrolment ratio of 95% for
students in this age group from 2007 to 2014. As an outcome, the number of students in
the age group 6-14 who are not enrolled in school has come down to 2.8% in the
academic year 2018 (ASER 2018).

In 1986, the government led by Rajiv Gandhi introduced a new National Policy on
Education. The new policy called for "special emphasis on the removal of disparities and
to equalize educational opportunity," especially for Indian women, Scheduled Tribes
(ST), and the Scheduled Caste (SC) communities. To achieve such a social integration,
the policy called for expanding scholarships, adult education, recruiting more teachers
from the SCs, incentives for poor families to send their children to school regularly,
development of new institutions, and providing housing and services. The NPE called for
a "child-centered approach" in primary education and launched "Operation Blackboard"
to improve primary schools nationwide. The policy expanded the open university system
with the Indira Gandhi National Open University, which had been created in 1985. The
policy also called for the creation of the "rural university" model, based on the
philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi, to promote economic and social development at the
grassroots level in rural India. The 1986 education policy expected to spend 6% of GDP
on education.

Education is a very important factor in the economic development of any country. India
since the early days of independence has always focused on improving the literacy rate in
our country. Even today the government runs many programs to promote Primary and
Higher Education in India.

Education in India
Education in India means the process of teaching, learning, and training of human capital
in schools and colleges. This improves and increases knowledge and results in skill
development hence enhancing the quality of the human capital. Our government has
always valued the importance of education in India and this is reflected in our economic
policies.

The percentage of expenditure on education out of total government expenditure is the

indicator of the importance of education in the scheme of expenses before the
government. The commitment level towards the development of education in our country
can be shown by the percentage of expenditure done on education out of total GDP.

During 1952-2010, the percentage of total education expenditure out of total government
expenditure increased from 7.92% to 11.10%. At the same time, the percentage of GDP
of the country increased from 0.64% to 3.25%. As the expenditure on education was not
constant during that time, the growth of the country was irregular in that era.

● Expenditure on Elementary Education in India: In comparison to expenditure done

on elementary education and higher education, the major share was grabbed by
elementary education. On the contrary, expenditure per student on higher
education was higher than that of elementary education. As the expansion of
school education is going on, we need more trained teachers who have studied at
educational institutes. Therefore, expenditure on all levels of education should
increase. Himachal Pradesh spends Rs. 2005 as per capita education expenditure
as compared to Bihar which spends Rs. 515. This results in differences in
educational opportunities between states.
● Free and Compulsory Education: The education commission (1964-66)
recommended that at least 6% of GDP should be spent on education to make a
recognizable growth rate in education. In December 2002, the government of
India, through its 86th amendment of the Constitution of India, declared free and
compulsory education as a fundamental right to all children in the age group of
6-14 years. The Tapas Majumdar Committee was appointed by the government of
India in the year 1998. The committee estimated an expenditure of Rs. 1.37 Lakh
crore (approx) for 1998-99 to 2006-07, to cater to all Indian children of 6-14 years
age group, under the umbrella of school education. Currently, the expenditure is
around 4%, which has to be increased to 6% to reach desired results in years to
come. Government levies education cess at the rate of 2% on all union taxes. The
revenues from education cess will be earmarked for spending on elementary
education.
● Educational Achievement in India: Barometers of educational achievement in a
country are:
➔ Adult literacy level
➔ Primary education completion rate
➔ Youth literacy rate
 ● Future Prospects: The Indian government considers education as a key area where
drastic growth and development are required. So various prospects have been
considered and policies drafted. The vision is to ensure that education in India is of
the highest quality and available to the whole population without discrimination.
Let us look at some projects the government wishes to implement successfully.

1. Education for all – A Dream

Though the education level has increased for both youth as well as adults, still the
number of illiterates is as much as the population was at the time of independence. The
constituent assembly passed the Constitution of India in the year 1950. Free and
compulsory education for the children till 14 years of age within 10 years from the
commencement of the constitution was noted as Directive Principal of the constitution.
Following are the factors which make education for all a dream:
➔ Gender bias
➔ Low rural access
➔ An increasing number of illiterates
➔ Privatization
➔ Low expenditure on education by the government
2. Improving Gender Equality
The differences between males and females are reducing and the same can be seen in
literacy rate, showcasing development in gender equity. Still, hard work is left to promote
the education of women. There are various reasons, such as:
 ➔ The social status of women
➔ Healthcare of women and children
➔ Improving economic independence
Therefore, we cannot feel satisfied with the upward movement in literacy rate as long as
miles go for gender equity. Kerala, Mizoram, Goa, and New Delhi are having high
literacy rates, whereas Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, and Rajasthan are
educationally backward states. Social and Economic Poverty are the main reasons for
educational backwardness.

3. Higher Education
People in India face great difficulty to reach the higher levels in the current education
system. As per National Sample Survey Organization data, in the FY 2007-08, the
unemployment rate was 18.10% for youth with education up to secondary level. Whereas
the unemployment rate for youth with education up to primary level was only 11.60%.
The government should take an emphasis on the allocation of higher education and
improve the students.

NEW MEASURES

NATIONAL EDUCATION POLICY 2020

➔ Education Policy lays particular emphasis on the development of the creative

potential of each individual. It is based on the principle that education must
develop not only cognitive capacities -both the ‘foundational capacities’ of
literacy and numeracy and ‘higher-order cognitive capacities, such as critical
thinking and problem-solving –but also social, ethical, and emotional capacities
and dispositions.
➔ The new education policy must provide to all students, irrespective of their place
of residence, a quality education system, with a particular focus on historically
marginalized, disadvantaged, and underrepresented groups. Education is a great
leveler and is the best tool for achieving economic and social mobility, inclusion,
and equality. Initiatives must be in place to ensure that all students from such
groups, despite inherent obstacles, are provided various targeted opportunities to
enter and excel in the educational system.

School Education
➔ The 10+2 structure has been replaced with 5+3+3+4 consisting of 12 years of
school and three years of Anganwadi or pre-school.
The split will be as follows –
1. a foundational stage(ages 3 to 8 years)
2. three years of pre-primary(ages 8 – 11 years)
3. a preparatory stage(ages 11 to 14 years)
4. a secondary stage( ages 14 to 18 years)
➔ No exams will be held every year. School students will sit only for three exams- at
classes 3, 5, and 8.
➔ Board exams in schools will be held for classes 10 and 12 but will be re-designed
with an aim of holistic development. Test of actual knowledge of students will be
done instead of “rote learning”.
➔ National Assessment Centre- ‘PARAKH’ has been created to assess the students.
➔ Home language, mother tongue, or regional language will be the medium of
instruction up to Class 5.
➔ School curriculum will also be reduced to core concepts and there will be the
integration of vocational education from Class 6.
➔ Report cards will be a comprehensive report on skills and capabilities instead of
just marks and statements.
➔ The national mission will focus on basic literacy and basic numeracy.
➔ Major changes have been announced in the pedagogical structure of the
curriculum with no rigid separation between streams; all
➔ Separations between vocational and academic and curricular and extra-curricular
will also be removed.

Higher Education
➔ A Higher Education Council of India(HECI) will be set up to regulate higher
education. The council will aim at increasing the gross enrollment ratio from 26.3
percent to 50 percent by 2035.
➔ The HECI will have four independent verticals- National Higher Education
Regulatory Council for regulation, General Education Council to set standards,
Higher Education Grants Council for funding, and National Accreditation Council
for accreditation.
➔ MPhil courses will be discontinued under the new policy and all the courses at
undergraduate, postgraduate, and Ph.D. levels will now be interdisciplinary.
➔ All higher education institutions, except legal and medical colleges, will be
governed by a single regulator.
➔ Common norms will be in place for private and public higher education
institutions. It will also cap fees charged by educational
 ➔ institutions.
➔ Common entrance exams will be held for admission to universities and higher
education institutions.
➔ There will be holistic and multidisciplinary education in terms of flexibility of
subjects.
➔ Other features include graded academic, administrative, and financial autonomy of
institutions.
➔ E-courses will be developed in regional languages; virtual labs will be developed
and a National Educational Technology Forum (NETF) is being created.
➔ There are over 45,000 affiliated colleges in our country. Under graded autonomy,
academic, administrative, and financial autonomy will be given to colleges, based
on the status of their accreditation.

Previous Policies
The implementation of previous policies on education has focused largely on issues of
access and equity. The unfinished agenda of the National Policy on Education 1986,
modified in 1992 (NPE 1986/92), is appropriately dealt with in this Policy. A major
development since the last Policy of 1986/92 has been the Right of Children to Free and
Compulsory Education Act 2009 which laid down legal underpinnings for achieving
universal elementary education.

Principles of the National Education Policy 2020

➔ Recognizing, identifying, and fostering the unique capabilities of each student, by
sensitizing teachers as well as parents to promote each student’s holistic
development in both academic and non-academic spheres.
➔ According to the highest priority to achieving foundational literacy and numeracy
by all students by grade 3.;
➔ Flexibility, so that learners can choose their learning trajectories and programs,
and thereby choose their paths in life according to their talents and interests;
➔ No hard separations between arts and sciences, between curricular and
extracurricular activities, between vocational and academic streams, etc. to
eliminate harmful hierarchies among, and silos between different areas of learning.
➔ Multidisciplinarity and a holistic education across the sciences, social sciences,
arts, humanities, and sports for a multidisciplinary world to ensure the unity and
integrity of all knowledge;
➔ Emphasis on conceptual understanding rather than rote learning and
learning-for-exams.;
 ➔ Creativity and critical thinking to encourage logical decision-making and
innovation;
➔ Ethics and human & constitutional values like empathy, respect for others,
cleanliness, courtesy, democratic spirit, the spirit of service, respect for public
property, scientific temper, liberty, responsibility, pluralism, equality, and justice;
➔ Promoting multilingualism and the power of language in teaching and learning;
➔ Life skills such as communication, cooperation, teamwork, and resilience;
➔ Focus on regular formative assessment for learning rather than the summative
assessment that encourages today’s ‘coaching culture”;
➔ Extensive use of technology in teaching and learning, removing language barriers,
increasing access for divyang students, and educational planning and management;
➔ Respect for diversity and respect for the local context in all curriculum, pedagogy,
and policy, always keeping in mind that education is a concurrent subject;
➔ Full equity and inclusion as the cornerstone of all educational decisions to ensure
that all students can allow thriving in the education system;
➔ Synergy in curriculum across all levels of education from early childhood care and
education to school education to higher education;
➔ Teachers and faculty as the heart of the learning process their recruitment,
continuous professional development, positive working environments, and service
conditions;
➔ A ‘light but a tight regulatory framework to ensure integrity, transparency, and
resource efficiency of the educational system through audit and public disclosure
while encouraging innovation and out-of-the-box ideas through autonomy, good
governance, and empowerment;
➔ Outstanding research as a corequisite for outstanding education and development;
➔ Continuous review of progress based on sustained research and regular
Assessment by educational experts;
➔ Rootedness and pride in India, and its rich, diverse, ancient and modern culture
and knowledge systems and traditions.
➔ Education is a public service; access to quality education must be considered a
basic right of every child;
➔ Substantial investment in a strong, vibrant public education system as well as the
encouragement and facilitation of true philanthropic private and community
participation.

The Vision of this Policy

 ➔ An education system rooted in Indian ethos that contributes directly to
transforming India, that is Bharat, sustainably into an equitable and vibrant
knowledge society, by providing high-quality education to all, and thereby making
India a global knowledge superpower.
➔ The curriculum and pedagogy of our institutions must develop a deep sense of
respect towards the fundamental duties and Constitutional values, bonding with
one’s country, and conscious awareness of one’s roles and responsibilities in a
changing world.
➔ To instill a deep-rooted pride in being Indian, not only in thought, but also in
spirit, intellect, and deeds, as well as to develop knowledge, skills, values, and
dispositions that support responsible commitment to human rights, sustainable
development and living, and global well-being, thereby reflecting a truly global
citizen.

