energies
Article
Static and Dynamic Simulation of an Induction Motor Using
Matlab/Simulink
P. F. Le Roux * and M. K. Ngwenyama
Citation: Le Roux, P.F.;
Ngwenyama, M.K. Static and
Dynamic Simulation of an Induction
Motor Using Matlab/Simulink.
Energies 2022, 15, 3564. https://
doi.org/10.3390/en15103564
Academic Editor: Ryszard Palka
Received: 6 March 2022
Accepted: 18 April 2022
Published: 12 May 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Energies 2022, 15, 3564. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15103564
Department of Electrical Engineering, Tshwane University of Technology, Emalahleni 1034, South Africa;
ngwenyamamk@yahoo.com
* Correspondence: lerouxpf@tut.ac.za
Abstract: Industries are adequately configured with the operational devices that are required to
develop induction motors. Engineers should precisely comprehend the kind of equipment that is
constructed, as with every other production system, and should start by having the goal in their
perspective. An adaptable simulation of an induction motor with a protective scheme is presented.
The adaptable simulation assists engineers in accurately designing motors that meet all protective
standards for certain purposes. This work achieved simulations of induction motors in stable and
unstable conditions. An extensive study was performed to determine the optimum design of an
induction motor. This paper attempts to provide engineers with a thorough grasp of the adaptable
modelling of an induction motor. In this work, a direct dq0-direct axis algorithm is presented to
implement both static and dynamic modelling of a three-phase induction machine due to possible
faults and high-performance requirements in induction machines. The proposed algorithm was
tested against several conventional methods, and it was observed that under the stable condition of
the machinery, the proposed algorithm could remove any developing faults. This conserves time and
minimises the labour required of the operator, which makes the proposed algorithm more efficient.
Furthermore, the machine is demonstrated in a steady-state performance with respect to the current,
active power, efficiency, reactive power, power factor, and speed when the torque loads range from
0 to 125% of its nominal torque. The transient behaviour of the machine was shown through the
current, electromagnetic torque, electromagnetic torque versus speed, and speed under no-load,
half-load (50%), and full-load (100%) conditions. Finally, the results of the proposed technique were
compared to the results of the measured parameters. It was observed that when the load changed
from a half load (50%) to a full load (100%), then the supply voltage was suddenly halved with the
load at full load (100%). It was observed that the proposed algorithm provides accurate estimates
with a deviation of not more than +/−2% from the measured parameters.
Keywords: dynamic model; induction motor; Matlab/Simulink; rotor winding; stator winding
1. Introduction
The most popular motors utilized in economic mobility automation applications and
primary-supply residential electrical consumables are AC induction machines. The key
benefits of AC induction machines are their simplicity and robust construction, competitive
prices, minimal servicing, and straightforward integration into an AC power supply. There
are many different kinds of AC induction machines accessible in the industry. Several
machines are appropriate for various functions [1]. However, AC induction machines
are convenient to construct compared to DC machines. Controlling the rpm and torque
in different varieties of AC induction machines requires a deeper grasp of the configura-
tion and features of such motors. However, DC motors are efficient at commencing and
moderating speed. Such machines have a great torque concentration [2]. A DC machine
works quietly and has a hugely variable speed. The electromagnetic disturbance is minimal,
and the overcurrent or inrush tolerance is substantial. The construction or assembly of a
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2022, 15, 3564 2 of 21