SALIENT FEATURES OF NEP 2020

SALIENT FEATURES OF NEP 2020: SCHOOL EDUCATION

1. NEW PEDAGOGICAL AND CURRICULAR STRUCTURE
➔ Currently, children in the age group of 3-6 are not covered in the 10+2 structure as
Class 1 begins at age 6. In the new 5+3+3+4 structure, a strong base of Early
Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) from age 3 is also included.
➔ Universal provisioning of quality early childhood development, care, and
education must thus be achieved as soon as possible, and no later than 2030, to
ensure that all students entering Grade 1 are school ready.
➔ The overarching goal will be to ensure universal access to high-quality ECCE
across the country in a phased manner.
➔ A concerted national effort will be made to ensure universal access and allow all
children of the country to obtain quality holistic education-including vocational
education from pre-school to Grade 12.
2. EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND EDUCATION: THE FOUNDATION OF
LEARNING
➔ Universal provisioning of quality early childhood development, care, and
education must be achieved as soon as possible, and no later than 2030.
➔ The overall aim of ECCE will be to attain optimal outcomes in the domains of
physical and motor development, cognitive development, socio-emotional-ethical
development, cultural/artistic development, and the development of
communication and early language, literacy, and numeracy.
➔ A National Curricular and Pedagogical Framework for Early Childhood Care and
Education (NCPFECCE) for children up to the age of 8 will be developed by
NCERT.
➔ The numerous rich local traditions of India developed over millennia in ECCE
involving art, stories, poetry, games, songs, and more will also be suitably
incorporated.
➔ ECCE shall be delivered through a significantly expanded and strengthened
system of early childhood education institutions consisting of the following:
★ stand-alone Anganwadis;
★ Anganwadis co-located with primary schools;
★ pre-primary schools/sections covering at least age 5 to 6 years co-
★ located with existing primary schools; and
★ stand-alone pre-schools
3. FOUNDATIONAL LITERACY AND NUMERACY: AN URGENT &
NECESSARY PREREQUISITE TO LEARNING
➔ A National Mission on Foundational Literacy and Numeracy will be set up by the
Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) on priority.
➔ All-State/UT governments will prepare an implementation plan for attaining
universal foundational literacy and numeracy in all primary schools for all learners
by grade 3 to be achieved by 2025.
➔ Teachers will be trained to impart foundational literacy and numeracy. To ensure
that all students are school-ready, an interim 3-month play-based school
preparation module for all Grade 1 students will be developed by NCERT and
SCERTs.
➔ States to consider establishing innovative models to foster peer-tutoring and
volunteer activities, etc. for promoting foundational literacy and numeracy.
➔ Public and school libraries will be significantly expanded, and digital libraries will
also be established.
4. CURTAILING DROPOUT RATES AND ENSURING UNIVERSAL
ACCESS TO EDUCATION AT ALL LEVELS
➔ Two initiatives for the above:
★ No school remains deficient in infrastructure support from pre-primary
school to Grade 12 and alternative and innovative education centers to
ensure that children of migrant laborers and other children who are
dropping out of school due to various circumstances are brought back into
mainstream education.
 ★ Achieve universal participation in school by carefully tracking students, as
well as their learning levels.
➔ The focus will be to have less emphasis on input and greater emphasis on output
potential concerning desired learning outcomes.
➔ Efforts to involve community: Databases of literate volunteers, retired
➔ scientists/government/semi-government employees, alumni, and educators will be
created for this purpose.
5. HOLISTIC DEVELOPMENT OF LEARNERS
➔ The overall thrust of curriculum and pedagogy reform is to move towards real
understanding and learning how to learn and away from the culture of rote
learning.
➔ The aim of education will not only be cognitive development but also building
character and creating holistic and well-rounded individuals equipped with the key
21st-century skills.
➔ Specific sets of skills and values across domains will be identified for integration
and incorporation at each stage of learning, from pre-school to higher education.
6. REDUCTION IN CURRICULUM CONTENT TO ENHANCE ESSENTIAL
LEARNING AND CRITICAL THINKING
➔ Curriculum content will be reduced in each subject to its core essentials, and make
space for critical thinking and more holistic, inquiry-based, discovery-based,
discussion-based, and analysis-based learning.
➔ The mandated content will focus on key concepts, ideas, applications, and
problem-solving.
➔ Teaching and learning will be conducted in a more interactive manner
7. EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING
➔ In all stages, experiential learning will be adopted.
➔ Will include hands-on learning, arts-integrated and sports-integrated education,
story-telling-based pedagogy, among others, as standard pedagogy.
➔ Classroom transactions will shift towards competency-based learning and
education.
➔ The assessment tools (including assessment “as”, “of”, and “for” learning) will be
aligned with the learning outcomes, capabilities, and dispositions as specified for
each subject of a given class.
8. NO HARD SEPARATION
➔ Students will be given increased flexibility and choice of subjects to study,
particularly in secondary school – including subjects in physical education, arts
and crafts, and vocational skills.
➔ There will be no hard separation among '.curricular’, ‘extracurricular’, or
'co-curricular, among ‘arts’, ‘humanities’, and ‘sciences’, or between ‘vocational'
or ‘academic’ streams.
➔ Subjects such as physical education, arts and crafts, and vocational skills, in
addition to science, humanities, and mathematics, will be incorporated throughout
the school curriculum.
➔ Each of the four stages of school education may consider moving towards a
semester or any other system that allows the inclusion of shorter modules
9. MULTILINGUALISM AND THE POWER OF LANGUAGE
➔ Wherever possible, the medium of instruction until at least Grade 5, but preferably
till Grade 8 and beyond, will be the home language/mother-tongue/local
language/regional language.
➔ Thereafter, the home/local language shall continue to be taught as a language
wherever possible.
➔ This will be followed by both public and private schools.
➔ High-quality textbooks, including in science, will be made available in home
languages/mother tongue.
➔ All languages will be taught in an enjoyable and interactive style.
➔ States may enter into bilateral agreements to hire teachers from each other.
➔ The three-language learned by children will be the choices of States, regions, and
the students, so long as at least two of the three languages are native to India.
➔ Efforts to prepare high-quality bilingual textbooks and teaching-learning materials
for science and mathematics, so that students are enabled to think and speak about
the two subjects both in their home language/mother tongue and in English.
➔ Indian Sign Language (ISL) will be standardized across the country, and National
and State curriculum materials developed for use by students with hearing
impairment.
10. CURRICULAR INTEGRATION OF ESSENTIAL SUBJECTS, SKILLS,
AND CAPACITIES.
➔ Certain subjects, skills, and capacities will be emphasized in school: such as
scientific temper and evidence-based thinking; creativity and innovativeness; a
sense of aesthetics and art; oral and written communication; health and nutrition;
physical education, fitness, wellness, and sports; collaboration and teamwork;
problem-solving and logical reasoning; vocational exposure and skills; digital
literacy, coding, and computational thinking; ethical and moral reasoning; etc.
➔ Introduction of contemporary subjects such as Artificial Intelligence, Design
Thinking,
➔ Holistic Health, Organic Living, Environmental Education, Global Citizenship
Education (GCED), etc. at relevant stages
11. NATIONAL CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK FOR SCHOOL EDUCATION
(NCFSE)
➔ The formulation of a new and comprehensive National Curricular Framework for
School.
➔ Education, NCFSE 2020-21, will be undertaken by the NCERT.
➔ The NCFSE document shall henceforth be revisited and updated once every 5-10
years, taking into account the frontline curriculum.
12. KNOWLEDGE OF INDIA
➔ Will include knowledge from ancient India to modern India as well as future
aspirations.
➔ Will be incorporated accurately and scientifically throughout the school
curriculum wherever relevant.
➔ Traditional Indian values and all basic human and Constitutional values will be
developed in all students.
➔ Excerpts from the Indian Constitution will also be considered essential reading for
all students.
➔ Basic training in health, including preventive health, mental health, good nutrition,
personal and public hygiene, disaster response, and first-aid will also be included
in the curriculum, as well as scientific explanations of the detrimental and
damaging effects of alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs.
13. NATIONAL TEXTBOOKS WITH LOCAL CONTENT AND FLAVOUR
➔ All textbooks shall aim to contain the essential core material on a national level,
but at the same time contain any desired nuances and supplementary material as
per local contexts and needs.
➔ States will prepare their curricula which may be based on the NCFSE prepared by
NCERT to the extent possible and prepare textbooks (which may be based on the
NCERT textbook materials to the extent possible), incorporating State flavor and
material as needed.
➔ Concerted efforts, through suitable changes in curriculum and pedagogy, will be
made to significantly reduce the weight of school bags and textbooks.
14. TRANSFORMING ASSESSMENT FOR STUDENT DEVELOPMENT
➔ All students will take school examinations in Grades 3, 5, and 8 also, which will
test achievement of basic learning outcomes and application of knowledge in
real-life situations.
➔ The Board exams for Grades 10 and 12 will be continued.
➔ Board exams will be made easier, as they will test primarily core
capacities/competencies rather than months of coaching/memorization.
➔ A National Assessment Centre, PARAKH (Performance Assessment, Review, and
Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development) to be set up as a
standard-setting body for setting norms, standards, and guidelines for student
assessment and evaluation for all recognized school boards.
➔ The National Testing Agency (NTA) will offer a high-quality common aptitude
test, as well as specialized common subject exams in the sciences, humanities,
languages, arts, and vocational subjects, at least twice every year for university
entrance exams.
15. SUPPORT FOR GIFTED STUDENTS/STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL
TALENTS
➔ The NCERT and NCTE will develop guidelines for the education of gifted
children.
➔ B.Ed. programs may also allow specialization in the education of gifted children.
➔ Teachers will encourage students with singular interests and/or talents in the
classroom by giving them supplementary enrichment material and guidance.
➔ Olympiads and competitions in various subjects will be conducted across the
country.
➔ Online apps with quizzes, competitions, assessments, enrichment materials, and
online communities for shared interests will be developed as group activities.
➔ Schools will develop smart classrooms, in a phased manner.
16. TEACHERS RECRUITMENT AND DEPLOYMENT
➔ Transfers will be conducted through an online computerized system that ensures
transparency.
➔ Teacher Eligibility Tests (TETs) will be strengthened and extended to cover
pre-primary to grade 12 teachers, in both public and private schools.
➔ For subject teachers, suitable TET or NTA test scores along with a classroom
demonstration will be utilized for recruitment.
17. CONTINUOUS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT (CPD)
➔ Continuous opportunities for self-improvement will be offered in multiple modes,
such as workshops, online teacher development modules, etc.
➔ Each teacher will be expected to participate in at least 50 hours of CPD
opportunities every year driven by their interests.
➔ School Principals will also be expected to participate in 50 hours or more of CPD
modules per year, covering leadership and management, with a focus on preparing
and implementing pedagogical plans based on competency-based education.
18. PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS FOR TEACHERS
➔ A common guiding set of National Professional Standards for Teachers (NPST)
will be developed by 2022, by the NCTE.
➔ The standards would cover expectations of the role of the teacher at different
levels of expertise/stage, and the competencies required for that stage.
➔ NCTE is to be restructured as a Professional Standard Setting Body (PSSB) under
the General Education Council (GEC).
19. SPECIAL EDUCATORS
➔ For subject teaching for children with disabilities/Divyang children at the Middle
and Secondary school level, specializations will be offered during or after
pre-service teacher preparation with greater synergy between the course
curriculum of NCTE and RCI.
20. TEACHER EDUCATION
➔ The Regulatory System shall be empowered to take stringent action against
substandard and dysfunctional teacher education institutions (TEIS) that do not
meet basic educational criteria, after giving one year for remedy of the breaches.
➔ By 2030, only educationally sound, multidisciplinary, and integrated teacher
education programs shall be in force.
➔ All fresh Ph.D. entrants, irrespective of discipline, will be required to take
credit-based courses in teaching/education/pedagogy/writing related to their
chosen Ph.D. subject and will also have a minimum number of hours of actual
teaching experience.
➔ The use of technology platforms such as SWAYAM/DIKSHA for online training
of teachers will be encouraged.
➔ A National Mission for Mentoring shall be established, with a large pool of
outstanding senior/retired faculty who would be willing to provide short and
long-term mentoring professional support to university/college teachers.
21. EQUITABLE AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION: LEARNING FOR ALL
➔ Focus on Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Groups (SEDGs)
➔ Within SEDGs, and for all the above policy points, special attention will be given
to reducing the disparities in the educational development of Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes. As a part of the efforts to enhance participation in school
education, special hostels in dedicated regions, bridge courses, and financial
assistance through fee waivers and scholarships will be offered.
➔ Regions of the country with large populations from educationally-disadvantaged
SEDGs should be declared Special Education Zones (SEZs), for additional
concerted efforts.
➔ A ‘Gender-Inclusion Fund will be constituted to provide equitable quality
education for all girls as well as transgender students.
➔ Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas will be strengthened and expanded to increase
the participation in quality schools (up to Grade 12)
➔ Additional Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas and Kendriya Vidyalayas will be built
around the country, especially in aspirational districts, Special Education Zones,
and other disadvantaged areas.
➔ Pre-school sections covering at least one year of early childhood care and
education will be added to Kendriya Vidyalayas and other primary schools around
the nation, particularly in disadvantaged areas.
➔ Schools/school complexes will be provided resources for the integration of
children with disabilities, recruitment of special educators with cross-disability
training, and the establishment of resource centers
➔ All participants in the school education system, including teachers, principals,
administrators, counselors, and students, will be sensitized to the requirements of
all students, the notions of
➔ Inclusion and equity, and the respect, dignity, and privacy of all persons.
22. REIMAGINING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
➔ By 2025, at least 50% of learners through the school and higher education system
shall have exposure to vocational education
➔ Beginning with vocational exposure at early ages in middle and secondary school,
quality vocational education will be integrated smoothly into higher education.
➔ Every child to learn at least one vocation and be exposed to several more.
➔ A sampling of important vocational crafts, such as carpentry, electric work,
metalwork, gardening, pottery making, etc., as decided by States and local
communities during Grades 6-8.
➔ A 10-day bagless period sometime during Grades 6-8 to intern with local
vocational experts such as carpenters, gardeners, potters, artists, etc.
➔ Similar internship opportunities to learn vocational subjects to students throughout
Grades 6-12, including holiday periods.
➔ Vocational courses through online mode will also be made available.
➔ Vocational education will be integrated into the educational offerings of all
secondary schools in a phased manner over the next decade. Towards this,
secondary schools will also collaborate with ITIs, polytechnics, local industry, etc.
Skill labs will also be set up
23. ADULT EDUCATION AND LIFELONG LEARNING
➔ The curriculum framework for adult education will include at least five types of
programs, each with clearly defined outcomes:
★ foundational literacy and numeracy;
★ critical life skills (including financial literacy, digital literacy, commercial
skills, health care, and awareness, etc.);
★ vocational skills development
★ basic education (including preparatory, middle, and secondary stage
equivalency);
★ continuing education (including engaging holistic adult education courses
in arts, sciences, technology, culture, sports, and recreation, etc.
➔ Use of schools/ school complexes beyond school hours and public library spaces
for adult education courses which will be ICT-equipped when possible and for
other community engagement and enrichment activities.
➔ Trained instructors/educators will be required to deliver the curriculum framework
to mature learners
➔ Qualified community members including those from Higher Educational
Institutions to engage with their local communities will be encouraged and
welcomed to take a short training course and volunteer.

1. What are the salient features of the new Education policy 2020?

➔ All higher education institutions, except legal and medical colleges, are to be
governed by a single regulator​.
➔ Common norms to be in place for private and public higher education institutions.
➔ MPhil courses to be discontinued.
➔ Board exams are to be based on knowledge application.
➔ Home language, mother tongue, or regional language to be medium of instruction
up to class 5.
➔ Common entrance exams to be held for admission to universities and higher
education institutions.
➔ School curriculum to be reduced to core concepts; integration of vocational
education from class 6.
➔ Multilingualism is the underlying principle of this policy.
➔ Using the power of language for integration and understanding Indian culture and
values is the intended objective.
 ➔ In Grades 6-8, the focus is on vocational studies at the school- level, which
includes carpentry, electric work, metalwork, gardening, pottery making, etc., as
decided by States and local communities.
➔ Experiential learning includes arts-integrated and sports-integrated education as
well as story-telling-based pedagogy.
➔ The existing 10+2 structure in school education will be modified with a new
pedagogical and curricular restructuring of 5+3+3+4 covering ages 3-18. This
means the first five years of school will comprise the foundation stage. The next
three years will be divided into a preparatory stage from classes 3 to 5. Later, there
will be three years of middle stage (classes 6 to 8), and four years of secondary
stage (classes 9 to 12).

2. What are the basic differences in the challenges of Primary sector and tertiary
education?

Primary Education:
➔ The primary education in India is divided into two parts, namely Lower Primary
(Class I-IV) and Upper Primary
➔ (Middle school, Class V-VIII).
➔ Emphasis is more on primary education (Class I-VIII) also referred to as
elementary education, to children aged 6 to 14
➔ Years old. Because education laws are given by the states, the duration of primary
school visits alters between the states.
➔ The government has also banned child labor to ensure that the children do not
enter unsafe working conditions.
➔ However, both free education and the ban on child labor are difficult to enforce
due to economic disparity and social conditions.
➔ 80% of all recognized schools at the elementary stage are government-run or
supported, making it the largest provider of education in the country.

Tertiary Education:
➔ Tertiary education, also referred to as third-level, third-stage, or post-secondary
education, is the educational level following the completion of secondary
education.
➔ The World Bank defines tertiary education as including universities as well as
trade schools and colleges.
 ➔ The main governing body at the tertiary level is the University Grants Commission
(India) (UGC), which enforces its standards, advises the government, and helps
coordinate between the center and the state up to Postgraduate and Doctorate
(Ph.D.).
➔ Accreditation for higher learning is overseen by 12 autonomous institutions
established by the University Grants Commission.

3. How many policies have we had so far and what was the fundamental objective
of each which makes every policy unique?

Education Under British Rule

➔ The education system was first developed in the three presidencies (Bombay,
Calcutta, and Madras). By linking entrance and advancement in government
service to academic education, colonial rule contributed to the legacy of an
education system geared to preserving the position and prerogatives of the more
privileged.
➔ In the early 1900s, the Indian National Congress called for national education,
emphasizing technical and vocational training.
➔ In 1920 Congress initiated a boycott of government-aided and
government-controlled schools and founded several ‘national’ schools and
colleges.

Nehru’s Vision for Education

➔ Following Independence, school curricula were imbued with the twin themes of
inclusiveness and national pride.
➔ The most notable feature is the entrenchment of the pluralist/secularist perspective
in the minds of the Indian people.
➔ Subsidized quality higher education through institutions such as the IITs and IIMs
formed a major contribution to the Nehruvian vision of a self-reliant and modern
Indian state.
➔ In addition, policies of positive discrimination in education and employment
furthered the case for access by hitherto unprivileged social groups to quality
education.

The Kothari Commission

 ➔ Education for modernization, national unity, and literacy drawing on Nehru’s
vision, and articulating most of his key themes, the Kothari Commission
(1964–1966) was set up to formulate a coherent education policy for India.
➔ According to the commission, education was intended to increase productivity,
develop social and national unity, consolidate democracy, modernize the country
and develop social, moral, and spiritual values.
➔ To achieve this, the main pillar of Indian education policy was to be free and
compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14.
➔ Other features included the development of languages (Hindi, Sanskrit, regional
languages, and the three-language formula) equality of educational opportunities
(regional, tribal and gender imbalances to be addressed), and the development and
prioritization of scientific education and research.
➔ The commission also emphasized the need to eradicate illiteracy and provide adult
education.

National Policy on Education 1986

➔ In 1986, a new education policy, ‘the National Policy on Education (NPE)’ was
announced, which was intended to prepare India for the 21st century.
➔ The policy emphasized the need for change: ‘Education in India stands at the
crossroads today. Neither normal linear expansion nor the existing pace and nature
of improvement can meet the needs of the situation.’
➔ According to the new policy, the 1968 policy goals had largely been achieved:
more than 90 percent of the country’s rural population were within a kilometer of
schooling facilities and most states had adopted a common education structure.
➔ The prioritization of science and mathematics had also been effective. However,
change was required to increase financial and organizational support for the
education system to tackle problems of access and quality.

Other Important Initiatives:

➔ Operation Blackboard (1987–8) aimed to improve the human and physical

resources available in primary schools.
➔ Restructuring and Reorganization of Teacher Education (1987) created a resource
for the continuous upgrading of teachers’ knowledge and competence
 ➔ Minimum Levels of Learning (1991) laid down levels of achievement at various
stages and revised textbooks
➔ The National Programme for Nutritional Support to Primary Education (1995)
provided a cooked meal every day for children in Classes 1–5 of all government,
government-aided, and local body schools.
➔ District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) (1993) emphasized decentralized
planning and management, improved teaching and learning materials, and school
effectiveness.
➔ The movement to Educate All (2000) aimed to achieve universal primary
education by 2010 through micro-planning and school-mapping exercises,
bridging gender and social gaps.
➔ Fundamental Right (2001) involved the provision of free and compulsory
education, declared to be a basic right for children aged between 6 and 14 years.

4. ASER report and latest conclusion

ASER is a sample-based household survey and the largest citizen-led survey in India. It
is an annual survey that aims to provide reliable annual estimates of children’s schooling
status and basic learning levels for each state and rural district in India. Every year since
2005, ASER has reported on the ability to do basic reading and arithmetic tasks for
children in the 5-16 age group in Rural India. In 2017, ASER 'Beyond Basics' focused on
the abilities, experiences, and aspirations of youth in the 14-18 age group.

ASER REPORT ON NEP 2020

➔ More than 20 percent of students in Standard I are less than six
➔ 36 percent of students in Standard 1 are older than the RTE-mandated age of six –
close to five crore children currently in elementary school do not have
foundational literacy and numeracy skills
➔ The gender gap in schooling: Parents choose government schools for girl students
in the age group of 4 to 8 years while for boys, they prefer private schools –
among 4-5-year-old children, 56.8 percent girls and 50.4 percent boys are enrolled
in government schools or preschools, while 43.2 percent girls and 49.6 percent
boys are enrolled in private pre-schools or schools
➔ Across all age groups enrolled in standard I, girls in private schools are performing
better than their male counterparts.
 ➔ The emphasis, as ASER 2019 emphasizes, should be on “developing
problem-solving faculties and building memory of children, and not content
knowledge”.
➔ The report says that among children in the early years (ages 0-8), those with
mothers who had completed eight or fewer years of schooling are more likely to
be attending anganwadis or government pre-primary classes, whereas their peers
whose mothers had studied beyond the elementary stage are more likely to be
enrolled in private LKG/UKG classes.
➔ ASER 2019 also shows how, among 4- and 5-year-olds who were administered a
four-piece puzzle and 6- to 8-year-olds who were asked to solve a 6-piece puzzle,
those whose mothers had completed Class 11 or more had a higher chance of
solving these cognitive tasks.

5. How is NEP linked with Sustainable development goals?

The new National Education Policy and Sustainable Development Goal 4 share the goals
of universal quality education and lifelong learning.

Targets of NEP 2020

➔ By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable, and quality
primary and secondary education leading to relevant and Goal-4 effective learning
outcomes.
➔ By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood
development, care, and pre-primary education so that they are ready for primary
education.
➔ By 2030, ensure equal access for all women and men to affordable and quality
technical, vocational and tertiary education, including university.
➔ By 2030, substantially increase the number of youth and adults who have relevant
skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs, and
entrepreneurship.
➔ By 2030, eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to all
levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons
with disabilities, indigenous peoples, and children in vulnerable situations.
➔ By 2030, ensure that all youth and a substantial proportion of adults, both men,
and women, achieve literacy and numeracy.
➔ By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to
promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for
 sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality,
promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship, and
appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable
development.
➔ Build and upgrade education facilities that are child, disability, and
gender-sensitive and provide safe, nonviolent, inclusive, and effective learning
environments for all.
➔ By 2020, substantially expand globally the number of scholarships available to
developing countries, in particular, least developed countries, small island
developing states, and African countries, for enrolment in higher education,
including vocational training and information and communications technology,
technical, engineering, and scientific programs, in developed countries and other
developing countries.
➔ By 2030, substantially increase the supply of qualified teachers, including through
international co‑operation for teacher training in developing countries, especially
least developed countries and small island developing states.
➔ The target of NEP 2020 is by 2025 at least 50% of learners through the school and
higher education system shall have exposure to vocational education, for which a
clear action plan with targets and timelines will be developed. This is in alignment
with Sustainable Development Goal 4.4 and will help to realize the full potential
of India’s demographic dividend.

6. How is vocational education given importance in the new education policy?

➔ Vocational education is education that prepares people to work as a technician or

to take up employment in a skilled craft or trade i.e. trades person or artisan.
➔ Vocational education is sometimes referred to as career and technical education.
➔ The policy talks about introducing vocational courses in secondary schools “in a
phased manner over the next decade”.
➔ NEP also talks about setting up “skill labs” in collaboration with polytechnics and
local industries. There is also a proposal to set up vocational courses through
online mode.
➔ NEP states: “A concerted national effort will be made to ensure universal access
and affordable opportunity to all children of the country to obtain quality holistic
education–including vocational education - from preschool to Class 12.”
➔ The introduction of vocational courses with internships would help streamline
vocational education in India.
 7. What are the contentious provisions?

Language policy:
➔ The provision for education in the mother tongue till class 5 could pose challenges
to the mobility of students in a large and diverse country like India.
➔ The option to study in a language like English or Hindi that enables a transfer
nationally needs adequate attention.
Resentment by states:
➔ The idea of a National Higher Education Regulatory Council as an apex control
organization and a national body for aptitude tests is bound to be resented by
States.
➔ In a federal system, any educational reform can be implemented only with support
from the States, and the Centre has the task of building a consensus on the
ambitious plans.

Other challenges:
➔ The lack of popularity of vocational training and the ‘blue-collarisation of
vocations in the society act as obstacles in the introduction of vocational school
training.
➔ The shift to a four-year undergraduate college degree system may lead to a
situation where overzealous parents may stream their children into professions at
the earliest thus burdening the students further.
➔ There will be legal complexities surrounding the applicability of two operative
policies namely The Right to Education Act, 2009 and the New Education Policy,
2020.
➔ Certain provisions such as the age of starting schooling will need to be deliberated
upon, to resolve any conundrum between the statute and the recently introduced
policy in the longer run.

8. India is said to be the demographic dividend capital of the world. How will this
NEP help us to use this population?

➔ The NEP is expected to deliver the much-awaited demographic dividend that

experts have long spoken about.
 ➔ India has one of the youngest populations in the world and an asset called the
“demographic dividend,” which has been extensively studied by researchers and
academics alike.
➔ A 2017 Bloomberg News analysis of UN population data showed that India will
have the world’s largest workforce by 2027 – more than one billion people,
accounting for 18 percent of the global labor force.
➔ Demographically, India is the youngest country in the world – half its population
is under 25 and two-thirds are younger than 35. Just as China’s current
50-years-plus generation helped lift it from poverty to middle-income status over
the past three decades, India’s youth will have to deliver for India over the next
three.

PSYCHOLOGY OF DEPRIVED

Persons with Disability Act 1995/ Right to Persons with Disability Act 2016

The RPWD Act, 2016 provides that “the appropriate Government shall ensure that the
PWD enjoy the right to equality, life with dignity, and respect for his or her integrity
equally with others.” The Government is to take steps to utilize the capacity of the PWD
by providing an appropriate environment. It is also stipulated in section 3 that no PWD
shall be discriminated on the ground of disability unless it is shown that the impugned act
or omission is a proportionate means of achieving a legitimate aim and no person shall be
deprived of his liberty only on the ground of disability. Living in the community for
PWD is to be ensured and steps are to be taken by the Government to ensure reasonable
accommodation for them. Special measures are to be taken to ensure women and children
with disabilities enjoy rights equally with others. Measures are to be taken to protect the
PWD from being subjected to cruelty, inhuman, and degrading treatments and from all
forms of abuse, violence, and exploitation. For conducting any research, free and
informed consent from the PWD as well as prior permission from a Committee for
Research on Disability to be constituted in the prescribed manner. Under section 7(2) of
the Act, any person or registered organization, who or which has reason to believe that an
act of abuse, violence, or exploitation has been, is being or likely to be committed against
any PWD, may give information to the local Executive Magistrate who shall take
immediate steps to stop or prevent its occurrence and pass appropriate order to protect the
PWD. Police officers, who receive a complaint or otherwise come to know of violence,
abuse, or exploitation, shall inform the aggrieved PWD of his right to approach the
Executive Magistrate. The police officer shall also inform about particulars of the nearest
organization working for the rehabilitation of the PWD, right to free legal aid, and right
to file a complaint under the provisions of this Act or any other law dealing with such
offense.

Equal protection and safety in situations of risk, armed conflict, humanitarian

emergencies, and natural disasters are to be provided to PWD. Children with disabilities
are not to be separated from parents except on the order of a competent court and
information about reproductive rights and family planning to the PWD is to be ensured.
Accessibility in voting and access to justice without discrimination to the PWD is to be
ensured. Public documents are to be made available in accessible formats.

The Bill provides for the access to inclusive education, vocational training, and
self-employment of disabled persons without discrimination, and buildings, campuses,
and various facilities are to be made accessible to the PWD and their special needs are to
be addressed. Necessary schemes and programs to safeguard and promote the PWD for
living in the community are to be launched by the Government. Appropriate healthcare
measures, insurance schemes, and rehabilitation programs for the PWD are also to be
undertaken by the Government. Cultural life, recreation, and sporting activities are also to
be taken care of. All Government institutions of higher education and those getting aid
from the Government are required to reserve at least 5% of seats for persons with
benchmark disabilities. Four percent reservation for persons with benchmark disabilities
is to be provided in posts of all Government establishments with differential quotas for
different forms of disabilities. Incentives to employers in the private sector are to be
given who provide 5% reservation for persons with benchmark disability. Special
employment exchanges for the PWD are to be set up. Awareness and sensitization
programs are to be conducted and promoted regarding the PWD. Standards of
accessibility in the physical environment, different modes of transports, public buildings,
and areas are to be laid down which are to be observed mandatorily and a 5-year time
limit is provided to make the existing public buildings accessible. Access to information
and communication technology is to be ensured. The Central and State Advisory Boards
on disability are to be constituted to perform various functions assigned under the Act.
District level Committees are also to be constituted by the State Government. Chief
Commissioner and two Commissioners for PWD are to be appointed by the Central
Government at the central level for the Act. Similarly, State Commissioners for PWD are
to be appointed by the State Governments. National Funds for PWD and State Funds for
PWD are to be constituted at the central and state levels respectively by the appropriate
Governments. Contraventions of the provisions of the Act have been made punishable by
a fine of an amount up to ten thousand for the first contravention and fifty thousand
extendable up to five lakhs for subsequent contraventions. Atrocities on PWD have been
made punishable with imprisonment of 6 months extendable to 5 years and with a fine.
Fraudulently availing of the benefits meant for PWD has also been made punishable.

Salient Features of the RPWD Act 2016

❖ i. Disability has been defined based on an evolving and dynamic concept.

❖ ii. The types of disabilities have been increased from the existing 7 to 21 and the
Central Government will have the power to add more types of disabilities. The 21
disabilities are given below:-

1. Blindness
2. Low-vision
3. Leprosy Cured persons
4. Hearing Impairment (deaf and hard of hearing)
5. Locomotor Disability
6. Dwarfism
7. Intellectual Disability
8. Mental Illness
9. Autism Spectrum Disorder
10. Cerebral Palsy
11. Muscular Dystrophy
12. Chronic Neurological conditions
13. Specific Learning Disabilities
14. Multiple Sclerosis
15. Speech and Language disability
16. Thalassemia
17. Hemophilia
18. Sickle Cell disease
19. Multiple Disabilities including deafblindness
20. Acid Attack victim
21. Parkinson’s disease

❖ iii. Speech and Language Disability and Specific Learning Disability have been
added for the first time. Acid Attack Victims have been included. Dwarfism,
 muscular dystrophy have been indicated as a separate class of specified disability.
The New categories of disabilities also included three blood disorders,
Thalassemia, Hemophilia, and Sickle Cell disease.

❖ iv. In addition, the Government has been authorized to notify any other category of
specified disability.

❖ v. Responsibility has been cast upon the appropriate governments to take effective
measures to ensure that persons with disabilities enjoy their rights equally with
others.

❖ vi. Additional benefits such as reservation in higher education, government jobs,

reservation in the allocation of land, poverty alleviation schemes, etc. have been
provided for persons with benchmark disabilities and those with high support
needs.

❖ vii. Every child with benchmark disability between the age group of 6 and 18
years shall have the right to free education.

❖ viii. Government-funded educational institutions, as well as

government-recognized institutions, will have to provide inclusive education to
children with disabilities.

❖ ix. For strengthening the Prime Minister’s Accessible India Campaign, stress has
been given to ensure accessibility in public buildings (both Government and
private) in a prescribed time frame.

❖ x. Reservation in vacancies in government establishments has been increased from

3% to 4% for certain persons or classes of persons with benchmark disability.

❖ xi. The Bill provides for the grant of guardianship by the District Court under
which there will be joint decision-making between the guardian and the persons
with disabilities.

❖ xii. Broad-based Central & State Advisory Boards on Disability are to be set up to
serve as apex policy-making bodies at the Central and State level.
❖ xiii. Office of Chief Commissioner of Persons with Disabilities has been
strengthened who will now be assisted by 2 Commissioners and an Advisory
Committee comprising of not more than 11 members drawn from experts in
various disabilities.

❖ xiv. Similarly, the office of State Commissioners of Disabilities has been

strengthened who will be assisted by an Advisory Committee comprising of not
more than 5 members drawn from experts in various disabilities.

❖ xv. The Chief Commissioner for Persons with Disabilities and the State
Commissioners will act as regulatory bodies and Grievance Redressal agencies
and also monitor implementation of the Act.

❖ xvi. District level committees will be constituted by the State Governments to

address local concerns of PwDs. Details of their constitution and the functions of
such committees would be prescribed by the State Governments in the rules.

❖ xvii. Creation of National and State Fund will be created to provide financial
support to persons with disabilities. The existing National Fund for Persons with
Disabilities and the Trust Fund for Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities will
be subsumed with the National Fund.

❖ xviii. The Bill provides for penalties for offenses committed against persons with
disabilities and also allows violations of the provisions of the new law.

❖ xix. Special Courts will be designated in each district to handle cases concerning
violation of rights of PwDs.
 SCHOOL COUNSELLING

MODULE 4 – MENTAL HEALTH OF STUDENTS

TOPICS –
• Working with various types of students: mental and emotional disorders;
chemically dependent adolescents, ODD; Anger control issues, ADHD, Depression in youth
suicide, Self-esteem/ social anxiety disorder, Eating disorders, Sexual Abuse

• Supportive Services including programs of Intervention and Prevention & Self-Help Material

• Role of Faith & Spirituality in Students mental Health

• Students’ perspective of Mental Health

Chemically Dependent Adolescents

• By the time they are seniors, almost 70 percent of high school students will have tried
alcohol, half will have taken an illegal drug, nearly 40 percent will have smoked a cigarette,
and more than 20 percent will have used a prescription drug for a nonmedical purpose.

• There are many reasons adolescents use these substances, including the desire for new
experiences, an attempt to deal with problems or perform better in school, and simple peer
pressure. Adolescents are “biologically wired” to seek new experiences and take risks, as
well as to carve out their own identity. Trying drugs may fulfill all of these normal
developmental drives, but in an unhealthy way that can have very serious long-term
consequences.

• Many factors influence whether an adolescent tries drugs, including the availability of drugs
within the neighborhood, community, and school and whether the adolescent’s friends are
using them. The family environment is also important: Violence, physical or emotional
abuse, mental illness, or drug use in the household increase the likelihood an adolescent will
use drugs.

• Finally, an adolescent’s inherited genetic vulnerability; personality traits like poor impulse
control or a high need for excitement; mental health conditions such as depression, anxiety,
or ADHD; and beliefs such as that drugs are “cool” or harmless make it more likely that an
adolescent will use drugs.

• The teenage years are a critical window of vulnerability to substance use disorders, because
the brain is still developing and malleable (a property known as neuroplasticity), and some
 brain areas are less mature than others. The parts of the brain that process feelings of reward
and pain—crucial drivers of drug use—are the first to mature during childhood.

• What remains incompletely developed during the teen years are the prefrontal cortex and its
connections to other brain regions. The prefrontal cortex is responsible for assessing
situations, making sound decisions, and controlling our emotions and impulses;
typically, this circuitry is not mature until a person is in his or her mid-20s. The adolescent
brain is often likened to a car with a fully functioning gas pedal (the reward system) but weak
brakes (the prefrontal cortex).

• Teenagers are highly motivated to pursue pleasurable rewards and avoid pain, but their
judgment and decision-making skills are still limited. This affects their ability to weigh risks
accurately and make sound decisions, including decisions about using drugs. For these
reasons, adolescents are a major target for prevention messages promoting healthy, drug-free
behavior and giving young people encouragement and skills to avoid the temptations of
experimenting with drugs.

• Drug use can be part of a pattern of risky behavior including unsafe sex, driving while
intoxicated, or other hazardous, unsupervised activities.

• And in cases when a teen does develop a pattern of repeated use, it can pose serious social
and health risks, including:

➢ school failure
➢ problems with family and other relationships
➢ loss of interest in normal healthy activities
➢ impaired memory
➢ increased risk of contracting an infectious disease (like HIV or hepatitis C) via risky sexual
behavior or sharing contaminated injection equipment
➢ mental health problems—including substance use disorders of varying severity
➢ the very real risk of overdose death

Drug use progressing to addiction

• Different drugs affect the brain differently, but a common factor is that they all raise the level
of the chemical dopamine in brain circuits that control reward and pleasure. The brain is
wired to encourage life-sustaining and healthy activities through the release of dopamine.
Everyday rewards during adolescence—such as hanging out with friends, listening to music,
playing sports, and all the other highly motivating experiences for teenagers—cause the
release of this chemical in moderate amounts. This reinforces behaviors that contribute to
learning, health, well-being, and the strengthening of social bonds.
• Drugs, unfortunately, are able to hijack this process. The “high” produced by drugs
represents flooding the brain’s reward circuits with much more dopamine than natural
rewards generate.

• This creates an especially strong drive to repeat the experience. The immature brain, already
struggling with balancing impulse and self-control, is more likely to take drugs again without
adequately considering the consequences.

• If the experience is repeated, the brain reinforces the neural links between pleasure and drug-
taking, making the association stronger and stronger. Soon, taking the drug may assume an
importance in the adolescent’s life out of proportion to other rewards.

• The development of addiction is like a vicious cycle: Chronic drug use not only realigns a
person’s priorities but also may alter key brain areas necessary for judgment and self-control,
further reducing the individual’s ability to control or stop their drug use. This is why, despite
popular belief, will power alone is often insufficient to overcome an addiction. Drug use has
compromised the very parts of the brain that make it possible to “say no.”

• Not all young people are equally at risk for developing an addiction.

Various factors including-

➢ inherited genetic predispositions and adverse experiences in early life make trying drugs and
developing a substance use disorder more likely.
➢ Exposure to stress (such as emotional or physical abuse) in childhood primes the brain to be
sensitive to stress and seek relief from it throughout life; this greatly increases the likelihood
of subsequent drug abuse and of starting drug use early.
➢ In fact, certain traits that put a person at risk for drug use, such as being impulsive or
aggressive, manifest well before the first episode of drug use and may be addressed by
prevention interventions during childhood.
➢ By the same token, a range of factors, such as parenting that is nurturing or a healthy school
environment, may encourage healthy development and thereby lessen the risk of later drug
use.

When substance use disorders occur in adolescence, they affect key developmental and social
transitions, and they can interfere with normal brain maturation.
Chronic marijuana uses in adolescence, for example, has been shown to lead to a loss of IQ that
is not recovered even if the individual quits using in adulthood. Impaired memory or thinking
ability and other problems caused by drug use can derail a young person’s social and educational
development and hold him or her back in life.
Treatment Approaches available to address needs of adolescents
• Effective treatments for adolescents primarily consist of some form of behavioral therapy.
• Addiction medications, while effective and widely prescribed for adults, are not generally
approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for adolescents. Trials suggest
that some medications may assist adolescents in achieving abstinence, so providers may view
their young patients’ needs on a case-by-case basis in developing a personalized treatment
plan.
• Whatever a person’s age, treatment is not “one size fits all. “It requires considering the needs
of the whole person—including his or her developmental stage and cognitive abilities and the
influence of family, friends, and others in the person’s life, as well as any additional mental
or physical health conditions. Such issues should be addressed at the same time as the
substance use treatment.
• When treating adolescents, clinicians must also be ready and able to manage complications
related to their young patients ‘confidentiality and their dependence on family members who
may or may not be supportive of recovery.

Supporting Ongoing Recovery

When substance use disorders are identified and treated in adolescence—especially if they are
mild or moderate—they frequently give way to abstinence from drugs with no further problems.
Relapse is a possibility, however, as it is with other chronic diseases like diabetes or asthma.
Relapse should not be seen as a sign that treatment failed but as an occasion to engage in
additional or different treatment. Averting and detecting relapse involves monitoring by the
adolescent, parents, and teachers, as well as follow-up by treatment providers.
Although recovery support programs are not a substitute for formal evidence-based treatment,
they may help some adolescents maintain a positive and productive drug-free lifestyle that
promotes meaningful and beneficial relationships and connections to family, peers, and the
community both during treatment and after treatment ends.
Whatever services or programs are used, an adolescent’s path to recovery will be strengthened
by support from family members, non-drug-using peers, the school, and others in his or her life.

Principles of Adolescent Substance Use Disorder

1. Adolescent substance use needs to be identified and addressed as soon as possible. Drugs
can have long-lasting effects on the developing brain and may interfere with family, positive
peer relationships, and school performance.

2. Adolescents can benefit from a drug abuse intervention even if they are not addicted to
a drug. Substance use disorders range from problematic use to addiction and can be treated
 successfully at any stage, and at any age. Parents and other adults should monitor young
people and not underestimate the significance of what may appear as isolated instances of
drug taking.

3. Routine annual medical visits are an opportunity to ask adolescents about drug use.
Standardized screening tools are available to help pediatricians, dentists, emergency room
doctors, psychiatrists, and other clinicians determine an adolescent’s level of involvement (if
any) in tobacco, alcohol, and illicit and nonmedical prescription drug use.

4. Legal interventions and sanctions or family pressure may play an important role in
getting adolescents to enter, stay in, and complete treatment. Adolescents with substance
use disorders rarely feel they need treatment and almost never seek it on their own.

5. Substance use disorder treatment should be tailored to the unique needs of the
adolescent. Appropriate treatment considers an adolescent’s level of psychological
development, gender, relations with family and peers, how well he or she is doing in school,
the larger community, cultural and ethnic factors, and any special physical or behavioral
issues.

6. Treatment should address the needs of the whole person, rather than just focusing on
his or her drug use. The best approach to treatment includes supporting the adolescent’s
larger life needs, such as those related to medical, psychological, and social well-being, as
well as housing, school, transportation, and legal services.

7. Behavioral therapies are effective in addressing adolescent drug use. Behavioral

therapies, delivered by trained clinicians, help an adolescent stay off drugs by strengthening
his or her motivation to change.

8. Families and the community are important aspects of treatment. The support of family
members is important for an adolescent’s recovery. Several evidence-based interventions for
adolescent drug abuse seek to strengthen family relationships by improving communication.

9. Effectively treating substance use disorders in adolescents requires also identifying and
treating any other mental health conditions they may have. Adolescents who abuse drugs
frequently also suffer from other conditions including depression, anxiety disorders,
attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct
problems.

10. Sensitive issues such as violence and child abuse or risk of suicide should be identified
and addressed. Many adolescents who abuse drugs have a history of physical, emotional,
and/or sexual abuse or other trauma.
11. It is important to monitor drug use during treatment. Adolescents recovering from
substance use disorders may experience relapse, or a return to drug use. Triggers associated
with relapse vary and can include mental stress and social situations linked with prior drug
use.

12. Staying in treatment for an adequate period of time and continuity of care afterward
are important. The minimal length of drug treatment depends on the type and extent of the
adolescent’s problems, but studies show outcomes are better when a person stays in treatment
for 3 months or more.

13. Testing adolescents for sexually transmitted diseases like HIV, as well as hepatitis B
and C, is an important part of drug treatment. Adolescents who use drugs—whether
injecting or non-injecting—are at an increased risk for diseases that are transmitted sexually
as well as through the blood, including HIV and hepatitis B and C.

How do other mental health conditions relate to substance use in adolescents?

Drug use in adolescents frequently overlaps with other mental health problems. For example, a
teen with a substance use disorder is more likely to have a mood, anxiety, learning, or behavioral
disorder too. Sometimes drugs can make accurately diagnosing these other problems
complicated.
Adolescents entering drug abuse treatment should be given a comprehensive mental health
screening to determine if other disorders are present. Effectively treating a substance use disorder
requires addressing drug abuse and other mental health problems simultaneously.