DC machine is one of its limitations. The commutator and the brush [3] have a rubbing
connection, resulting in sparks and mechanical degradation. As a result, DC machines
possess a comparatively limited operating lifespan, requiring a high service expense. This
also casts uncertainties about the system’s durability and safety. As a result, the usage of
DC machines in some industrial applications is restricted nowadays [4].
Over the years, motors have revolutionised the mining and automation industry.
Processes such as hoisting conveyor belt systems for moving minerals, e.g., gold, coal,
diamonds, etc., from underground and opencast mines, depend largely on the utilisation of
induction motors [5]. Thus, for the reliable operation of these machines, proper protection
needs to be implemented for safe operation under load conditions. Any malfunction of an
induction motor can be described as an electrical fault, environmental factor, or mechanical
breakdown. Rotor bearings could result in overheating, wear, and tear due to mechanical
stresses [6]. Drawing enormous magnitudes of currents ensure high temperatures. Mod-
elling an induction motor is somewhat complex, stemming from its non-linear behaviour
triggered by electromagnetic exhaustion and the significant temperature influence from the
synchronous motor settings [7].
Furthermore, the shaft time constant of an induction motor can change due to rotor
heat. Such characteristics render the mathematical modelling of induction motors some-
what insurmountable. Most researchers use simplified models that do not consider the
factors mentioned above. Production of these machines is imperative and requires urgency
in reproduction during their idle state [8].
Chitra and Prabhakar [9] presented a simulation of an induction machine by utilising
the fuzzy logic approach. The authors applied the approach in their study in order to
regulate the velocity of an induction machine to obtain the optimum torque with the least
amount of loss. They used the field-oriented control approach to create a fuzzy logic
controller that enables improved control of motor torque with greatly variable performance.
Their simulated design was evaluated by utilising multiple Matlab toolboxes. They ob-
served that the induction motor’s efficiency increased in stable conditions. The results
show that the suggested speed regulator was efficient and reliable.
Elnaghi et al. [10] proposed using a genetic algorithm (GA) to process experimental
loads on an inductive machine. The principle of predicting motor parameters from testing
data was demonstrated using a genetic algorithm-based technique. The specifications were
determined using typical no-load and blocked rotor experiments. The cost equation—the
graded sum of the stator currents and rotor velocity—was studied and improved for various
motor parameter values. The impact of differential equations on the estimates was also
shown. The estimated speed and torque parameters from the mathematical equation were
compared to the experimental findings, and both exhibited a strong connection, proving the
validity of the mathematical equation and the genetic algorithm method for improvement.
Sadasivan and Mammen [11] applied the same algorithm to obtain parameters that
linked the proposed technique and the loading of the electric motor using the evaluation
function. They used the genetic algorithm on three separate situations of simulated loading
and found that the outcomes were superior in terms of the overall losses induced by the
motor. The authors’ technique proved to be effective in terms of parameter estimation.
Jirdehi and Rezaei [12] presented a simulation of an induction motor by utilising an
artificial neural network (ANN) and an adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS)
to investigate variables that are often difficult to obtain. They used both methods to test
20 induction motors of varying power outputs. The experimental results consisted of the
starting torque, current, maximum torque, full-load slip, efficiency, rated active power, and
reactive power. The authors compared the findings produced by the proposed ANN and
ANFIS models and the practical results. They discovered a good relationship between the
projected values and the practical data. However, the proposed ANFIS model was more
precise than the proposed ANN model.
Keerthipala et al. [13] explained the ANN algorithm and how it may be used to monitor
an induction motor’s torque and speed regulation using linear and non-linear models. The
Energies 2022, 15, 3564 3 of 21

authors reported that the linear observer approach is simple to apply in real-time; however,
it does not accurately estimate the rotor and vector angle since the induction machine
generally works in the saturated region. The non-linear observer approach considers
the impact of the magnetic saturation of the induction machine; however, it cannot be
practically applied using conventional techniques because estimating the angle requires
too much time. Their suggested technique compensates for the effect of saturation and
estimates the angle in a few milliseconds, which is well within the real-time limit.
This study presents an adaptable simulation of an induction motor with a downstream
protective scheme [9]. In this work, a direct dq0-direct axis algorithm is presented to
implement both static and dynamic modelling of a three-phase induction machine due to
possible faults and high-performance requirements in induction machines. The proposed
algorithm was tested against several conventional methods, and it was observed that under
a stable condition of the machinery, the proposed algorithm could remove any developing
faults. This conserves time and minimises the labour required of the operator, which makes
the proposed algorithm more efficient. Furthermore, the machine is demonstrated in a
steady-state performance with respect to current, active power, efficiency, reactive power,
power factor, and speed when the torque loads range from 0 to 125% of its nominal torque.
The transient behaviour of the machine was shown through the current, electromagnetic
torque, electromagnetic torque versus speed, and speed under no-load, half-load (50%),
and full-load (100%) conditions. Finally, the proposed technique was compared to the
results of the measured parameters. It was observed that when the load changed from half
load (50%) to full load (100%), the supply voltage was suddenly halved with the load at
full load (100%). It was observed that the proposed algorithm provides accurate estimates
with a deviation of not more than +/−2% from the measured parameters.

2. Problem Statement
An induction motor is a complex machine to design and practically implement. Today,
a vast majority of software is used by different manufacturing institutions to simulate
the machine before the design is implemented. However, an induction motor’s dynamic
model is usually implemented in dq0-direct, quadrature, and zero-sequence axes. A static
and dynamic motor model’s implementation is a mathematical representation; this strat-
egy eliminates human error, enables designs of the utmost performance, and provides
highly efficient induction motors. This work implements both static and dynamic mod-
elling of a three-phase induction machine due to possible faults and high-performance
requirements for induction machines. Using the direct dq0-direct axis method, the dynamic
model’s differential equations were first derived and implemented in Matlab/Simulink;
their performance was assessed in the steady-state.