What are signs of drug use in adolescents, and what role can parents play in getting
treatment?
If an adolescent starts behaving differently for no apparent reason––such as acting withdrawn,
frequently tired, or depressed, or hostile–it could be a sign he or she is developing a drug-related
problem.
Parents and others may overlook such signs, believing them to be a normal part of puberty. Other
signs include:
• A change in peer group
• Carelessness with grooming
• Decline in academic performance
• Missing classes or skipping school
• Loss of interest in favorite activities
• Changes in eating or sleeping habits
• Deteriorating relationships with family members and friends Parents tend to underestimate
the risks or seriousness of drug use.
The symptoms listed here suggest a problem that may already have become serious and should
be evaluated to determine the underlying cause—which could be a substance abuse problem or
another mental health or medical disorder. Parents who are unsure whether their child is abusing
drugs can enlist the help of a primary care physician, school guidance counselor, or drug abuse
treatment provider.

What role can medical professionals play in addressing substance abuse (including abuse of
prescription drugs) among adolescents?
Medical professionals have an important role to play in screening their adolescent patients for
drug use, providing brief interventions, referring them to substance abuse treatment if necessary,
and providing ongoing monitoring and follow-up. Screening and brief interventions do not have
to be time-consuming and can be integrated into general medical settings.
1. Screening. Screening and brief assessment tools administered during annual routine medical
checkups can detect drug use before it becomes a serious problem. The purpose of screening
is to look for evidence of any use of alcohol, tobacco, or illicit drugs or abuse of prescription
drugs and assess how severe the problem is. Results from such screens can indicate whether a
more extensive assessment and possible treatment are necessary.

2. Brief Intervention. Adolescents who report using drugs can be given a brief intervention to
reduce their drug use and other risky behaviors. Specifically, they should be advised how
continued drug use may harm their brains, general health, and other areas of their life,
including family relationships and education.

3. Referral. Adolescents with substance use disorders or those that appear to be developing a
substance use disorder may need a referral to substance abuse treatment for more extensive
assessment and care.

4. Follow-up. For patients in treatment, medical professionals can offer ongoing support of
treatment participation and abstinence from drugs during follow-up visits. Adolescent
patients who relapse or show signs of continuing to use drugs may need to be referred back
to treatment.

5. Before prescribing medications that can potentially be abused, clinicians can assess
patients for risk factors such as mental illness or a family history of substance abuse, consider
an alternative medication with less abuse potential.
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)

What is ODD?
Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is one of a group of behavioral disorders called disruptive
behavior disorders (DBD). These disorders are called this because children who have these
disorders tend to disrupt those around them. ODD is one of the more common mental health
disorders found in children and adolescents.
Physicians define ODD as a pattern of disobedient, hostile, and defiant behavior directed toward
authority figures. Children and adolescents with ODD often rebel, are stubborn, argue with
adults, and refuse to obey. They have angry outbursts and have a hard time controlling their
temper. Even the best-behaved children can be uncooperative and hostile at times, particularly
adolescents, but those with ODD show a constant pattern of angry and verbally aggressive
behaviors, usually aimed at parents and other authority figures.

The most common behaviors that children and adolescents with ODD show are:
• Defiance
• Spitefulness
• Negativity
• Hostility and verbal aggression

Treatment usually consists of a combination of therapies, including behavioral therapy, parent

training, and family therapy. Some children may benefit from medication as well.

Causes of ODD?
There is no clear-cut cause of ODD. However, most experts believe that a combination of
biological, psychological, and social risk factors play a role in the development of the disorder.

Biological factors
1. Children and adolescents are more susceptible to developing ODD if they have:
2. A parent with a history of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), ODD, or CD
3. A parent with a mood disorder (such as depression or bipolar disorder)
4. A parent who has a problem with drinking or substance abuse
5. Impairment in the part of the brain responsible for reasoning, judgment, and impulse control
6. A brain-chemical imbalance
7. A mother who smoked during pregnancy
8. Exposure to toxins
9. Poor nutrition

Psychological factors
1. A poor relationship with one or more parent
2. A neglectful or absent parent
3. A difficulty or inability to form social relationships or process social cues

Social factors
1. Poverty
2. Chaotic environment
3. Abuse
4. Neglect
5. Lack of supervision
6. Uninvolved parents
7. Inconsistent discipline
8. Family instability (such as divorce or frequent moves)

Symptoms of ODD
Most children argue with parents and defy authority from time to time, especially when they are
tired, hungry, or upset. Some of the behaviors associated with ODD also can arise in children
who are undergoing a transition, who are under stress, or who are in the midst of a crisis. This
makes the behavioral symptoms of ODD sometimes difficult for parents to distinguish from
expectable stress-related behaviors.
Children with ODD show an ongoing pattern of extreme negativity, hostility, and defiance that:
• Is constant
• Lasts at least 6 months
• Is excessive compared with what is usual for the child’s age
• Is disruptive to the family and the school
• Is usually directed toward an authority figure (parents, teachers, principal, coach)

The following behavioral symptoms are associated with ODD:

• Frequent temper tantrums
• Excessive arguments with adults
• Actively refusing to comply with requests and rules
• Often questioning rules
• Deliberately annoying and upsetting others
• Often touchy or annoyed by others
• Blaming others for their mistakes
• Frequent outbursts of anger and resentment
• Spiteful attitude and revenge seeking

How is ODD diagnosed?

While there is no single test that can diagnose ODD, a mental health professional can determine
whether a child or adolescent has the disorder by assessing the child’s symptoms and behaviors
and by using clinical experience to make a diagnosis. Many parents first call upon the child’s
primary care physician for an evaluation. This evaluation typically begins by compiling a
medical history and performing a physical examination.

Gathering Information
During the evaluation, the child’s primary care clinician will look for physical or other mental
health issues that may cause problems with behavior. If the doctor cannot find a physical cause
for the symptoms, he or she may refer the child to a child and adolescent psychiatrist or a mental
health professional who is trained to diagnose and treat mental illnesses in children and
adolescents.
A child and adolescent psychiatrist or a qualified mental health professional usually diagnoses
ODD.A mental health professional will gather information from parents, teachers, and daycare
providers as well as from the child. Gathering information from as many people as possible will
help the doctor determine how often the behaviors occur and where. It also will help the doctor
determine how the behaviors affect the different areas of the child’s life.

The mental health professional will determine whether:

• The behavior is severe
• The conflicts are with peers or authority figures
• The behavior is a result of stressful situations within the home
• The child reacts negatively to all authority figures, or only his or her parents or guardians

In addition to establishing a primary diagnosis, the doctor will look for signs of other conditions
that often occur along with ODD, such as ADHD, anxiety, and mood disorders. The doctor also
should look for signs that the child has been involved in bullying—as either the victim or
perpetrator. Involvement in bullying often is a sign that the child is at risk for aggression and
violence.

Establishing a Relationship
Like many mental health disorders, ODD is not always easy to accurately diagnose. Open
communication among the mental health professional and the parents and child can help
overcome the difficulties diagnosing this disorder. For example, some children see their
behaviors as justified and are unmotivated to change. Also, some parents can become defensive
when questioned about their parenting style.
Having the parent and the child view the mental health professional as an ally can
help.9Establishing a good relationship with a mental health professional is important to
determining whether the child’s behavior is a response to a short-lived situation or transition,
ODD, or another serious behavioral condition, such as CD or a mood disorder.

Can ODD occur with other conditions?

Many children who are diagnosed with ODD also have other treatable mental health and learning
conditions. Having more than one condition is called having coexisting conditions. Some
conditions that coexist with ODD are:
•ADHD
•Anxiety disorders
•Mood disorders (such as depression and bipolar disorder)
•Learning disorders
•Language disorders

How is ODD treated?

There is no one-size-fits-all treatment for children and adolescents with ODD. The most
effective treatment plans are tailored to the needs and behavioral symptoms of each child.
Treatment decisions are typically based on a number of different things, including the child’s
age, the severity of the behaviors, and whether the child has a coexisting mental health condition.
The goals and circumstances of the parents also are important when forming a treatment plan. In
many cases, treatment may last several months or more and requires commitment and follow-
through by parents as well as by others involved in the child’s care.

Types of Treatment
Treatment usually consists of a combination of:
•Parent-Management Training Programs and Family Therapy to teach parents and other
family members how to manage the child’s behavior. Parents, family members, and other
caregivers are taught techniques in positive reinforcement and ways to discipline more
effectively.
•Cognitive Problem-Solving Skills Training to reduce inappropriate behaviors by teaching the
child positive ways of responding to stressful situations. Children with ODD often only know of
negative ways of interpreting and responding to real-life situations. Cognitive problem-solving
skills training teaches them how to see situations and respond appropriately.
•Social-Skills Programs and School-Based Programs to teach children and adolescents how to
relate more positively to peers and ways to improve their schoolwork. These therapies are most
successful when they are conducted in a natural environment, such as at the school or in a social
group.
•Medication may be necessary to help control some of the more distressing symptoms of ODD
as well as the symptoms of coexisting conditions, such as ADHD, anxiety, and mood disorders.
However, medication alone is not a treatment for ODD.

Tips for handling an ODD child

If your child suffers from Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)
•Recognize and praise your child's positive behaviors. Be as specific as possible, such as, "I
really liked the way you helped pick up your toys tonight."
•Model the behavior you want your child to have.
•Pick your battles. Avoid power struggles. Almost everything can turn into a power struggle —
if you let it.
•Set limits and enforce consistent reasonable consequences.
•Set up a routine. Develop a consistent daily schedule for your child. Asking your child to help
develop that routine may be beneficial.
•Build in time together. Develop a consistent weekly schedule that involves you and your child
spending time together.
•Work with your partner or others in your household to ensure consistent and appropriate
discipline procedures.
•Assign your child a household chore that's essential and that won't get done unless the child
does it. Initially, it's important to set your child up for success with tasks that are relatively easy
to achieve and gradually blend in more important and challenging expectations. Give clear, easy-
to-follow instructions.
•Expect that you'll have setbacks and relapses and be prepared with a plan to manage those
times. In fact, behavior can temporarily worsen when new limits and expectations are set.
However, with perseverance and consistency, the initial hard work often pays off with improved
behavior and relationships.

Recommendations for teachers and for parents

Understand that Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) is a consistent pattern of defiant,
disobedient, and aggressive behavior towards authority that persists for at least 6 months. Types
of behaviors include defiance of authority, arguing, losing control of temper, refusal to follow
rules, deliberately bothering people, placing blame on others for one’s own actions, being easily
bothered, and maniacal behavior.
• Instead of just mentioning classroom rules and regulations, teach them how to apply the
rule to their actions. This avoids the issue of kids attempting to find “loopholes” in your
classroom rules. Integrate this into your lessons.

• Oppositional Defiant students like to be in control of a situation, therefore, where

appropriate, instead of providing them with directives, ask them questions. Instead of
saying “you need to get your work done before you can leave detention,” ask the child “what
do you need to get done before you can leave detention?”

• Turn arguments into discussions. Do not give in or lower yourself to your child’s level and
argue incessantly back. Give the child explicit choices and agree to hear the child out and
entertain his or her ideas and desires.

• Give Choices. When they are complaining about the amount of work in spelling, give them
the choice of they can do their work now or they can’t go to gym or do some other desirable
activity. This helps give them autonomy or self-control.

• Independence is necessary for adolescents as it leads to increased responsibility. Allow for

some choice of independence from your teen, as well as offer them some more structured
independent tasks requiring responsibility.
• Include child in family and household obligations by giving them specific chores that
are their responsibility and will not get done unless the child does them.

• When appropriate, ignore the student’s disruptive behavior. If the function of the
behavior is to gain attention by either interrupting consistently or making noise, ignore the
behavior. Before using this tactic, make sure that the class knows that misbehavior will not
always be addressed immediately, but it will be taken care of. If the class is not addressed,
they will feel that the disruptive student is getting away with misbehaving.

• When a student consistently asks questions in an attempt to distract you from the lesson, tell
them that you will answer their question at a later time, during “their time.” This will
make evident which students really need the help and which ones were just trying to distract.

• When a student mentions how another teacher didn’t punish him or her for a behavior, re-
focus on the present instruction. For example, say “you think that just because someone
else let you get away with the behavior, it doesn’t apply in here, but it does.”

• Avoid intimidation. With ODD students, intimidation increases their non-compliant

behavior.

• Avoid public reprimands. Always try to address behavior privately, especially with
adolescents.

• In order for them to be effective, any rewards or punishments must be meaningful and
salient to the child.

• Purposefully set aside and spend positive time with the child. Positive and supportive
teacher-parent and parent-child relations are critical.

• Praise and acknowledge your child’s positive behavior or even the lack of their negative
behavior that you are accustomed to. Point out positive characteristics.

• Emphasize, when feasible, self-management techniques instead of external control.

• Use time-out as a last resort. It often increases defiant behavior. When used, remain calm
and firm.

• Use “time-outs” effectively with elementary and early adolescents. Designate the specific
chair, room, or area where the child will go for a time-out. Do not make empty threats.
Properly follow through, starting the time-out only when the child is calm and quiet.
For adolescents, sending them to their room for a designated amount of time will be more
effective than giving them a time-out.
• Avoid quick changes in normal routine. Post schedules in the classroom or on the
student’s desk. This empowers the child. For younger children, a picture schedule may be
most effective.

• Cue students into how much time they have left on assignments. Make sure to give
them plenty of notice. This provides students with more control. When you give a certain
length of time to finish a task, keep time limits short because defiant students will push
the limit.

• Provide a high level of structure to classroom work. ODD students have trouble with
organization. An example of a structure intervention would be having the students’ desk
belongings placed in boxes and arranged according to activity. This decreases the chance that
the child will be overwhelmed with work.

• Avoid tasks that are beyond the student’s ability. Keeping tasks in their given ability
level, allows them to still maintain control.

• Avoid signs of disapproval towards the child. This once again makes the child feel like
they need to regain control again, causing them to misbehave.

• If and when the child shuts down and refuses to talk, stay calm and state your feelings
and point of view, and then walk away from the potential fight. The child will hear you
whether or not they appear to be listening. State the consequences that will come from this
behavior until the child is ready to talk.

• Consequences should be straightforward and easy to understand as well as agreed upon

by all parties involved. Consistent rules and consequences must be followed by all who
are implementing them.

• Hold a firm and consistent stand on consequences of violations of school policies, laws,
and social norms. Enforce limits but express unconditional love.

• Choose your battles. Accept a lack of control in certain areas such as clothing, friends,
music, and cleaning the bedroom, where arguments might arise, and violations of rules and
regulations are minor and not worth an argument. Understand these disagreements are more
often due to developmental changes. However, clearly communicate what is not acceptable
and follow through with consequences.

• Teach children how to develop and maintain positive social relationships. Social skills’
training is important for these students to engage in equitable relationships.
• Teach “voluntary leaving” interventions. These are when the student learns when to leave the
classroom, so his actions hurt no one. Ask students what activities will help them gain
control again. When the students leave the classroom have them perform this activity to calm
them down and allow them to gain control.

• Institute a token response cost lottery system. Students are allotted a certain number of
tokens that are then removed when they behave inappropriately. After the end of a certain
period of time, the left-over tokens are traded in for reinforcers. The student or the teacher
can manage this system. A response cost lottery system also may be effective. Handing out
small pieces of paper to students in the beginning of the week. Then, each time an
inappropriate behavior is displayed, you remove one piece of paper from that student’s desk.
At the end of the week, you take the remaining pieces of paper and place it in a box and draw
a winner. That student is then able to choose from an array of reinforcers.

• Demand eye contact of your students when addressing them. You should call the
student’s name and they need to make eye contact within 2 seconds. Then you proceed to
explain the instructions of the given task while holding eye contact the whole time.

• Have Problem Solving Conferences (PBC) with your students. These are meetings that
are had when a student misbehaves in the classroom. You allow for the student to explain
their side of the story, and then the other party involved explains their side. There is a
facilitator that allows both parties to understand each other’s position. If the parties involved
design no resolution plan, then the facilitator offers alternatives.

• Sit down with all caregivers to discuss and agree upon your plan of action for dealing
with defiant behaviors. This includes teachers, parents, and other school stuff, as appropriate
(e.g., counselor, principal).

• Use a buddy system to help promote good behavior. In this system, a student is paired
with a fellow student and asked to record their behavior and compliance with rules for a 20-
minute period. Their recordings are compared with the teacher’s evaluation. They discuss
the results, and students suggest appropriate behaviors. Appropriate behavior is awarded
points and at the end of the week, students can trade in their points for reinforcers

Anger Control Issues

Anger is a psychological state. Psychological states are cognitive, emotional, and physiological
states that are revealed at a certain moment and that may show extreme fluctuations as time
changes. If an individual gets hurt, if their rights are violated, if things go wrong with them, if
they are limited or get scared, they usually feel anger. Even though it is a natural emotion, when
experienced so often and manifested in an uncontrolled manner, anger gets one into trouble,
causes damage to their surroundings, destroys their relationships, and causes them to face many
problems.

Anger is part of our emotional spectrum, and is a normal, healthy emotional response to outside
stressors. In fact, anger helps us to “deal” with threats when we feel crossed or challenged. It is
when we let our emotions effect our actions that anger can become harmful in teens.

Normal Teenage Emotions VS. Problematic Anger, Outbursts, and Defiance

While it is normal for teens to experience anger, lashing out (making verbal threats, becoming
destructive, or physical violence) is often a cry for help. There are some situations where anger
and emotional outbursts go beyond the scope of “growing pains” and typical teen angst.
Some teens are better equipped emotionally to deal with anger in a healthy way and some need a
little more help. Other teens experience problematic anger due to an unresolved mental health
issue, frustration/anxiety from an uncontrollable life experience, or from crumbling under the
added pressure that comes along with growing up.
There are a number of issues that can trigger extreme emotional outbursts, anger, and defiance in
teens:
LOW SELF ESTEEM - When teens are down on themselves, feelings of hurt and anger can
build up inside them. This can lead to emotional outbursts and acts of defiance.
BULLYING FROM PEERS - Teens who experience bullying can often experience feelings of
social isolation, loneliness, anxiety, low self-esteem, and fear. This can be a traumatic experience
during the formative years of one’s life. Since many teens do not have the coping skills to deal
with these feelings, some with lash out with anger and emotional outbursts.
AN UNRESOLVED FAMILY CONFLICT - Some teens are not emotionally equipped to deal
with a major family conflict or trauma, such as divorce, abuse, or issues stemming from
adoption. Even adults have trouble dealing with these issues. Since teens do not know how to
cope with the negative feelings associated with these situations, some will experience angry
outbursts and will commit acts of defiance as (unhealthy) ways to cope with things that are out of
their control.
GRIEF - Because anger is one of the stages of grief, it is only natural for a teen who has lost a
friend or family member to feel some anger. Some teens, however, experience difficulties
moving past this stage, especially when it is a traumatic loss of someone very close to him or her.
DEVELOPMENTAL OR NEUROLOGICAL ISSUE - (i.e., ADHD, Autism Spectrum
Disorder, Oppositional Defiant Disorder.) Teens who have neuro-developmental issues such as
these can have problems with a lack of self-awareness/self-control, impulse control, social skill
deficits, and difficulties managing/handling emotions, especially anger. In addition, these teens
can be more sensitive to sensory information from the outside world, causing them to become
easily overwhelmed or overstimulated.
DEPRESSION - Teens and adults display signs and symptoms of depression very differently.
Although an adult who is depressed will likely appear sad, many teens with an undiagnosed form
of depression is much more prone to emotional outbursts, frustration, and hostility.
ANXIETY - Some teens who seem defiant or experience emotional outbursts are actually
struggling with anxiety. Since depression and anxiety are often associated as “adult” problems,
these can go undiagnosed in children and teens. This is a misconception, as anxiety and
depression can appear during adolescence.
THE PRESSURE/STRESS OF TEENAGE LIFE - When children transition into their teenage
years, there is an increased pressure to perform well in school, get into college, play well in
sports, do well on tests, etc.

While anger is a normal emotional response to outside stressors, teens need to learn healthy
coping mechanisms now, before they reach adulthood. Teens need to know that it is not wrong or
bad to feel angry, but that they cannot let the anger consume them or control their actions. This is
vital to ensuring that your child’s anger remains a valid emotional reaction rather than escalating
into violence, defiant behavior, or rage.

Signs your child’s anger is out of control

Yelling, arguing, name-calling, and crying can all be normal teenage responses to anger-- so long
as they do not escalate to violence or rage. However, if your child regularly experiences the “red
flag” signs below, his or her anger issues may need to be addressed:

RED FLAG SIGNS OF PROBLEMATIC ANGER

•Getting into physical fights at school or at home with siblings
•Excessive arguing with parents, teachers, peers, siblings, etc.
•Excessive emotional outbursts and rage
•Frequent irritability
•Irrationality
•Bullying
•Relationship/dating violence
•Verbal threats
•Being cruel to younger siblings or pets (those who can’t defend themselves)
•Physical violence
•Destroying property
•Self-harm (cutting, burning, etc.) **This is a symptom of depression, which can be a culprit of
teen anger, emotional outbursts, and defiance.

Ways to help your teen with their anger problem

As mentioned previously, some teens aren’t emotionally equipped to deal with anxiety,
depression, conflict, or trauma in a healthy way. While many parents’ first instinct is to “control”
or “manage” their teen’s anger, it is important to remember that you cannot control someone
else’s emotions or actions.
What you can do, is set realistic expectations and consequences, and give your child the tools to
more effectively cope with his or her negative emotions.
ESTABLISH EXPECTATIONS, RULES, AND CONSEQUENCES If you haven’t already,
establish clear rules and consequences for breaking said rules. It is important to have this
conversation when you and your teen are both calm, cool, and collected. This will ensure that
you have a rational, nonjudgmental conversation with your son or daughter. Explain that anger is
a valid emotional reaction that everyone experiences, and that you are more concerned about the
negative, angry behaviors that they are displaying-- not the emotion itself.
HELP GET TO THE ROOT OF THE PROBLEM When your child has calmed down, talk to
your them and try to find out what is really bothering them. Trying to have a rational
conversation while your teen is still having an emotional outburst or fit of rage will be counter-
productive and may cause you to become frustrated as well. Ask questions: “Is something wrong
at school or with friends?” Listen to his or her problems without judgement; just remember, they
may become angry, or they may not tell you. It is still important to show that you do care.
REDUCE SCREEN TIME Spending too much time on electronic devices (smart phones, video
game consoles, tablets, etc.) can hinder your child’s sleep hygiene. Poor sleeping patterns can
lead to irritability, and further vulnerability to angry outbursts. In addition, it is important to
monitor your teens’ electronic device habits, as exposure to violent tv shows, video games, and
movies can increase the likelihood of violent behavior and outbursts as well. HELP YOUR
TEEN FIND A HEALTHY OUTLET OR WAY TO EXPRESS ANGER Helping your teen
to find an outlet for anger is a great way to provide a healthier coping mechanism for negative
emotions. Everyone is different, so see what appeals to your child. Healthy outlets for anger can
include:
•sports
•exercise
•yoga
•writing in a journal
•playing loud, angry music
LEAD BY EXAMPLE Make sure that you are using healthy coping mechanisms to deal with
your anger. Children learn what they live. In addition, if your teen sees you become belligerent
when you are angry, your teen may think that this is an appropriate emotional response. This is
especially important to remember when your teen is having an outburst. As hard as it sounds,
remaining calm during your child’s outbursts will help diffuse the situation.

Effective treatment options

PSYCHOTHERAPY Interacting with the wilderness has inherent consequences - cause and
effect. Many troubled teens have spent most of their lives resisting consequences imposed by
authority figures. This is not a healthy way to move through life, as troubled teens grow into
adults who will ultimately have to deal with the ramifications of their choices. The wilderness
therapy environment teaches this lesson in a gentle way; if a participant chooses to set up their
sleeping shelter in a haphazard manner, for example, they may find that they get rained on and
have to fix it in the middle of the night. These kinds of choices provide immediate and direct
consequences, which can then be compared to ways that the participant may have enacted similar
behaviors while at home.
MEDICATION (DEPENDING ON DIAGNOSIS) Depending on your child’s diagnosis, he or
she may be prescribed medication. to help with any underlying diagnosis he or she receives.
Some teens who are diagnosed with depression are too young for certain antidepressants; some
teens with ADHD do not respond as well to stimulant medications. It is important to find a
mental healthcare provider who has a lot of experience working with teens to ensure that your
child receives adequate treatment.
ANGER MANAGEMENT CLASSES Aside from regular psychotherapy sessions, your child’s
healthcare provider may suggest anger management classes as well. These classes cover
effective, healthy coping mechanisms to help your teen recognize angry feelings and deal with
his or her anger in-the-moment. Your child may learn breathing techniques, relaxation skills, and
proper ways to express angry feelings to others.
RESIDENTIAL TREATMENT Sometimes, when traditional talk therapy isn’t enough, a
residential treatment program may be helpful for your teen. While there is a plethora of
residential treatment programs qualified to help your child, it is important to do your research
and find a credible program. Even though sending your child away for treatment is difficult,
doing the best thing for your son or daughter is not always the easy thing.

What is Wilderness Therapy and How Does It Help Teens with Anger?
Do you remember as a child how you could spend hours throwing a ball against a wall and love
how it would bounce back towards you? That is similar to an adolescent’s anger. They will
throw out subtle comments, cutting remarks or a defiant behavior and await a negative reaction.
In this way, they feel like they have control over their environment. Parents become the wall that
provides an entertaining game to play. When traditional talk therapy isn’t enough to help teens
who have problematic anger, parents sometimes turn to residential treatment programs instead.
While there are a variety of residential treatment options out there, wilderness therapy is
especially effective at helping adolescents in a way that talk therapy can’t.

WHAT IS WILDERNESS THERAPY? How does wilderness therapy reach teens in a way
that parents, talk therapy, and even traditional residential treatment programs can’t? According to
Keith C. Russell, a leading researcher of wilderness therapy, “Wilderness therapy utilizes
outdoor adventure pursuits and other activities, such as primitive skills and reflection, to enhance
personal and interpersonal growth.” The wilderness environment is more similar to a pillow wall
that does not return the ball thrown at it. In this game, the child has to walk up to the pillow
wall, retrieve the ball, then walk back and throw it again, only to repeat this tedious process. It
isn’t nearly as fun and requires far more effort.
THERAPEUTIC WILDERNESS SETTING
Unlike other residential treatment programs, wilderness therapy utilizes the benefits of outdoor
living. Studies show that simply being outdoors has mental health benefits. Benefits of the
therapeutic wilderness setting include:
•Reduces stress
•Positive benefits to cognitive health
•Reduction in ADHD symptoms
•Enhances social interactions and makes teens “nicer”
THERAPEUTIC GROUP LIVING
The therapeutic group living experienced during wilderness therapy helps teens with their
interpersonal communication skills and building strong peer relationships. The group living
situation provides teens a chance to learn from others who are experiencing similar hardships and
overcoming anger issues through wilderness therapy.
POSITIVE ROLE MODELS IN THE FORM OF FIELD STAFF AND THERAPISTS
In addition to the bonds formed with other teens who are learning to deal with emotions in a
healthy way, wilderness therapy participants learn healthy ways to cope with anger and other
negative emotions from the experienced field guides and therapists. Field guides are trained to
defuse situations instead of escalating them.
Many students will “test” field guides and act out negatively for a reaction. Some will even act
out as a form of “revenge” for parents sending them to treatment. Instead of participating in the
game of reacting negatively, field guides are trained to redirect conversations skillfully enough
that cannot justify their poor behavior and will eventually comply willingly. The wilderness
provides a proverbial mirror for a child to see their behaviors for what they are...theirs.
HELPS SHOW TEENS THAT ANGER HAS CONSEQUENCES
Wilderness therapy demonstrates to teens that acting out of anger or defiance will not get them
anywhere. Instead of lecturing or punishing teens, wilderness therapy utilizes natural
consequences to demonstrate this in a way they understand. For example, when a teen is angry
refuses to put effort into making a quality backpack frame because they want to punish their
parents for sending them to the wilderness, the weight is not evenly distributed on their backs
and often causes needless aches and discomfort. When a child puts minimal effort into tying their
shelter down securely, they may have a terrible night’s rest as they stay awake listening to the
tarp flapping loosely in the wind. There is no one to be mad at for those things besides
themselves. There is no one to engage in a fun game of returning the ball.
HELPS TEENS DEAL WITH EMOTIONS
While many teens who are struggling with emotional outbursts and anger issues feel
uncomfortable discussing their feelings, wilderness therapy helps to address this. According to
Russell, “the process also teaches clients how to access and express their emotions, and why
talking about feelings is important.” (Russell 2001) This, in turn, will help your teen express
what is upsetting them, before his or her emotions become uncontrollable.
PROVIDES A STRONG SENSE OF ACCOMPLISHMENT FOR TEENS
Another aspect that sets wilderness therapy apart from other residential treatment programs is the
strong sense of accomplishment upon completion. Russell states that “completing a wilderness
therapy program represents a sense of accomplishment for the client that is concrete and real and
can be used to draw strength from in the future.” (Russell 2001) That strength will prove useful
in overcoming future obstacles in your teen’s life.
INSTILLS SELF CONFIDENCE AND SELF EFFICACY
The sense of accomplishment and strength that many teens gain from completing wilderness
therapy is key in helping boost his or her self-confidence and self-efficacy. According to Russell,
“Clients believe that if they completed wilderness therapy, they can also complete other
formidable tasks.” Self-confidence is especially vital for teens who are exhibiting problematic
anger due to low self-esteem or bullying. Higher levels of self-efficacy are linked to greater
motivation, positive thinking skills, and lower vulnerability to stress and depression in teens.

ADHD - attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) isa common childhood mental health disorder.
There seems to be wide range in the prevalence of the condition throughout the world.
People with ADHD show a persistent pattern of inattention and / or hyperactivity-impulsivity
that interferes with functioning or development:
Inattention: patients are required to show six or more symptoms of inattention (below) for
children up to age 16 years, or five or more for adolescents 17 years and older and adults;
symptoms of inattention have been present for at least six months, and they are inappropriate for
developmental level:
I. Often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork, at
work, or with other activities.
II. Often has trouble holding attention on tasks or play activities. Often does not seem to
listen when spoken to directly.
III. Often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores, or
duties in the workplace (e.g., loses focus, side-tracked).
IV. Often has trouble organizing tasks and activities.
V. Often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to do tasks that require mental effort over a long
period of time (such as schoolwork or homework).
VI. Often loses things necessary for tasks activities (e.g. school materials, pencils,
books, tools, wallets, keys, paperwork, eyeglasses, mobile telephones).
VII. Is often easily distracted.
VIII. Is often forgetful in daily activities.

Hyperactivity and impulsivity: patients are required to show six or more symptoms of
hyperactivity-impulsivity (below) for children up to age 16 years, or five or more for adolescents
17 years and older and adults, and symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity need to have been
present for at least six months to an extent that is disruptive and inappropriate for the person’s
developmental level:
I. Often fidgets with or taps hands or feet, or squirms in seat.
II. Often leaves seat in situations when remaining seated is expected.
III. Often runs about or climbs in situations where itis not appropriate (adolescents or adults
may be limited to feeling restless).
IV. Often unable to play or take part in leisure activities quietly.
V. Is often ‘on the go’ acting as if ‘driven by a motor.
VI. Often talks excessively.
VII. Often blurts out an answer before a question has been completed.
VIII. Often has trouble waiting his/her turn.
IX. Often interrupts or intrudes on others (e.g., butts into conversations or games).
In addition, the following conditions must be met:
– Several inattentive or hyperactive-impulsive symptoms were present before age 12 years.
– Several symptoms are present in two or more settings (e.g., at home, school, or work, with
friends or relatives or in other activities).
– Clear evidence that the symptoms interfere with, or reduce the quality of, social, school, or
work functioning.
– Symptoms do not happen only during the course of schizophrenia or another psychotic
disorder. The symptoms are not better explained by another mental disorder.

Based on the types of symptoms, three kinds (presentations) of ADHD can occur:
Combined presentation: if enough symptoms of both criteria inattention and hyperactivity-
impulsivity were present for the past six months.
Predominantly inattentive presentation: if enough symptoms of inattention, but not
hyperactivity-impulsivity, were present for the past six months.
Predominantly hyperactive-impulsive presentation: if enough symptoms of hyperactivity-
impulsivity but not inattention were present for the past six months.
ADHD behaviors and symptoms result from genetic, physical environmental or social
environmental causes.
In common with most mental health conditions there is no definitive biological test for ADHD;
diagnosis depends on the observation of clusters of symptoms in three main behavioral domains
according to the DSM-5 and ICD-10 criteria.

Management
There are numerous considerations to bear in mind in the management of ADHD. Whilst drugs
are a mainstay of treatment, changes in psychological another domain of functioning are
essential if patients are to capitalize on the improvements in the core symptoms of ADHD with
treatment.
Care should be tailored to individuals following assessment.
Pre-schoolchildren - Drug treatments are not recommended in this age group due to the
unknown long-term effects on braindevelopment.2,19-20 They take longer to clear the drug from
their body and have higher rates of adverse effects.17Referral to a parent training program for
behavioral management should be the first treatment, ideally with specially trained facilitators.
Group-based parent training for conduct disorder should be available whether a child has a
diagnosis of conduct disorder or not. Parents should have access to eight to 12 sessions.
With consent, nursery or pre-school carers should be informed about ADHD and any special
requirements.
School children - For those with moderate impairment, parent education either alone, or with
group CBT for the child, should be considered.
Those who continue to suffer significant impairment despite intervention should be offered
pharmacological intervention. Those diagnosed with severe ADHD should be offered stimulants
as a first-line treatment, though not if there is a history or family history of cardiac problems.
Teachers trained regarding ADHD should help to provide interventions in school19as
improvement in behavior at home does not correlate with an improvement in behavior at
school.

Psychological Interventions - Families with children with ADHD are often dysfunctional in
multiple domains. Co-existing problems may not improve with medication.
The aim of psychological intervention is improvement in daily functioning through behavior and
relationships, whilst giving parents strategies to cope with difficult behavior. Behavioral therapy
uses rewards or reinforcements, to implement changes in motor, impulse, or attention control.
Techniques involving negative consequences are less commonly implemented.
‘Time out’ involves removing the child from the attention of others.
Parent training involves teaching behavior therapy intervention to carers. This increases
parental competence, confidence and improves the carer/child relationship.
Self-instructional training comprises techniques to help children develop a reflective,
systematic, and goal-directed approach to tasks, identifying the impact of behavior and emotions
from maladaptive cognitions and replacing them.
Social skills training helps those with ADHD develop behaviors to maintain constructive social
relationships using CBT techniques.

Long term outcome

ADHD is a chronic disorder, increasingly being recognized as a lifelong condition which starts
in childhood but may continue in adolescence and into adulthood.
It is globally recognized as a serious medical condition, as evidenced by a rise in published
research into ADHD long-term outcomes signaling increase in global interest and recognition of
consequences and impairment associated with ADHD.
The criteria for ADHD are well defined; the long-term outcomes in children, adolescents and
adult will largely depend upon whether these groups receive treatment, as without treatment
people with ADHD experience poor long-term outcomes in day-to-day functioning across all age
groups.

Children with ADHD are more likely than unaffected children to experience learning difficulties,
miss school, become injured, experience troublesome relationships with family members and
peers and exhibit mental and physical conditions. Left untreated, the condition has a
significant impact in the long-term on education resulting in academic failure, and leads to
antisocial behavior, poor self-esteem, and a significant impact on social functioning.

In addition to core symptoms, adolescents with ADHD will exhibit deficits in executive
functioning, lower frustration tolerance and emotional responses that are more pronounced
than expected.
Adolescents with ADHD who are left untreated display significant problems in the long term
with poor academic achievement, difficulties in peer interactions, more parent-teen conflict,
abuse of illicit sub-stances and experience other mental health problems, including
depression, anxiety problems and sleep difficulties.
Adults with untreated ADHD demonstrate reduced lifetime earnings, increased illness,
lower educational and job status, are often socially isolated, with a higher likelihood of acquiring
sexually trans-mitted diseases and are more likely to become parents at earlier ages compared
with their counterparts.
Interest in long-term outcomes in adult with ADHD has increased due to the impact it has on
work, daily living, family living and relationships.

Depression In Youth Suicide

Depression in adolescents
Adolescent depression is a serious mental health problem. Although depression in adolescents
has been conceptualized and measured in a variety of ways, it is conservative to conclude that
approximately 5-7% of adolescents in the general population experience significant depression
and that from 10-40% of adolescents report some depressed or unhappy mood.
Rates of depression increase significantly throughout the adolescent period. Gender differences
in the rates of depression typically emerge beginning at around age 13 or 14, with girls twice as
likely to become depressed as boys.
Because of the incidence rates of depression among adolescents and because most adolescents
attend school, it is quite likely that school counsellors will encounter depressed adolescents at
some time.
In particular, school counselling professionals could play a critical role in assessment,
intervention, and prevention of adolescent depression.
Depression is a major mental health problem because the features of depressed mood may be
compounded by the conditions that often co-exist with depression.
Other than depressed or irritable mood, typical diagnostic features of depression among
adolescents include increased emotional sensitivity, a noticeable lack of interest or ability to
delight in otherwise pleasurable experiences or activities, decreased energy level and
increased fatigue, low self-worth or excessive feelings of guilt, recurrent thoughts about
death or dying (e.g., suicidal ideation with or with-out a specific plan), withdrawal from
friends, sleep and/or appetite disturbances (e.g., restless sleep, weight gain/loss or
failure to make expected weight gains), change in school performance and/or change in
attitude toward school, and reduced ability to think clearly or make decisions.
The intensity, duration, distress, and impact on social and academic functioning set clinically
significant depression apart from normal fluctuations of mood which are observed among
many adolescents. The following example illustrates these points.
(To most observers, Andrea had everything going for her. She had always been popular with her
friends and with her teachers. She was an ideal student, always turning in assignments on time
and with impeccable attention to detail. She was very active and seemed capable of doing many
things well. No one was quite sure when things began to slip for Andrea, or why. Over a period
of approximately four weeks, her teachers noticed a decline in her work, and she often seemed
inattentive in class. She became overly sensitive to benign comments and extremely sensitive to
critical feedback about her schoolwork, at one point bursting into tears during a brief meeting
with a teacher after class. She began dropping activities she once enjoyed and excelled in, and
she seemed less interested in talking with her friends. A teacher consulted the school counsellor,
and a conference was scheduled with her parents. Both parents reported noticeable changes in
Andrea at home, such as sleeping much more than usual, spending a great deal of time in her
bedroom (much more time than in previous weeks), refusal to attend family outings, missing
meals, and a general "gloomy" mood about her.)