3. Objectives of the Research

Induction motors help companies run their operations efficiently. It is imperative
to extend studies that enhance the performance and accuracy of the designs for these
organisations. The objectives of this work are to conduct comprehensive modelling of
induction motors and [14]:
• To contribute to the development of induction motor models and protection systems.
• To simulate an adaptable simulation of a three-phase induction motor in Matlab/Simulink.
• To accurately size the motor parameters and increase performance thereof.
• To implement a dq0-axis reference frame modelling technique of a rotating machine.
• To implement a feeder protection system for the machine during its steady operation.

4. Methodology
To comprehend and engineer vector-controlled drives [15], an adaptable simulation
of the induction machine that is responsive to operation and safety needs to be defined.
Since every control must face possible changes and faults, the adaptable simulation of a
motor is argued to be an imitation of an actual factory. Nonetheless, the simulation must
 4. Methodology
To comprehend and engineer vector-controlled drives [15], an adaptable simulation
of the induction machine that is responsive to operation and safety needs to be defined.
Since every control must face possible changes and faults, the adaptable simulation of a
Energies 2022, 15, 3564
motor is argued to be an imitation of an actual factory. Nonetheless, the simulation 4must of 21

include the significant factor impacts that emerge throughout steady-state and transient-
state events. It should also be applicable for future modifications in supply voltages and
include
currents.the significant
Due factor impacts
to the precision that emerge
and convenience throughout
of the steady-state
space vector andhypothesis,
and phasor transient-
state
such events. It should
a simulation also be
should be produced
applicableusing
for future modifications
this hypothesis andinthe
supply voltages
two-axis and
principle
currents. Due to the precision
[16] of synchronous generators.and convenience
All of the space
of the techniques, vector
as well and
as the phasor hypothesis,
simulations of induc-
such
tion amotors,
simulation should be produced
are discussed usingaccordingly
and criticised this hypothesis andpaper,
in this the two-axis principle
along with [16]
the pro-
posed dq0 axis reference frame strategy.
of synchronous generators. All of the techniques, as well as the simulations of induction
motors, are discussed and criticised accordingly in this paper, along with the proposed dq0
axis reference frame
5. Simulations strategy. Motors
of Induction
Algorithms
5. Simulations offor the regulation
Induction Motorsof motors with great velocity and performance are re-
quired in spinning machinery and electrical cars. Iron loss (ILS) influences flux measure-
Algorithms for the regulation of motors with great velocity and performance are
ment, variable detection, actual torque, and acceleration control. Motor losses are an es-
required in spinning machinery and electrical cars. Iron loss (ILS) influences flux mea-
sential measure of the simulation variables [17]. The models of induction motors consid-
surement, variable detection, actual torque, and acceleration control. Motor losses are an
ered in this state-of-the-art literature survey are discussed in line with the following crite-
essential measure of the simulation variables [17]. The models of induction motors consid-
ria:
ered in this state-of-the-art literature survey are discussed in line with the following criteria:
• Two-pole, three-phase windings are symmetrical.
• Two-pole, three-phase windings are symmetrical.
• The slotting impacts are considered.
• The slotting impacts are considered.
• Iron losses are not disregarded.
• Iron losses are not disregarded.
• The conductivity of the iron elements is limitless.
• The conductivity of the iron elements is limitless.
• The magnetisation in the airgap is circular.
• The magnetisation in the airgap is circular.
•• The Thestator
statorand
androtor
rotorwindings
windings are coordinated
are as as
coordinated a single andand
a single multi-turn full-pitch
multi-turn coil
full-pitch
located on opposite sides of the air gap.
coil located on opposite sides of the air gap.
The dynamic
The dynamic models
models may
maybe
besplit
splitinto
intotwo major
two sections:
major 𝛤 Model
the the
sections: and and
Γ Model the Loss
the
Model.
Loss Model.

5.1. Γ
5.1. Г Model
Several evaluations of
Several ofthree-phase
three-phaseinduction
inductionmotors motors have
have employed
employed a traditional lin-
a traditional
ear machinery
linear machinery design,
design,which
whichis generally
is generally in the internal
in the andand
internal reciprocal
reciprocalinductances
inductances of the
of
well-known
the well-known 𝛤 type of equivalent
Γ type of equivalent circuit [5,18].
circuit SuchSuch
[5,18]. a model is considerably
a model moremore
is considerably com-
plicated thanthan
complicated is required for afor
is required linear assessment.
a linear assessment.However, it is insufficient
However, for usage
it is insufficient when
for usage
machine
when characteristics
machine vary, such
characteristics vary,assuchwhen as the
whenrotorthetime changes
rotor with heat
time changes andheat
with recipro-
and
cal inductances are altered whenever the machine is overloaded. The inverse 𝛤 model, as
reciprocal inductances are altered whenever the machine is overloaded. The inverse
model, as
Γindicated inindicated
Figure 1, is invery
Figure 1, is for
useful very useful for
learning andlearning
analysing and analysing
vector controlvector control
mechanisms
mechanisms [18], so
[18], so it reduces it reduces complications
complications when compared when compared
to the T-model. toOnce
the T-model. Once the
the machinery set-
machinery settingsitare
tings are altered, thenaltered,
becomesit then becomes asystem.
a non-linear non-linearThesystem.
extended The extended
Kalman Kalman
filter (EKF)
filter (EKF)
[19] is [19] is a randomised
a randomised monitor for monitor for a non-linear
a non-linear system. The system.
sound The sound generators
generators in the EKF in
the EKF take the measurement and simulation
take the measurement and simulation errors into account. errors into account.