Depression occurs with other mental health issues

Depression often covaries with one of more other mental health problems. Substance
abuse and eating disorders often are comorbid with depression.
Conduct disorder, a disruptive behavioral problem, is also often observed with depression
among adolescent populations , at rates of approximately 10-35%. Rohde, Lewinsohn, and
Seeley (1991) reported that 42% of the depressed adolescents in a large, community sample
had a comorbid disorder, with boys more likely to have co-existing disruptive behavioral
problems and girls more likely to have co-existing eating disorders.
Anxiety is also observed to covary with depression at rates from 21-70%, depending upon the
population surveyed.

One implication of the various features of depression and co-occurrence of depression

with many other psychological problems is that depressed mood may not always be the
presenting problem among adolescents. Indeed, school counsellors may be more likely
to hear reports of academic difficulties, concentration problems, somatic com-plaints (e.g.,
headaches, stomachaches), nervousness, peer problems, and substance abuse rather than
reports of depressed mood.
Certainly not all students with concentration problems have depression. However, it is in the
best interests of the student and the school if the possibility of depression is at least
considered. The most obvious reason for being concerned about depression is the
increased risk of suicide when an adolescent is depressed. The rate of suicide among
adolescents and young adults with a mood disorder is 25 times greater than the rate of
suicide among the general population.
Currently, suicide is the third leading cause of death in the 15-19-year age group and
schools are frequent sites of debriefing programs after a community experiences an
adolescent suicide. School counsellors may be called upon to coordinate such programs in
order to prevent negative modeling (i.e., additional suicides) as well as to help survivors
process their grief reactions.

A model to understand development of depression

The model of mental health trajectories developed by Petersen and colleagues is well-
suited for understanding adolescent depression, intervention, and prevention.
The model describes how the number and timing of changes in early adolescence affect
mental health. Moderators of these effects include parental and peer support as well as the
coping skills of the adolescent. It suggests that the manner in which adolescents adjust to
situational and developmental challenges or stressful life events and hassles (e.g., a bad
grade, relationship break-up, parental divorce) is determined by the internal and external
resources available to adolescents.

Challenges during adolescence can involve normative life events, non-normative events, and
hassles. Normative life events are experienced by most adolescents and occur for many
adolescents at approximately the same point in the life course. Examples include school
entry, school transitions, and puberty.
Other challenges involve events that are non-normative, such as the experience of
parental death or divorce. Non-normative life events are less commonly experienced than
normative events or occur at less predictable points in the life course. Physical or sexual
abuse, for example, are particularly disturbing examples of non-normative events.
Major normative and non-normative life events affect adjustment in part by increasing
the number of much more frequently occurring stressors commonly referred to as
hassles. For example, parental divorce not only changes the adolescent's relationships with
each parent and perhaps siblings, but it may also alter the school attended, peer
relationships, opportunities to participate in extracurricular activities, family economic
stability, and the regularity of daily life.
In addition to the type of challenges (normative and non-normative) and hassles, the sheer
number of changes experienced during adolescence, the timing of those changes, and the
synchronicity with which they occur, have an impact on mental health outcomes.

Internal and external resources may interact with the effects of major life events or
developmental challenges.
Internal resources refer to aspects of the individual's personality, such as attributional
style, coping skills, intelligence, and perceived locus of control.
For example, the attributional styles associated with depression are those in which
adolescents interpret negative experiences as being caused by something within (e.g., "I'm a
bad/stupid/worthless person, that's why she broke-up with me"), as being indicative of
characteristics that will be stable over time (e.g., "I'm a failure with the girls and I
always will be, so why bother"), and as signs of more generalized or global deficits (e.g., "I
don't just fail with relationships but I mess-up everything I do, in school, on the team, at
home”)

Perfectionism is an example of an internal factor that may enhance or buffer the

deleterious consequences of negative life circumstances. Two factors emerge when defining
and measuring perfectionism: maladaptive evaluative concerns and positive achievement
striving.

External resources refer to interpersonal sources of support and guidance, such as a solid
relationship with a teacher, counsellor, parent, or friend. Deficits in external resources also
place adolescents at risk for developing depression.
For example, having a depressed parent is a significant risk factor for the adolescent
depression. Poor parenting practices have also been linked to childhood depression.
Poor quality of attachment to parents and to peers has predicted adolescent depression as
well. In one study examining both internal and external resources, Bennett and Bates
(1995) found that lower social support, more so than attributional style, was a significant
predictor of subsequent depression (6 months later) in a sample of 11 - to 13-year-olds.

The final assumption of the model is that the manner in which an adolescent cope with
challenges not only influences his or her adjustment at that time but also determines, in
part, the personal and social resources that will be available to the adolescent in
subsequent develop-mental periods. This may explain, in part, why there is a greater
likelihood of experiencing subsequent depressive episodes once a person has had a
depressive episode.
For example, adolescents who become depressed may alienate themselves and withdraw
from peers or caring adults, thus removing themselves even further from the very resources
that might be able to assist them in managing their depression. Another possibility is that
adolescents come to believe certain things about themselves (e.g., inadequacy,
worthlessness) and then subsequently behave in ways that confirm such conclusions, similar
to a self-fulfilling prophecy.
This conceptual model suggests several considerations for interventions
First, challenges need to be considered from a developmental and age-appropriate
perspective; that is, the timing of the intervention and the intervention components should
be developmentally informed.
Second, enhancing or modifying internal resources (e.g., coping style) and external resources
(e.g., social support) through intervention should affect the impact that challenges have on
mental health.
Further, internal resources could also affect external resources, and vice versa, such that
altering one may benefit the other. The availability and utility of re-sources to meet the
challenges of adolescence can have implications for present and future mental health.
Therefore, interventions for adolescents should attend to the normative (e.g., puberty,
school transitions) and non-normative (e.g., parental divorce, death in the family)
challenges confronting youth, and the enhancement of internal and external resources for
meeting those challenges.

The importance of the school counsellor is evident here. He facilitated the availability of
external resources by involving Jim in the "partner program" and by introducing him to
the swimming coach. Both of these external resources could have been accessed by Jim
without the help of the school counselor.
However, depressive affect can get in the way of one's ability to act on one's own behalf
because of the interference of feelings of worthlessness and powerlessness, not to mention
the lack of energy and other associated somatic symptoms of depression. An advocate in the
form of a school counselor can go a long way toward helping a student get "back to normal.

Assessment, Prevention, and Intervention – The Role of The School Counsellor

Assessment and Referral An awareness and understanding of depression in adolescence
can serve several useful functions. First, knowledge about depression (e.g., signs,
symptoms, co-occurring conditions) and sensitivity to a conceptual model about the
development of depression (e.g., normative and non-normative challenges, internal and
external resources) arms the school counsellor with an array of emotional, behavioral, and
cognitive factors to explore and evaluate.
The counsellor may individually interview a student identified by a teacher as withdrawn
and/or irritable, or whose functioning has changed.
The counselor may also tap the teacher's considerable exposure to the student and
knowledge of other factors possibly contributing to the student's difficulties. Parent input
may also be solicited for additional confirming or discontinuing information about the
student. Generally, a comprehensive approach to assessment (multiple methods of
information gathering from multiple sources) is the best strategy.
School counsellors should be comfortably familiar with their institution's policies and
procedures regarding crisis management, and work to develop such procedures if none
exist.
Thus, the school counsellor plays a crucial role in the initial assessment, coordination of
referrals, and also may become involved in an eventual treatment or follow-up plan.

Counselling Approaches to work directly with adolescents include individual and family
counseling and psychotherapy, group counselling, and prevention.
Individual and group counselling and prevention efforts can draw upon the conceptual
model described above for possible intervention strategies, content ideas, and expected
results. For example, short-term individual counselling usually begins by developing a
working alliance with the adolescent (developing an external resource).
The counselor can then implement strategies to enhance the student's internal as well as other
external resources. Coping or problem-solving strategies could be explored and improved.
Students can learn how to match appropriate coping strategies to the type of problem
situations they encounter. For example, active problem-solving in which an adolescent sets
a goal, brainstorms possible solutions, anticipates consequences, and implements a plan of
action, generally works for events or circumstances that are under an adolescent's control.
Emotion-focused strategies (e.g., relaxation) may be used when circumstances are not
under the adolescent's control but are nevertheless upsetting.
Cognitive interventions could be implemented to challenge and revise inaccurate perceptions of
self and others. Social skills (e.g., assertiveness training) could be addressed and practiced
in order to increase the quantity and quality of relationships with peers and family
members.
Group counselling strategies can be similar to those used in individual counselling, although
the opportunity for development and enhancement of external resources may be greater in a
group context than in an individual context.

Prevention Problems associated with the identification of adolescents with de-pression

and with matching existing resources to treatment argue for the implementation of
primary and secondary prevention activities.
Primary prevention programs are those programs that are targeted to reduce the
incidence of dysfunctional mental health by blocking problems before they begin.
Secondary prevention is aimed at reducing the severity of expression in those individuals who
have already shown signs of problems.

Consultation is an indirect form of service delivery in that it generally refers to a

voluntary, collaborative relationship between two professional or a professional and an
interested person (e.g., parent). Consultation in the schools occurs most often between the
school counsellor and the teacher or parent with the goal of the collaboration to
improve the functioning of a third person (e.g., child).
Consultation might occur when a teacher suspects that a student is experiencing a depressed
affect and the teacher contacts the school counsellor to discuss the situation. The school
counsellor would then work toward enhancing the teacher's ability to assess depression,
provide intervention, and/or make a referral.

The role of a School Counsellor

Depending upon the school setting, counsellors may be called upon to conduct individual
counselling and group counselling, crisis intervention, training, teaching, program
development, course scheduling, and a variety of coordination activities. Time and
efficiency become highly valued among many school counsellors.
Adolescent depression is likely best treated through a thoughtful set of efforts, perhaps
initiated and/or coordinated by a school counsellor. Although individual counselling can
help adolescents who are depressed, it also is clear that individual counselling provided by
the school counsellor to every adolescent suspected of being depressed will not be in the best
interests of any member of the school community.
Other efficient and beneficial uses of a school counsellor's time may involve a
combination of primary prevention, secondary prevention, and consultation services such that
larger groups of adolescents are served and the responsibility for helping depressed
adolescents is shared across the school.
Such activities could include in-service presentations to school personnel regarding the
identification of depression and interventions that help improve depression (e.g., help
increase internal and external resources), curriculum revision and infusion of depression-
relevant content in appropriate classes, and small group counselling for students sharing
some risk factors.
Adolescent depression varies in intensity, duration, and severity. Schools and school
counsellors in particular should be concerned about adolescent depression because –
(a) depression can significantly interfere with the learning process,
(b) depression is often associated with other emotional and behavioral problems (e.g.,
anxiety, conduct disorder, eating disorders, substance abuse), and
(c) depression is linked to youth suicide.

Suicidal behavior in Adolescents

Suicide - Death caused by self-directed injurious behavior with any intent to die as a result of the
behavior.
• Suicide attempt: A non-fatal self-directed potentially injurious behavior (may or may not
result in injury) with any intent to die as result of the behavior
• Suicidal ideation: Thoughts of suicide that can range in severity from a vague wish to be
dead to active suicidal ideation with a specific plan and intent

Risk Factors (Increase likelihood that a young person will engage in suicidal behavior)–
Intrapersonal
• Recent or serious loss
• Mental disorders (particularly mood disorders)
• Hopelessness, helplessness, guilt, worthlessness
• Previous suicide attempt
• Alcohol and other substance use disorders
• Disciplinary problems
• High risk behaviors
• Sexual orientation confusion

Risk Factors – Social / Situational

• Recent or serious loss (e.g., death, divorce, separation, broken relationship; self-esteem; loss
of interest in friends, hobbies, or activities previously enjoyed)
• Family history of suicide
• Witnessing family violence
• Child abuse or neglect
• Lack of social support
• Sense of isolation
• Victim of bullying or being a bully
Risk Factors – Cultural / Environmental
• Access to lethal means (i.e., firearms, pills)
• Stigma associated with asking for help
• Barriers to accessing services Lack of bilingual service providers Unreliable transportation
Financial costs of services
• Cultural and religious beliefs (e.g., belief that suicide is noble resolution of a personal
dilemma)

Protective Factors (Mitigate or eliminate risk) –

• Skills in problem solving, conflict resolution and handling problems in a non-violent way
• Strong connections to family, friends, and community support
• Restricted access to highly lethal means of suicide
• Cultural and religious beliefs that discourage suicide and support self-preservation
• Easy access to a variety of clinical interventions
• Effective clinical care for mental, physical, and substance use disorders
• Support through ongoing medical and mental health care relationships

Warning Signs
A warning sign does not mean automatically that a person is going to attempt suicide, but it
should be responded to in a serious & thoughtful manner.
Do not dismiss a threat as a cry for attention!

What kinds of warning signs are a cause for concern?

• Talking About Dying - Any mention of dying, disappearing, jumping, shooting oneself, or
other types of self-harm
• Change in Personality - Sad, withdrawn, irritable, anxious, tired, indecisive, or apathetic
• Change in Behavior - Difficulty concentrating on school, work, or routine tasks
• Change in Sleep Patterns - Insomnia, often with early waking or oversleeping, nightmares
• Change in Eating Habits - Loss of appetite and weight, overeating
• Fear of losing control - Acting erratically, harming self or others
Suicidal behavior is overrepresented in children and adolescents with the following
psychiatric disorders
Depression
The combination of depressive symptoms and antisocial behavior has been described as the most
common antecedent of teenage suicide.
School students suffering from depression often present physical symptoms when they seek
medical advice.13 Somatic complaints, such as headache and stomach-ache and also shooting
pains in the legs or chest, are frequent.
Although some depressive symptoms or depressive disorders are common among suicidal
children, depression is not a necessary concomitant of either suicidal thoughts or suicide
attempts. Adolescents can kill themselves without being depressed, and they can be depressed
without killing themselves.

Anxiety disorders
Studies have shown a consistent correlation between anxiety disorders and suicide attempts in
males, while a weaker association has been found in females. Trait anxiety appears to be
relatively independent of depression in its effect on the risk of suicidal behavior, which suggests
that the anxiety of adolescents at risk for suicidal behavior should be assessed and treated.
Psychosomatic symptoms are also often present in young persons tormented by suicidal
thoughts.

Alcohol and drug abuse

Abusers of alcohol and illicit drugs are overrepresented among children and adolescents who
commit suicide. In this age group, one in four suicidal patients has been found to have consumed
alcohol or drugs before the act.

Eating disorders
Owing to dissatisfaction with their bodies, many children and adolescents try to lose weight and
are concerned about what they should and should not eat. Between 1% and 2% of teenage girls
suffer from either anorexia or bulimia.
Anorexic girls very frequently also succumb to depression, and suicide risk among anorexic girls
is 20 times that for young people in general. Recent findings show that boys, too, can suffer from
anorexia and bulimia
Psychotic disorders
Although few children and adolescents suffer from severe psychiatric disorders such as
schizophrenia or manic-depressive disorder, suicide risk is very high in those affected.
Most psychotic young people are, in fact, characterized by several risk factors, such as drinking
problems, excessive smoking and drug abuse.

Previous suicide attempts

A history of single or recurrent suicide attempts, with or without the above-mentioned
psychiatric disorders, is an important risk factor for suicidal behavior.

How to talk to your child?

• Talk in a calm, non-accusatory manner
• Let them know you love and care
• Convey how important they are to you
• Focus on concern for their well-being
• Make statements that convey you have empathy for their stress
• Encourage seeking professional help
• Reassure them that they will not feel like this forever by utilizing appropriate help

Prevention of child’s suicidal behavior

• Prioritize interacting with them in positive ways
• Increase their involvement in positive experiences
• Monitor appropriately your child’s whereabouts and communications (i.e., texting, Facebook,
Twitter) with the goal of keeping them safe.
• Get involved and be aware your child's friends
• Communicate regularly with other parents in your community
• Limit your child’s access to guns, knives, alcohol, prescription pills, and illegal drugs
• Communicate regularly with your child’s school to ensure optimal safety and care for your
child in the school setting

Intervention Programs
1. Psychotherapy is an important component in the management of suicidal ideation and
behaviors
2. There are two documented effective psychotherapies for treating those who attempt
suicide:
 • Cognitive behavior therapy (CBT)
• Dialectical behavioral therapy (DBT) for youth diagnosed with borderline personality
disorder and recurrent suicidal ideation
3. There are other promising interventions!
• Family therapy
• Medications

How should suicidal students be managed at school?

Strengthening the mental health of schoolteachers and other school staff
First of all, it is essential to secure the well-being and balance of teachers and other school staff.
For them, the workplace may be rejecting, aggressive and sometimes even violent.
Therefore, they need information material that enhances their understanding and proposes
adequate reactions to their own, students’ and colleagues’ mental strain and possible mental
illness.
They should also have access to support and, if necessary, treatment.
Strengthening students’ self-esteem
Positive self-esteem protects children and adolescents against mental distress and despondency
and enables them to cope adequately with difficult and stressful life situations.
To foster positive self-esteem in children and adolescents a variety of techniques can be used.
Some recommended approaches follow-
• Positive life experiences that will help to forge a positive identity in the young should be
accentuated. Positive past experiences increase young people‘s chances of greater future self-
confidence.
• Children and adolescents should not be constantly pressured to do more and better.
• It is not enough for adults to say they love the child; the child must feel loved. There is a big
difference between being loved and feeling loved.
• Children should not only be accepted, but also cherished, as they are. They must feel special
just because they exist.

Promoting emotional expression

Children and adolescents should be taught to take their own feelings seriously and encouraged to
confide in parents and other adults, such as teachers, school doctors or nurses, friends, sport
coaches, and religious advisers.
Preventing bullying and violence at school
Specific skills should be available in the education system to prevent bullying and violence in
and around the school premises in order to create a safe environment free of intolerance.
Providing information about care services
The availability of specific services should be ensured by widely publicizing the telephone
numbers of, for example, crisis and emergency helplines and psychiatric emergency numbers,
and making them accessible to young people.

SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
Suicide is not an incomprehensible bolt from the blue: suicidal students give people around them
enough warnings and scope to intervene. In suicide prevention work, teachers and other school
staff face a challenge of great strategic importance, in which it is fundamental:
• to identify students with personality disturbances and offer them psychological support.
• to forge closer bonds with young people by talking to them and trying to understand and
help.
• to alleviate mental distress.
• to be observant of and trained in the early recognition of suicidal communication whether
through verbal statements and/or behavioral changes.
• to help less skillful students with their schoolwork.
• to be observant of truancy.
• to destigmatize mental illness and help to eliminate misuse of alcohol and drugs.
• to refer students for treatment of psychiatric disorders and alcohol and drug abuse.
• to restrict students’ access to means of suicide - toxic and lethal drugs, pesticides, firearms,
and other weapons, etc.
• to give teachers and other school personnel on-the-spot access to means of alleviating their
stress at work.