Figure 1. Γ𝛤 Model
Figure1. Model of
of an
an induction
induction machine
machine [20].
[20].

5.2. Inverse Γ Model

The three-phase stator windings of an induction machine are intended to create a
symmetrical waveform dispersed (MMF) in space across the airgap margin. The proportion
of magnetic flux [21] must similarly be symmetrically provided when the airgap is homoge-
neous, and the impacts of slot distortions are ignored. It is further presumed that the drive’s
neutral connector is free, ensuring that phase voltages, currents, and flux connections are
constantly symmetrical, and thus, the circuit contains no zero-phase sequence components.
Considering variable stability, two readings of complex impedance or four variables may
 5.2. Inverse 𝛤 Model
The three-phase stator windings of an induction machine are intended to create a
symmetrical waveform dispersed (MMF) in space across the airgap margin. The propor-
tion of magnetic flux [21] must similarly be symmetrically provided when the airgap is
Energies 2022, 15, 3564
homogeneous, and the impacts of slot distortions are ignored. It is further presumed5 that of 21

the drive’s neutral connector is free, ensuring that phase voltages, currents, and flux con-
nections are constantly symmetrical, and thus, the circuit contains no zero-phase sequence
be monitored Considering
components. on the stator variable
by running under two
stability, no-loading
readings and
oflockout
complex rotor conditions.
impedance It is
or four
insufficient
variables to provide
may five variables
be monitored in these
on the stator bycomparable
running under systems. This is and
no-loading oftenlockout
corrected by
rotor
randomly setting
conditions. the magnetising
It is insufficient inductance
to provide to be identical
five variables in thesetocomparable
the rotor inductance
systems. [22,23].
This is
Figurecorrected
often 2a,b show design configurations
by randomly that are well
setting the magnetising suited fortolearning
inductance andtoanalysing
be identical the rotor
→
inductance
vector control[22,23]. Figure 2a,b
mechanisms. Withshow designthe
this setup, configurations thatspace
stator’s current are well suited
vector iS is for learn-
managed
ing and analysing vector control mechanisms. With this setup, the stator’s current → space
in a manner in which the rotor flux connection via the magnetising current i0 M maintains
vector 𝚤 ⃗ is managed in a manner in which the rotor flux → connection via the magnetising →
current 𝚤′ ⃗ maintains
a fixed value, thus supplying a rotor
a fixed value, current
thus vector
supplying i0 R incurrent
a rotor the space 𝚤′ ⃗ in the
inversion,
vector with
spaceiM
providing the
inversion, withappropriate
𝚤 ⃗ providingpower output.
the appropriate power output.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 2.
2. (a)
(a) Transient circuit of
Transient circuit of the
the inverse 𝛤 model;
inverse Γ model; (b)
(b) steady-state
steady-state inverse 𝛤 model
inverse Γ model [20].
[20].

5.3. Loss Model

The induction motor simulation in [24] centres centres on an an experimental
experimental three-phase
three-phase stator
and rotor circuit design using a magnetic coupling in the intermediate
circuit design using a magnetic coupling in the intermediate stage, stage, thus
thusneglecting
neglect-
corecore
ing loss.loss.
As seen in Figure
As seen 3a, the
in Figure 3a,concept servesserves
the concept as the as
backbone for major
the backbone forvector
major control
vector
derivations
control and a design
derivations and abased
designonbased
the study
on theof an electric
study of an drive. Thedrive.
electric stator-side resistance,
The stator-side
leakage inductance,
resistance, and mutual
leakage inductance, andinductance [25] are denoted
mutual inductance RS , LlS , as
[25] areasdenoted and R0 r ,
𝑅 ,L𝐿ms ., and
0 0
𝐿Llr ,. 𝑅′
and, 𝐿Lmr ′, andare 𝐿the ′rotor-side resistance,
are the rotor-side leakage inductance,
resistance, and mutual
leakage inductance, and inductance,
mutual in-
ductance, respectively, as with the stator side. The flux on each rotor or statoriscircuit
respectively, as with the stator side. The flux on each rotor or stator circuit divided is
into the leakage and mutual components because solely
divided into the leakage and mutual components because solely the former reaches thethe former reaches the magnetic
connectionconnection
magnetic field with which the stator
field with whichand therotor
statorinterface.
and rotor Figure 3b depicts
interface. Figure a conventional
3b depicts a
steady-state per-phase
conventional steady-state circuit diagram,
per-phase which
circuit takes which
diagram, core loss into
takes account
core as the
loss into energy
account as
the in rc _ph.
lost energy lostLmin is𝑟 the
_𝑝ℎ.steady-state magnetising
𝐿 is the steady-state inductance inductance
magnetising corresponding to (1.5 × Lmsto).
corresponding
It should
(1.5 × 𝐿 be ). Itnoted
should thatbethe connection
noted that the impacts of other
connection phasesofare
impacts summed
other phasesintoare Lsummed
m which
is acquired from steady-state observations. As a result, the
into 𝐿 which is acquired from steady-state observations. As a result, the diagram is en-diagram is entirely irrelevant
for transient
tirely irrelevant applications
for transient[26].applications
Figure 4 depicts the suggested
[26]. Figure 4 depicts induction machine
the suggested design,
induction
which is influenced by the preceding two conventional designs.
machine design, which is influenced by the preceding two conventional designs. The core The core loss is understood
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
as a resistor Rc in parallel with L Rc is6 of 22
loss is understood as a resistor 𝑅msininparallel
each stator
withphase.
𝐿 inIteach
should be noted
stator phase.thatIt should not
be
equivalent
noted that 𝑅to is rc _ph, although they
not equivalent to 𝑟 were associated
_𝑝ℎ, although in [27].
they were associated in [27].

(a) (b)
Figure 3. (a) The classical induction machine model considers only copper loss; (b) the steady-state
Figure 3. (a) The classical induction machine model considers only copper loss; (b) the steady-state
per-phase equivalent circuit [27].
per-phase equivalent circuit [27].
 (a) (b)
Energies 2022, 15, 3564 6 of 21
Figure 3. (a) The classical induction machine model considers only copper loss; (b) the steady-state
per-phase equivalent circuit [27].

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Loss
Loss model
model of
of an
an induction
induction motor
motor [27].
[27].

5.4.
5.4. Simplified
Simplified Model
Model
Many
Many stable algorithms
stable algorithms contain
contain anan adaptable
adaptable induction
induction machine
machine simulation
simulation that that is
is
derived from either or both of the equivalent topologies shown. A single-cage
derived from either or both of the equivalent topologies shown. A single-cage induction induction
machine
machine offers
offers modest
modest start-up
start-up torque
torque multiplication.
multiplication. With
With that,
that, the
the single-cage
single-cage design
design is is
frequently
frequently inaccurate. Such issues can be addressed by employing a dual-cage or deeper
inaccurate. Such issues can be addressed by employing a dual-cage or deeper
bar
bar rotor
rotor design.
design. A A shortage
shortage ofof data
data frequently
frequently limits
limits the
the usage
usage ofof dual-cage
dual-cage and and deeper
deeper
bar designs. Improving the torque-slip property of a single-cage design
bar designs. Improving the torque-slip property of a single-cage design is a streamlinedis a streamlined
remedy
remedyfor forthese
these instances.
instances. The
The rotor
rotor resistance
resistanceisis often
often changed
changed with
with slip,
slip, which
which is is simple
simple
to accomplish during each convergence phase of the model. An adaptable
to accomplish during each convergence phase of the model. An adaptable design simula- design simulation
that relies on the equivalent circuits illustrated in [27] is often utilised for transient reliability
tion that relies on the equivalent circuits illustrated in [27] is often utilised for transient
research [27–29].
reliability research [27–29].
5.5. Simplified d–q Design
5.5. Simplified d–q Design
The steady-state equivalent diagram depicted in [29] serves as the foundation for
The steady-state
the concept equivalent
of the induction diagram
machine. Thedepicted in [29]
simplified serves
model as the foundation
presented for the
in [29] is utilised
for the dynamic simulation diagram. The d–q model of this analysis was regarded for
concept of the induction machine. The simplified model presented in [29] is utilised as
the dynamic
precisely simulation
acceptable diagram.
for acting The d–qdesign
as a baseline modeland
of this
was analysis was regarded
subsequently utilised toas pre-
assess
cisely
the acceptable
adequacy for acting
of different as a when
designs baseline design andfor
implemented was subsequently
voltage utilised [30].
balance analyses to assess
The
the adequacy of different designs when
variables of the designs are depicted in [29]. implemented for voltage balance analyses [30].
The variables of the designs are depicted in [29].
6. Proposed Design
6. Proposed
Figure 5Design
presents the proposed modelling technique for an induction motor; the three-
phaseFigure
supply5 voltage
presentsis the proposed
supplied to themodelling
machine, technique forvoltages
and then the an induction motor; the
are transformed
three-phase
using the 0dqsupply voltage isthe
axis to produce supplied toq and
vectors V the machine,
Vd . Hence,and
the then
statorthe voltages
currents andare trans-
voltages
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
formed
are produced; the 0dq axis tothe
using subsequently, produce 𝑉 and
the vectorsare
rotor parameters also𝑉considered.
. Hence, theThestator currents7 of
implementationand22
is outlined
voltages in produced;
are this paper. subsequently, the rotor parameters are also considered. The im-
plementation is outlined in this paper.