Self – Esteem and Social Anxiety Disorder

Self-esteem is an overall assessment of the individual’s worthiness, expressed in a positive
or negative orientation towards them. It is a component of the Self-concept that
Rosenberg defines as a totality of individual thoughts and feelings, having reference to him
as an object.
Besides self-esteem, self-efficacy and self-identification are an important part of the Self-
concept. Self-esteem as a whole is an unchanging feature of adults.
Self-esteem is a part of our personality and in order or raise it we need to have a sense
of personal worth coming from those life challenges that demonstrate our success. Self-
esteem has two elements –
• self-knowledge and
• self-awareness.
It included the individual’s perceptions about their own strengths and weaknesses, abilities,
attitudes and values. Its development starts at birth and is constantly developing under the
influence of experience.

Adolescence is a crucial, critical period in individual’s development, a transition period

between childhood and adulthood in a particular cultural environment.
Self-esteem plays a very important role for development during this period. High self-esteem
has no positive effect on school performance.
A study even showed that artificially inflated self-esteem leads to poorer school
performance.
Self-esteem is a fundamental component of self-awareness. It occupies a key place in the
structure of adolescent individual because it is related to mental health and definition of
life goals.

M. Rosenberg’s Research
Self-esteem is the subject of M. Rosenberg’s research. Studying high school students with
the help of a 10-item assessment scale (Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale) Rosenberg
found that higher self-esteem is largely determined by parents ‘interest in their own
children.
The self-assessment study model-based on the discrepancy between the real and ideal self,
considers the lack of correspondence between them as a result of having
unrealistically high ideal standards in a given field or as a result of the individual’s
perception of insufficiently good performance in a certain area.
Chronic perception of discrepancy between the ideal and real self is associated with
frustration, inferiority, and depression.

Factors affecting an adolescent’s metal development

The social situation on which the adolescent’s mental development depends is largely
determined by the family.
• Parents and older family members need to know the specifics of adolescence and seek
to help the child overcome their difficulties, treating the future full citizen with love,
respect and trust.
• Parents should help their children while overcoming learning and communication
difficulties; they should give honest and sincere answers to multiple questions,
related to intimate, social and moral issues.
• Love and trust, competent answers and advice are the parents’ fundamental “tool”
helping their children become an adult and equal to them individual.
• The ability to understand contradictory facts and situations affects the relationships
between adolescents and their parents.
• The adolescents compare images of ideal parents with the real parents they watch
every day. They are often critical of social institutions, including family and parents.
• A number of facts have been identified:
✓ Overly strict parenting and satisfaction of all needs are associated with earlier
onset of sexual activity of adolescents. Moderate parental strictness leads to
the best results . Sexually active adolescents often report bad relationships with
their parents.
✓ The number of family disputes increases. Battles fought over everyday activities
(household chores, dressing, learning, family meals) allow the adolescents,
through relatively minor problems, to check the degree of their independence in a
safe family environment. The word “negotiation” is one of the most important words
at this age. Most psychologists, instead of talking about rebellion and painful
separation from the family, prefer to describe the period as one during which parents
and kids negotiate new relationships between them.
✓ Adolescents, feeling strongly about their individuality are brought up in families
where parents not only offer guidance and success, but let their children express their
own views.
✓ One aspect of thinking on the level of formal operations is the ability to analyze
one’s own thought processes. A particular type of egocentrism is being expressed. he
idea that other people are constantly observing and evaluating their behavior has
been called imaginary audience. It is a common cause of shyness and painful response
to the opinions of other people.

To conclude we may say that self-esteem is central to what we do with our lives –the
loyalty we have to developing ourselves and caring for others –and is at the heart of
everything that an adolescent will achieve in their life.
Self-esteem is formed in the family by the parents and parental attitude is of
paramount importance.
Self-esteem will influence the adolescent’s performance at school; it will determine how
competent the child will be, to what extent that child will be accepted by others and
what acceptance they will demonstrate in turn.
Healthy self-esteem
There are some simple ways to tell if you have healthy self-esteem. You probably have healthy
self-esteem if you:
• Avoid dwelling on past negative experiences
• Believe you are equal to everyone else, no better and no worse
• Express your needs
• Feel confident
• Have a positive outlook on life
• Say no when you want to
• See your overall strengths and weaknesses and accept them
Having healthy self-esteem can help motivate you to reach your goals, because you are able to
navigate life knowing that you are capable of accomplishing what you set your mind to.
Additionally, when you have healthy self-esteem, you are able to set appropriate boundaries in
relationships and maintain a healthy relationship with yourself and others.

Low self-esteem
Low self-esteem may manifest in a variety of ways. If you have low self-esteem:
• You may believe that others are better than you.
• You may find expressing your needs difficult.
• You may focus on your weaknesses.
• You may frequently experience fear, self-doubt, and worry.
• You may have a negative outlook on life and feel a lack of control.4
• You may have an intense fear of failure.
• You may have trouble accepting positive feedback.
• You may have trouble saying no and setting boundaries.
• You may put other people's needs before your own.
• You may struggle with confidence.
Low self-esteem has the potential to lead to a variety of mental health disorders,
including anxiety disorders and depressive disorders. You may also find it difficult to pursue
your goals and maintain healthy relationships.
Having low self-esteem can seriously impact your quality of life and increases your risk for
experiencing suicidal thoughts.
Excessive self-esteem
Overly high self-esteem is often mislabeled as narcissism, however there are some distinct
traits that differentiate these terms. Individuals with narcissistic traits may appear to have high
self-esteem, but their self-esteem may be high or low and is unstable, constantly shifting
depending on the given situation.6 Those with excessive self-esteem:
• May be preoccupied with being perfect
• May focus on always being right
• May believe they cannot fail
• May believe they are more skilled or better than others
• May express grandiose ideas
• May grossly overestimate their skills and abilities
When self-esteem is too high, it can result in relationship problems, difficulty with social
situations, and an inability to accept criticism.

Social Anxiety Disorder

SAD Social anxiety disorder (also called social phobia) is a mental health condition. It is an
intense, persistent fear of being watched and judged by others. This fear can affect work, school,
and your other day-to-day activities. It can even make it hard to make and keep friends.

Social anxiety disorder is a common type of anxiety disorder. A person with social anxiety
disorder feels symptoms of anxiety or fear in certain or all social situations, such as meeting new
people, dating, being on a job interview, answering a question in class, or having to talk to a
cashier in a store.
Doing everyday things in front of people—such as eating or drinking in front of others or using a
public restroom—also causes anxiety or fear. The person is afraid that he or she will be
humiliated, judged, and rejected.

The fear that people with social anxiety disorder have in social situations is so strong that they
feel it is beyond their ability to control. As a result, it gets in the way of going to work, attending
school, or doing everyday things.
People with social anxiety disorder may worry about these and other things for weeks before
they happen. Sometimes, they end up staying away from places or events where they think they
might have to do something that will embarrass them.

Signs and symptoms of social anxiety disorder

When having to perform in front of or be around others, people with social anxiety disorder tend
to:
• Blush, sweat, tremble, feel a rapid heart rate, or feel their “mind going blank”
• Feel nauseous or sick to their stomach
• Show a rigid body posture, make little eye contact, or speak with an overly soft voice
• Find it scary and difficult to be with other people, especially those they don’t already know,
and have a hard time talking to them even though they wish they could
• Be very self-conscious in front of other people and feel embarrassed and awkward
• Be very afraid that other people will judge them
• Stay away from places where there are other people

Causes of social anxiety disorder

Social anxiety disorder sometimes runs in families, but no one knows for sure why some family
members have it while others don’t. Researchers have found that several parts of the brain are
involved in fear and anxiety. Some researchers think that misreading of others’ behavior may
play a role in causing or worsening social anxiety.
For example, you may think that people are staring or frowning at you when they truly are not.
Underdeveloped social skills are another possible contributor to social anxiety. For example, if
you have underdeveloped social skills, you may feel discouraged after talking with people and
may worry about doing it in the future.
By learning more about fear and anxiety in the brain, scientists may be able to create better
treatments. Researchers are also looking for ways in which stress and environmental factors may
play a role.

How is social anxiety disorder treated?

Social anxiety disorder is generally treated with psychotherapy (sometimes called “talk”
therapy), medication, or both.
Psychotherapy
A type of psychotherapy called cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is especially useful for
treating social anxiety disorder. CBT teaches you different ways of thinking, behaving, and
reacting to situations that help you feel less anxious and fearful. It can also help you learn and
practice social skills.

Support Groups
Many people with social anxiety also find support groups helpful. In a group of people who all
have social anxiety disorder, you can receive unbiased, honest feedback about how others in the
group see you.
This way, you can learn that your thoughts about judgment and rejection are not true or are
distorted. You can also learn how others with social anxiety disorder approach and overcome the
fear of social situations.

Medication
There are three types of medications used to help treat social anxiety disorder:
• Anti-anxiety medications
• Antidepressants
• Beta-blockers
Anti-anxiety medications are powerful and begin working right away to reduce anxious
feelings; however, these medications are usually not taken for long periods of time. People can
build up a tolerance if they are taken over a long period of time and may need higher and higher
doses to get the same effect.
Some people may even become dependent on them. To avoid these problems, doctors usually
prescribe anti-anxiety medications for short periods, a practice that is especially helpful for older
adults.
Antidepressants are mainly used to treat depression but are also helpful for the symptoms of
social anxiety disorder.
Beta-blockers are medicines that can help block some of the physical symptoms of anxiety on
the body, such as an increased heart rate, sweating, or tremors. Beta-blockers are commonly the
medications of choice for the “performance anxiety” type of social anxiety.
Eating Disorders
Eating disorders can be complicated in terms of accurate identification, as they can be
categorized as fitting into one of several clinical diagnoses. Moreover, some problematic
behaviors and attitudes may not reach a diagnosable level, yet may still be concerning.

Anorexia Nervosa
Anorexia means a lack of appetite, but an absence of hunger is not an accurate descriptor of
those who struggle with this disorder; rather, anorexia sufferers engage in starvation behaviors.
Far from losing their appetite, those immersed in symptoms of anorexia are usually extremely
hungry. The defining feature of anorexia to be the “relentless pursuit of excessive thinness”
The features of anorexia nervosa include the intense fear of becoming fat, weight loss of at least
25% of original body weight, and for women, amenorrhea, which is the absence of menstruation
for 3 consecutive cycles.
Anorexia nervosa (AN) is an eating disorder which is diagnosed through the use of these major
criteria-
1. Significantly low body weight.
2. An individual could exhibit actions which prohibit gaining weight, despite being
underweight.
3. The third diagnostic criterion is distortion in perceiving body weight and shape, with an
excessive link between body shape and self-concept, and an unwillingness to recognize this
exceedingly low weight.

Causes
The exact causes of anorexia nervosa are not known. Many factors probably are involved. Genes
and hormones may play a role. Social attitudes that promote very thin body types may also be
involved.
Family conflicts are no longer thought to contribute to this or other eating disorders.
Risk factors for anorexia include:
• Being more worried about, or paying more attention to, weight and shape
• Having an anxiety disorder as a child
• Having a negative self-image
• Having eating problems during infancy or early childhood
• Having certain social or cultural ideas about health and beauty
• Trying to be perfect or overly focused on rules
Anorexia usually begins during the teen years or young adulthood. It is more common in
females, but may also be seen in males. The disorder is seen mainly in white women who are
high academic achievers and who have a goal-oriented family or personality.

Symptoms
To be diagnosed with anorexia, a person must:
• Have an intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, even when she is underweight
• Refuse to keep weight at what is considered normal for her age and height (15% or more
below the normal weight)
• Have a body image that is very distorted, be very focused on body weight or shape, and
refuse to admit the seriousness of weight loss
• Have not had a period for three or more cycles (in women)
People with anorexia may severely limit the amount of food they eat, or eat and then make
themselves throw up. Other behaviors include:
• Cutting food into small pieces or moving them around the plate instead of eating
• Exercising all the time, even when the weather is bad, they are hurt, or their schedule is busy
• Going to the bathroom right after meals
• Refusing to eat around other people
• Using pills to make themselves urinate (water pills or diuretics), have a bowel movement
(enemas and laxatives), or decrease their appetite (diet pills)
Other symptoms of anorexia may include:
• Blotchy or yellow skin that is dry and covered with fine hair
• Confused or slow thinking, along with poor memory or judgment
• Depression
• Dry mouth
• Extreme sensitivity to cold (wearing several layers of clothing to stay warm)
• Loss of bone strength
• Wasting away of muscle and loss of body fat
Bulimia Nervosa
Bulimia is an illness in which a person binges on food or has regular episodes of overeating and
feels a loss of control. The person then uses different methods—such as vomiting or abusing
laxatives—to prevent weight gain.
Many (but not all) people with bulimia also have anorexia nervosa.
Authors have noted that bulimia is indicative of much more than a physical hunger; this disorder
signifies a “hunger for meaning, expression, and connection”

The major criterion for a clinical diagnosis of bulimia is –

1. The first main diagnostic criterion for BN is an engagement in binge eating, which is
defined as consuming an obviously large amount of food within a specific time frame
and concurrently experiencing a lack of control regarding this eating behavior.

2. The second criterion involves actions in which an individual engages to counteract

this binge eating in the hopes of avoiding weight gain. These compensatory behaviors
can include obsessive and intense exercise, misuse of laxatives, diuretics, and/or enemas,
skipping meals/fasting, and self-induced vomiting.

3. Binge eating and compensatory behaviors would need to take place once a week for 3
months for a BN diagnosis.

4. A clinical diagnosis of BN includes an over-concern with one’s body weight and shape
such that an individual’s view of the self.

Causes
Many more women than men have bulimia. The disorder is most common in adolescent girls and
young women. The affected person is usually aware that her eating pattern is abnormal and may
feel fear or guilt with the binge-purge episodes.
The exact cause of bulimia is unknown. Genetic, psychological, trauma, family, society, or
cultural factors may play a role. Bulimia is likely due to more than one factor.

Symptoms
In bulimia, eating binges may occur as often as several times a day for many months.
People with bulimia often eat large amounts of high-calorie foods, usually in secret. People can
feel a lack of control over their eating during these episodes.
Binges lead to self-disgust, which causes purging to prevent weight gain. Purging may include:
• Forcing yourself to vomit
• Excessive exercise
• Using laxatives, enemas, or diuretics (water pills)
Purging often brings a sense of relief.
People with bulimia are often at a normal weight, but they may see themselves as being
overweight. Because the person's weight is often normal, other people may not notice this eating
disorder.
Symptoms that other people can see include:
• Compulsive exercise
• Suddenly eating large amounts of food or buying large amounts of food that disappear right
away
• Regularly going to the bathroom right after meals
• Throwing away packages of laxatives, diet pills, emetics (drugs that cause vomiting), or
diuretics

Characteristics of Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa

Psychological
Some of the psychological features that are common to both eating disorders include anxiety,
low self-esteem, and depression.
However, depression appears to be more common in bulimics, often to the point of experiencing
suicidal ideations. This may be due to bulimic's low frustration tolerance and labile moods.
Anorexics tend to have more overcontrolling egos, where bulimics tend to think of themselves as
out of control.
One possible reason for this could be due to the anorexics' proud feelings of being able to restrict
themselves from eating and to sustain their appetites.

Behavioral
Some similarities include compulsive exercising, overuse of laxatives and diuretics, and bizarre
activities that include food, such as wanting to bake sweet foods frequently.
There are many differences between the two disorders, yet the most common reported is
impulsive behavior. Bulimics tend to show very poor impulse control in comparison with
anorexics.
Bulimics were more likely to use drugs, steal, and cheat in school.
Anorexics have more sexual inhibitions, whereas bulimics are more likely to engage in impulsive
sexual interactions. This issue of impulsivity among bulimics appears to be directly related to
their loss of control with eating binges.

Physical
Some of these health problems include low potassium levels, low blood pressure, high metabolic
rate, bradycardia (abnormal heartbeat), and gastrointestinal disturbances.
In addition, as noted earlier, anorexics experience a cessation of menstrual cycles. From what
appears to an emotional, mental disorder, these physical complications are horrifying
consequences that could result in death.

Binge Eating Disorder

Binge eating is when a person eats a much larger amount of food in a shorter period of time than
he or she normally would. During binge eating, the person also feels a loss of control.
A binge eater often:
• Eats 5,000–15,000 calories in one sitting
• Often snacks, in addition to eating three meals a day
• Overeats throughout the day
Binge eating by itself usually leads to becoming overweight.
Binge eating may occur on its own or with another eating disorder, such as bulimia. People with
bulimia typically eat large amounts of high-calorie foods, usually in secret.

Diagnostic criteria include

• Regular binge eating (once weekly for a duration of three months) without actions to curb
weight gain.

Binge eating is defined by consuming abnormally large quantities of food in a specific time
period and a sense of loss of control during these binge eating behaviors.
Other defining traits of binge eating incidents include several additional symptoms (at least
three of the following must be present): abnormally rapid eating; a sensation of fullness that is
not pleasant; consuming many calories despite a lack of hunger; eating in solitude due to
shame; and emotions of guilt, disgust, or depression after binge eating.

Risk factors of eating disorders

Body dissatisfaction has been called one of the most “robust” risk factors for disordered
eating attitudes and behaviors and researchers have documented a link between body
dissatisfaction and eating disorder symptomatology among male and female adolescents.
Body dissatisfaction is also posited to lead to negative affect and dieting.

Prevention in Schools
School counselors can be highly involved in forming and delivering prevention programs which
aim to reduce the incidence of eating disorder symptomatology.
School counselors can also provide programming to parents—individually or as a group—in
order to help parents, develop strategies which reduce the risk of eating disorder
symptomatology among adolescents.
Individuals receiving treatment for disordered eating have reported that specific family qualities
may function to prevent eating disorder symptomatology from manifesting. In particular, these
participants noted that creating a supportive and nurturing family environment—especially
during adolescence—is critical to preventing onset of symptoms.

Intervention in Schools
For adolescents who display subclinical eating disorder symptoms, school counselors may be
able to provide some intervention. However, collaboration and consultation with outside
professionals will be imperative, as it is considered best practice in the eating disorder field
to have a multidisciplinary treatment approach.
These treatment teams often include a physician who can assess for the disorder’s impact on
physical health—including such issues as osteoporosis and cardiovascular concerns; a
nutritionist who can assist an adolescent in developing an eating plan; a psychiatrist who can
determine potential psychotropic medication needs; and a counselor who can provide a range of
therapeutic interventions.
Prominent therapy techniques that have been used with individuals struggling with eating
disorder symptomatology include family therapy, group therapy, experiential therapy, cognitive
behavioral therapy, and psychodynamic therapy.
How to help a child with an eating disorder?
If you’re ready to have a conversation with your child today about their eating disorder, it’s
imperative to stay calm and first listen to what they have to say. Validate their emotions and
repeat back what you’ve heard. Then share the facts about eating disorders with them, and what
you have personally observed of their behaviors.
Express how this makes you feel, using “I-statements.” Remind them that you love them and
share what positive personality traits (not physical ones) you see in them. If you can manage
your own anxiety and provide a calm space for your child, they are more likely to hear what you
have to say.
Above all, remember that recovery from an eating disorder doesn’t happen in a day, and it
doesn’t happen alone. Eating disorders are treatable, and with the right support, your child can go
on to live a full and healthy life.