Figure 5.
Figure 5. A
A proposed
proposed dynamic
dynamic model
model of
of an
an induction
induction motor.
motor.

Figure 6 presents
Figure presents the
theworkflow
workflowofofdesigning
designinga dynamic
a dynamic and static
and model
static of an
model of induc-
an in-
tion machine.
duction TheThe
machine. adaptable design
adaptable is mathematically
design represented
is mathematically and subsequently
represented sim-
and subsequently
ulated. TheThe
simulated. equations are implemented
equations separately
are implemented in terms
separately of subsystems
in terms and then
of subsystems inte-
and then
grated to present the full model of the machine. Similarly, for a static model, the derivation
is almost the same as that of the dynamic model, but it only changes when the speed is
equal to zero (when the machine is stationary). The simulation is also given for the static
model [5].
 Figure 5. A proposed dynamic model of an induction motor.

Energies 2022, 15, 3564 7 of 21

Figure 6 presents the workflow of designing a dynamic and static model of an induc-
tion machine. The adaptable design is mathematically represented and subsequently sim-
ulated. The equations are implemented separately in terms of subsystems and then inte-
integrated to present
grated to present the the
fullfull model
model of the
of the machine.
machine. Similarly,
Similarly, for for a static
a static model,
model, the the deriva-
derivation
tion is almost
is almost the the same
same as that
as that of the
of the dynamic
dynamic model,but
model, butititonly
onlychanges
changeswhen
when the
the speed isis
equal
equal toto zero
zero (when
(when the
the machine
machine is is stationary).
stationary). The
The simulation
simulation is is also
also given
given for
for the
the static
static
model
model [5].
[5].

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Design
Design workflow.
workflow.

7. Proposed Design
7.
7.1.
7.1. Dynamic
Dynamic Model
Model
There
There isis aa very
very deep
deep relationship
relationship between
between thethe stator
stator and
and the
the rotor
rotor of
of an
an induction
induction
motor.
motor. If one is to extract parameters of the rotor, there is a need to know the relationship
If one is to extract parameters of the rotor, there is a need to know the relationship
of
of the
the currents
currents and and voltage
voltage between
between these
these two
two elements
elements of of an
an induction
induction machine.
machine. A A d–q
d–q
axis model of an induction machine is presented in Figure 7a. A q-axis
axis model of an induction machine is presented in Figure 7a. A q-axis equivalent circuit equivalent circuit
for
for an
an adaptable
adaptable design
design ofof an
an induction
induction machine
machine is is presented
presented in in Figure
Figure 7b.
7b. The
The stator
stator can
can
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
then be represented by (1) to (10), and the rotor’s d–q transformation is represented by8 of 22
(11)
then be represented by (1) to (10), and the rotor’s d–q transformation is represented by
to (18).
(11) The torque
to (18). is then
The torque represented
is then by the
represented bystator and rotor
the stator parameters
and rotor (19) [31].
parameters (19) [31].

(a) (b)
Figure 7. (a) The d-axis equivalent circuit of an induction motor. (b) The q-axis equivalent circuit of
an induction
an induction motor.
motor.

StatorStator
voltage modelling:
voltage modelling:

2 2 2π 2𝜋 4𝜋
r     
4π
Vsd =𝑉 = cos(cos(𝜃
θ × vds ×)𝑣+ ) + coscos
(θds(𝜃× × × v×b )𝑣 ++ cos
cos((𝜃 ×
θds × ×
×𝑣v a)) (1)
3 3 ds 3 3 3
r     
2 2 2π2𝜋 4π
4𝜋
Vsq =𝑉 −= − sin θds × v×
(sin(𝜃 ) + sin
ds 𝑣 ) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 θ ds × × v + sin θ ×
×3 × b𝑣 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃ds × 3 × 𝑣 a× v (2)
(2)
3 3 3 3
Vsd and Vsq may now be simplified to:

𝑉 and 𝑉 may now be simplified to: d

Vsd = RS × isd + (λsd ) − ωd × λsq (3)
dt𝑑
𝑉 = 𝑅 × 𝑖 + (𝜆 ) − 𝜔 × 𝜆 (3)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑉 = 𝑅 × 𝑖 + (𝜆 ) − 𝜔 × 𝜆 (4)
𝑑𝑡
Stator fluxes:
Energies 2022, 15, 3564 8 of 21

d
Vsq = Rs × isq + (λ ) − ωd × λsd (4)
dt sd
Stator fluxes:
λsd = LS × isd + Lm × ird (5)
λsq = LS × isq + Lm × ird (6)
Stator currents:
1
ids = (λ − λmd ) (7)
XlS ds
1

iqs = λqs − λmq (8)
XlS
Stator voltages:
d
Vsd = RS × isd + (λ ) − ωd × λsq (9)
dt sd
d

Vsq = RS × isq + λsq − ωd × λsd (10)
dt
Mathematical model of the rotor:
d
Vrd = Rr × ird + (λ ) − ωdA × λrq (11)
dt rd
d
Vrq = Rr × ird + (λ ) − ωdA × λrd (12)
dt rd
Rotor flux equations:
λrd = Lr × ird + Lm × isd (13)
λrq = Lr × irq + Lm × isd (14)
Rotor currents:
1
idr = (λ − λmd ) (15)
XlS dr
1

iqr = λqr − λmq (16)
XlS
Rotor voltages:
d
Vrd = Rr × ird + (λ ) − ωdA × λrq (17)
dt rd
d

Vrq = Rr × irq + λrq − ωdA × λrd (18)
dt
Electromagnetic torque:

P

Tem = × Lm isq × ird − isd × irq (19)
2
where
Vqs , Vds are the q and d axes of the stator voltage(s).
Vqr , Vdr are the q and d axes of the rotor voltage(s).
λmq , λmd are the q and d axes magnetising the flux linkages.
RS is the stator resistance.
Rr is the rotor resistance.
Xls is the stator leakage reactance.
Xlr is the rotor leakage reactance.
p is the number of poles.
Tem is the magnetic torque.

Figure 8a,b present the implantation of the dynamic model of the induction motor.
The stator supply voltages and currents are presented in Figure 8a,b. The rotor currents

Energies 2022, 15, 3564
𝑅 is the rotor resistance.
𝑋 is the stator leakage reactance.
𝑋 is the rotor leakage reactance.
𝑝 is the number of poles.
𝑇 is the magnetic torque. 9 of 21

Figures 8a,b present the implantation of the dynamic model of the induction motor.
The stator supply voltages and currents are presented in Figures 8a,b. The rotor currents
in Figure
are presented in Figure 8b.
8b. The
Thetorque
torqueand
andspeed
speedare
arepresented
presentedininFigures
Figure 9a,b [32], where
Figure 10 illustrates the complete model of the dynamic induction motor.
motor.

(a) (b)
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 22
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 22
Figure
Figure 8.
8. (a)
(a) Simulation of aa dynamic
Simulation of dynamic model
modelof
ofan
aninduction
inductionmotor;
motor;(b)
(b)current
currentequation
equationofofthe
thestator.
stator.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure9.
Figure 9.(a)
9. (a)Torque
(a) Torqueequation;
Torque equation; (b)
equation;(b) speed
(b)speed equation.
speedequation.
equation.

Figure
Figure10.
10.A
Acomplete
completemodel
modelof
ofthe
thedynamic
dynamicinduction
inductionmotor.
motor.
Figure 10. A complete model of the dynamic induction motor.
7.2.
7.2.Static
StaticModel
Static Model
Model
The
The standard-frame
standard-frame velocity
The standard-frame velocity in
velocity in aaa static-source
in static-source framework
static-source framework isis
framework is that
that of
that of the
of the stator,
the stator, i.e.,
stator, i.e.,
i.e.,
𝜔
ω s =
= 𝜔ω r =
= 0.
𝜔 = 𝜔 = 0. Such a standard frame is chosen when potential asymmetrical differencesin
0.Such
Sucha standard
a standardframe
frame is chosen
is chosenwhen
when potential
potentialasymmetrical
asymmetrical differences
differences in
the
thestator
statorareareinterrupted
interruptedand
andthe
thepotential
potentialdifferences
differencesininthe
therotor
rotorare aresymmetrical.
symmetrical.The The
potential
potentialdifference
differenceequations
equationsofofan
aninduction
inductionmachine
machinein inaastatic
staticreference
referenceframeframeare
arede-de-
termined by substituting 𝜔 = 0
termined by substituting 𝜔 = 0 into (3). The resultant solution is the static designof
into (3). The resultant solution is the static design ofan an
induction
inductionmachine
machinein inwhich
whichthe
therotor
rotorisisremoved.
removed.As Asaaresult,
result,the
themachinery
machinerycan canbebede-de-
Energies 2022, 15, 3564 10 of 21