Sexual Abuse
Sexual abuse is any form of sexual violence, including rape, child molestation, incest, and
similar forms of non-consensual sexual contact. Most sexual abuse experts agree sexual abuse is
never only about sex. Instead, it is often an attempt to gain power over others.
Immediate crisis assistance after sexual assault can prove invaluable and even save lives. A
person can report sexual assault by calling local police. Survivors may also wish to get a physical
exam at a hospital.
Therapy can also be helpful for those who experienced sexual abuse in the past. Some therapists
specialize in addressing the trauma of sexual assault. Long-term assistance may be beneficial to
some survivors of sexual abuse.

Types of sexual abuse and assault

Sexual abuse is common, particularly for women and girls. Ninety percent of all rapes are
committed against women. One in six women in America have experienced rape. One in five
girls and one in 20 boys experience childhood sexual abuse.
Sexual abuse and sexual assault are umbrella terms used to refer to multiple crimes. These
crimes include:
• Rape: Forced sexual contact with someone who does not or cannot consent. Forcing sex
upon someone who does not want it, who is intoxicated, or who is not legally old enough
to give consent all count as rape. Date rape is sexual assault that occurs between people
with an established relationship. A handful of states limit their definition of rape
to forcible sexual intercourse. Yet any form of forcible sexual contact can have long-
 lasting effects on a person. Most states now recognize forced oral sex and similar forms
of assault as rape.
• Child molestation: Child molestation is any sexual contact with a child. Many children
who are molested are too young to know what is happening and may not fight back.
Some abusers use the child's cooperation in these cases as "evidence" that no one was
harmed. Examples of child molestation might include fondling or demanding sexual
favors from a child.
• Incest: Incest describes sexual contact between family members who are too closely
related to marry. While incestuous sexual activity may occur between consenting adults,
this is not common. Most reported incest occurs as child abuse. Over a third of American
sexual assault survivors under the age of 18 are abused by a family member, according to
latest statistics. However, incest is an underreported crime, so the actual number of incest
survivors may be higher.
• Non-consensual sexual contact: This category includes any unwanted sexual touching,
such as groping or pinching. Attempted rape can also fall into this category.
• Non-contact sexual abuse: Not all sexual abuse fits neatly into common legal or
psychological definitions. For instance, parents who have sex in front of their children or
who make sexually inappropriate comments to their children are engaging in sexual
abuse. So-called revenge pornography sites, which publish nude photos of people without
their consent, are another form of sexual abuse.
The laws governing sexual abuse are constantly changing. For this reason, most professionals
who work with sexual abuse survivors rely on the person's feelings, not the law, when
determining whether a sexual assault has occurred.
For example, marital rape can be deeply traumatic, especially in an otherwise abusive
relationship. Yet marital rape did not become a crime anywhere until the 1970s. It is still a
challenging crime to prosecute.

Childhood sexual trauma is associated with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression,
suicide, alcohol problems, and eating disorders. Survivors may also experience low sexual
interest and relationship difficulties and engage in high-risk sexual behaviors and extreme coping
strategies.
In the most severe cases, women may experience symptoms of a personality disorder, including
one that is distinguished by enduring patterns of instability and impulsivity (i.e., borderline
personality disorder).

Adulthood sexual trauma is associated with short-term and long-term psychological

consequences. Short-term effects include shock, fear, anxiety, confusion, and withdrawal. Many
survivors experience a reduction in symptoms within a few months, whereas some women
experience distress for years.
Long-term outcomes include PTSD, depression, eating disorders, sexual dysfunction, alcohol
and illicit drug use, nonfatal suicidal behavior and suicidal threats, physical symptoms in the
absence of medical conditions, and severe preoccupations with physical appearances.
Risks of developing mental health problems are related to assault severity, other negative life
experiences, maladaptive beliefs, and perceptions of lack of control.

Role of faith and spirituality in students’ mental health

Spirituality is a word used in an abundance of contexts that means different things for different
people at different times in different cultures. Although expressed through religions, art, nature,
and the built environment for centuries, recent expressions of spirituality have become more
varied and diffuse.
This is reflected in the range of vocabulary used to describe spirituality. Some of the more
common themes in the literature describe it using one or more of the following elements:
1. a sense of purpose
2. a sense of ‘connectedness’ – to self, others, nature, ‘God’ or Other
3. a quest for wholeness
4. a search for hope or harmony
5. a belief in a higher being or beings
6. some level of transcendence, or the sense that there is more to life than the material or
practical , and
7. those activities that give meaning and value to people’s lives

Underlying many of those themes is an assumption that an intrinsic (often sub-conscious) human
activity is one of trying to make sense of the world around us and of our meaning and place
within it. In this context, “spirituality” becomes the vehicle through which that meaning is
sought, and can vary according to age, gender, culture, political ideology, physical or mental
health and myriad other factors.
“Spirituality is that aspect of human existence that gives it its ‘humanness’. It concerns the
structures of significance that give meaning and direction to a person’s life and helps them deal
with the vicissitudes of existence. As such it includes such vital dimensions as the quest for
meaning, purpose, self-transcending knowledge, meaningful relationships, love, and
commitment, as well as [for some] a sense of the Holy amongst us”.
This description supports the view that humans are social, biological, emotional, physical, and
spiritual beings and any understanding of the relationship between spirituality and mental health
exists within that integrative context.

Spirituality fulfills following needs-

• Gives meaning to life, illness, various crises, and death
• Imparts sense of security for present and future.
• Acceptance or rejection of other peopled.
• Provides psychosocial support
• Gives strength when someone is facing life’s crises or problems
• Facilitate healing of psychological disturbances

Spirituality and mental health

A holistic approach to understanding individuals has paved the way for research to explore
spirituality as one dimension of the cognitive, emotional, behavioral, interpersonal, and
psychological facets that make up a human being. A connection between spirituality and mental
health has been recognized in Eastern ideologies (such as Buddhism).
World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as a state of well-being in the
physical, mental, social and spiritual domains. The spiritual domain of health has started
receiving attention and recognition nowadays.
Mental health does not mean only absence of mental illness, but it also includes
socially well-adjusted personality that effectively involves in well-being of community.
Mental health includes sense of well-being and freedom from mental illness such as
depression, schizophrenia, mania etc.
Positive and optimum mental health indicates a harmony between cognitive, affective and
behavior domains i.e., a balance between thinking, feeling and action. In a review article, the
concept of spiritual health is very well explained, it states that Emotional Health (EH) is
the language of the state of Mental Health (MH) at affective domains.
Individual expresses and understands the feelings of others and oneself through emotional
health. Spiritual Health (SH) not only includes mental health only but also emotional
health and goes further to focus on concepts of self-fulfillment, self-actualization,
increasing consciousness and wanting to go beyond five senses.
Sigmund Freud considered religion as an illusion and neurosis, Carl Jung considered
the psyche as a carrier of truth, powerfully rooted in the unconscious mind. Religion is
involved directly as well as indirectly in the aetiologia, diagnosis, clinical features,
treatment and prognosis of psychiatric and physical illness. Many of the psychiatric
symptoms can have a religious content.
e.g. - the loss of interest in religious activities is a common symptom of de-pression
while excessive and distorted religious practices and beliefs are common in patients of
schizophrenia or mania.

Role of spirituality
Spirituality affects the overall well-being of individual as it incorporates a significant role
in peoples’ lives, thoughts, and behaviors.
• Being part of a spiritual community can bring support and friendship. Spirituality can
bring the feeling of being connected to higher power and it might help people to
understand their life experiences and behaviors.
• Spirituality can also help people in addressing their inappropriate beliefs about reasons
for their illness, large number of people believed that they are sick or developed
illness because of their past sins.
• Individuals can be diagnosed as psychosis when they express spiritual experiences
such as beliefs in angels/demons or hearing the voice of God.
• Even though such experiences are features of psychosis or not, medical and
paramedical staff should respond sensitively to people having such symptoms and
show respect for their spiritual belief.
A generally positive relationship appears to exist between spirituality and wellness, but
the exact mechanisms behind this correspondence have yet to be understood in a
scientific way.
The concept of spirituality develops throughout the life span of human, from childhood
to old age, and contributes uniquely to the achievement of a satisfactory life.
Spirituality has a strong impact on cognitive phenomena, affect and emotion, and
personality that is being shaped and developed within a specific environment.
Spiritual people often have positive social functions and are often involved in welfare
programs.

Spirituality appears to prevent persons from mental illness, and it also helps all -
• To develop healthy behaviors and lifestyles.
• Find psychosocial support.
• Deal effectively with sufferings and problems of life.
• Empowers to handle negative emotions such as stress, anxiety, fears, anger, and
frustration

MODULE 5 – EXPERIENCE OF TRANSITION

TOPICS –
• Concept of change, Adjustment & Transition
• Transition & Students’ experiences
• Adjustment Difficulty for students, family & teachers
• Resilience
• Physical, Psychosocial Changes in Adolescence

The terms adolescence means ‘growing mature by developing’ and refers to the transition period
from childhood to adulthood.
This period is dynamic process in which a rapid physical, biochemical, psychological, and social
growth, development, and maturation take place. The individual becomes an adult with sexual,
physical, and psychological development and cognitive and social change.
Adolescence is a period of transition when the individual changes- physically and
psychologically-from a child to an adult. It is a period when rapid physiological and
psychological changes demand for new social roles to take place. The adolescents, due to these
changes often face a number of crises and dilemmas. It is the period when the child moves from
dependency to autonomy. It demands significant adjustment to the physical and social changes.

Adolescent Transition Period

Indeed, adolescence represents one of the greatest of these periods of crisis. In fact, it is the stage
of stress, strain, and storm. It brings many ambiguities in life. During this phase one really
does not know where he or she stands. It is believed that this uncertainty about one’s role causes
many conflicts.
It is a well-known fact that delinquency rates soar during the period of adolescence, that suicides
become increasingly prevalent, that drug and alcohol addiction may have their beginning, and
that much general happiness exists. Adolescence is also a period when satisfactory heterosexual
adjustments are facilitated or hindered, when career is planned, and philosophies of life are
molded.

Factors determining the pattern of transition

Optimal development in adolescence depends on successful accomplishment of the
developmental tasks in infancy and childhood. How easy it will be for the adolescent to make the
transition into adulthood will depend partly upon the individual, partly on environmental aids or
obstructions, and partly on their experiences. Let us examine some of these factors:
• Speed of transition: The changes during adolescence take place at very fast pace. During no
other period does the individual undergo such a sudden and drastic change in such a short
time period and at no other age is he less prepared to cope with the problems that this change
brings.

• Length of transition: Those who mature rapidly (in term of physical growth), find
adjustment especially difficult. They are expected to behave like adults simply because they
look like adults. On the other hand, a prolonged adolescence also brings problems. The
adolescent gets into the habit of being dependent, and this, is difficult to overcome later.

• Discontinuities in training: Much of the stress and strain during adolescence is due to the
discontinuities in training. For example, the assumption of responsibility during adolescence
is difficult because the child has so far been trained to be dependent and submissive.

• Degree of dependency: How dependent the young adolescent will be is determined mainly
by the kind of training he/she received during childhood. Parents often foster dependency
because they feel that adolescents are not ready to assume responsibility for their own
behaviors.
• Ambiguous status: In the societies like India, a child is expected to follow the footsteps of
his/her parents. This gives him/her a pattern of behavior to imitate. In open society, by
contrast, it is assumed that every individual should be free to choose his/her own course of
self- development.

• Conflicting demands: The adolescent is often confronted with conflicting demands from
parents, teachers, peers, and the community.

• Degree of realism: When the adolescent begins to look like an adult, (s)he is permitted an
added degree of freedom. If (s)he feels is not ready, either physically or psychologically, to
play the adult role, (s)he feels dissatisfied.

• Motivation: The adolescent goes through a period of wondering how he or she will meet the
new problems the life presents. He or she would like to grow up but being unsure of the
ability to cope with the challenges of adulthood. So long as this feeling of insecurity exists,
there will be little motivation to make the transition in adulthood.

Challenges faced by students during the period of transition

During a transition, students experience similar feelings as to those in other life events, such as
changing jobs, moving from one country to another or even losing a loved-one.
Although students experience the transition into higher education in different ways, for almost all
of them, the change from a familiar environment into an unfamiliar one represents a period of
disequilibrium.
The problems adolescents face during the long period of growing up have both biological and
social roots. Physical changes and deviation can create many problems. Society also creates
problems for adolescents. Adolescents in western societies behave differently than adolescents in
eastern societies owing to varying social norms expectations and family structure.

Developmental Tasks for Adolescents

Havinghurst has listed the following tasks-
1. Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates of both sexes.
2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role.
3. Accepting one’s physique and using the body effectively.
4. Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults.
5. Achieving assurance of economic independence.
6. Selecting and preparing for an occupation.
7. Preparing for marriage and family life.
8. Developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic competence.
9. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior.
10. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior.

Physical Changes
Physical Growth and Sexual Development in Adolescence.
Growth is the increase in the body size and mass as a result of the increase in the number and
size of cells. Development is the differentiation and maturation of biological functions of organs.
Growth is a dynamic process and continues until the end of adolescence.
Growth and development are affected by genetic and environmental (nutrition, living conditions,
geographical conditions, socio-economic conditions, etc.) factors. Changes in this period take
place very quickly.
Physical changes are the increase in height and the weight, the development of secondary sex
characters, the change in the amount and distribution of fat and muscle tissues and changes in
circulation and respiratory system. This period lasts 2 to 6 years.
The development of secondary sex characters in boys result in growth in testes and penis, pubic,
axillary, and facial hair development, breaking of the voice and spermatic formation.
The development of secondary sex characters in girls begins with development of breasts and
continues with pubic and axillary hair development and menarche. These changes during puberty
cause children of the same age look physically different.

Psychosocial Changes
Another change that occurs in adolescence is psychosocial development. ‘Self-definition and
personality development’ occur during the psychosocial development. Age-specific tasks and
behaviors that reflect adult roles are observed in self-definition.
The adolescent gradually becomes an individual who adopts social duties, tries to live his/her life
on his/her own, assumes adult levels of responsibility, finds his/her own personality by
establishing new relationships.
The adolescent becomes selfish, demands more, complains about rules in the house, finds rights
given to him/her insufficient and wants to be free.
He/she wants to make his/her own decisions and choices. The center of his/her social
environment shifts from the family to friends and school groups. He/she does not want to stay
home, develops a greater interest in outside world and gives more importance to friendships.
His/her interest in classes decreases, studying order is disturbed and school success decreases.
He/she gives negative reactions to his/her parents.
Family relationships shifts from dependence to independence. Individual’s drifting away from
family may lead to feelings of despair, loneliness, and insecurity.
There are several concepts such as ego, identity, character, and temperament used to explain
personality development in the course of psychosocial change during adolescence.
Resilience
Resilience has been defined as “the ability of an individual to function competently in the face of
adversity or stress.” An adolescent who is resilient is likely to enter adulthood with a good
chance of coping well— even if he or she has experienced difficult circumstances in life.
In essence, resilience means being able to bounce back from difficult times and cope well with
challenges.

Characteristics of resilience
An adolescent who is resilient has an advantage when it comes to meeting the challenges and
responsibilities of adulthood, even if he or she has experienced circumstances such as poverty,
health problems, or strained family relationships.
In the context of mental health, resilience can be viewed as the ability to handle stress positively.
Adolescents’ stress can come from multiple directions—school; relationships (with friends,
romantic partners, and parents); hormonal and physical changes associated with adolescence;
impending decisions about college and career; pressures to conform or to engage in risky
behaviors; family financial problems; dangerous neighborhoods; and more.
Resilience can also be viewed as the product of the stressors an adolescent is currently bearing;
the adolescent’s genetic temperament; his or her competence both for independence and for
seeking help when appropriate; and the social support provided by family members and others.
Research has identified a number of characteristics of adolescents that are associated with
resilience. Among these characteristics are having-
• One or more adults providing caring support.
• An appealing, sociable, easygoing disposition.
• Good thinking skills (“intelligence” as traditionally defined, but also judgment and social
skills)
• One or more talents (things a person does really well)
• Belief in oneself and trust in one’s ability to make decisions and
• Religiosity or spirituality.

Relationships with caring adults. Parents are usually the most important adults in adolescents’
lives. Parents who maintain open communication with their adolescent—and support their
adolescent’s growing independence—also promote the young person’s self-worth.9However,
adolescents do not always want advice. In light of this reality, some research suggests that
parents establish ongoing communication and discuss solutions rather than deliver lectures.
Thus, providing reassurance, encouragement, and support can be more useful approaches for
parents to take with their adolescents than offering unsolicited advice.
Adolescents who have positive relationships with adults outside their families also experience
mental health benefits: they feel more supported, are more socially expressive, and are less likely
to be depressed than are adolescents who lack such relationships. Adolescents who have these
caring adults in their lives are also more likely to be resilient.

Disposition. Adolescents who bring a good-natured disposition to their interactions with others
seem to be more likely to develop resilience, as do those who take on reasonable levels of
independence while also being able to ask for help when needed. These adolescents are probably
more likely to develop supportive relationships with others, which further builds their resilience.

Relationship skills/social competence. The ability to apply problem-solving skills to

interpersonal problems or conflicts, to show empathy for the feelings of others, and to voluntarily
help others, are additional hallmarks of positive development. Adolescents with good intimacy
skills—that is, those who are able to be emotionally close to another individual—are also more
likely to be resilient.

Emotional self-regulation. The concept of “emotional intelligence” recently has also gained
recognition. While the concept generally encompasses more than what is typically meant by
resilience or positive mental health, it does include managing one’s emotions, which can be
especially important to adolescent well-being.

Cognitive skills. Intelligence, good judgment, and problem-solving skills seem to help many
adolescents get through stressful times. Intellectual abilities may make it easier for some
adolescents to generate multiple, or more effective, solutions to problems.

Talents. Having one or more things one can do well, can take pride in, and can share with others
seems to be another factor that promotes resilience among adolescents. Such activities can
include hobbies, athletics, performing arts, and computer technology.

Confidence and “inner-directedness.” Children and young adolescents who are resilient are
more likely to have an “internal locus of control,” which encompasses confidence (belief in
oneself and one’s powers or abilities) and “inner-directedness” (trust in one’s own decisions and
being able to act on them.) That is, these adolescents see themselves as being able to influence
outcomes, not just as the passive recipients of “fate.”
Having an optimistic outlook also seems to be related to positive mental health. In one recent
study, adolescents who were rated as having a more “optimistic thinking style” were much less
likely to be or to get depressed.

How can adolescents reduce stress, and promote resilience?

• Get regular exercise (e.g., yoga, running, martial arts, team or individual sports)
• Eat regular meals
• Avoid using excessive caffeine (coffee, tea, soft drinks, energy drinks, etc.)
• Avoid illegal drugs, alcohol, and tobacco
• Learn relaxation techniques (e.g., deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, meditation)
• Develop assertiveness skills (e.g., how politely but firmly to say “no,” or to state one’s
feelings)
• Rehearse and practice responses to stressful situations
• Break down large tasks into smaller, more attainable tasks
• Learn to recognize and reduce negative self-talk. Challenge negative thoughts about oneself
with alternative neutral or positive thoughts
• Avoid demanding perfection from oneself or others; instead, learn to feel good about doing a
competent or “good enough” job
• Take a break from stressful activities or situations. Engage in a hobby, listen to music, or
spend time with a pet
• Build a network of friends who can help one to cope in positive way