in the stator are interrupted and the potential differences in the rotor are symmetrical.
The potential difference equations of an induction machine in a static reference frame are
determined by substituting ωr = 0 into (3). The resultant solution is the static design of
an induction machine in which the rotor is removed. As a result, the machinery can be
described as static.
It is noticeable that there is a major relationship between the stator and the rotor of
an induction motor. As the subscripts, r and s indicate the stator (s) and rotor (r).11The
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 22
electromagnetic subscripts are i, v, and λ. The resistance is r, the leakage inductance is Ll ,
and the mutual inductance is Lm . The phase voltages are represented by a, b, and c.
The actual values of the induction motor’s parameters can be derived from the model
specified in Section 4 [26]. To determine the 𝑉
𝐿 parameters,
= a no-load test and a load test must
(20)
be performed, so the parameters can be determined 2𝜋𝑓 𝐼as follows.
The𝑉 no-load
where test is performed
is the applied by supplying
phase voltage the𝐼voltage
in the stator, VS at asupplied
is the current rated frequency. The
to the stator,
motor
and 𝑓 will rotate
is the close
stator to a synchronous speed, resulting in a close-to-zero slip [22].
frequency.
Assuming that R S
Now that the magnetising, Ω, andinductance
LS H are much lower
has been than the magnetising
determined, inductance
the other parameters are
Lextracted
m H, the following equation is derived [1].
with the locked rotor test, and the resulting equivalent circuit is shown in Figure
11. VS
m L = (20)
𝑣 𝑅 + 𝑠𝐿 02π f s I𝑠𝐿 0 𝑖
𝑣 ⎡𝑖 ⎤
0 𝑅 + 𝑠𝐿 0 𝑠𝐿
= ⎢ ⎥ (21)
where VS is the applied phase𝑣 𝐿 in 𝑅the
voltage + stator,
𝑠𝐿 𝑅 +I 𝑠𝐿 𝜔 current
is the 𝐿 ⎢𝑖 supplied
⎥ to the stator,
𝑣
and f s is the stator frequency. −𝜔 𝐿 𝑠𝐿 −𝜔 𝐿 𝑅 + 𝑠𝐿 ⎣𝑖 ⎦
Now
Shouldthat
𝜔 the
= 𝜔magnetising inductance
= 0, Equation has been determined, the other parameters
(21) becomes:
are extracted with the locked rotor test, and the resulting equivalent circuit is shown
in Figure 11. 𝑣 𝑅 + 𝑠𝐿 0 𝑠𝐿 0 𝑖
𝑣 0 𝑅 + 𝑠𝐿 0 𝑠𝐿 𝑖
= (22)
RS𝑣 + sLs 𝐿 0 𝑅 + 𝑠𝐿 𝑅 sL +m𝑠𝐿 0 0 𝑖
    
vds ids
 vqs   𝑣0 0 s + sL𝑠𝐿
R 00 𝑅 + 𝑠𝐿
sLm 𝑖 
s  iqs 
 
 = (21)
 vdr   L R + sL R + sL L i
where 𝑅 and 𝑅 are the resistances
m sof thes stator rand rotor,
r 𝐿 and
ω r r 𝐿 are thedr stator’s and
  
vqr
rotor’s self-inductance−and
ωr Lthe
m stator’ssLand
m −ωspeeds.
rotor’s r Lr Rs + sLr iqr

Figure11.
Figure 11.Equivalent
Equivalentcircuit
circuitof
ofthe
thelocked
lockedrotor.
rotor.

Figure ω
Should 12r =
illustrates a static model
ωs = 0, Equation of an induction motor.
(21) becomes:
    
vds RS + sLs 0 sLm 0 ids
 vqs  
= 0 Rs + sLs 0 sLm  iqs 
   (22)
 vdr   Lm Rs + sLs Rr + sLr 0  idr 
vqr 0 sLm 0 Rs + sLr iqr

where RS and Rr are the resistances of the stator and rotor, LS and Lr are the stator’s and
rotor’s self-inductance and the stator’s and rotor’s speeds.
Figure 12 illustrates a static model of an induction motor.

Figure 12. A static model of an induction motor.

8. Results
The following parameters were acquired from experimental work with a three-phase
induction motor. These settings were then utilised to simulate and examine the behaviour
of the induction motor using Matlab/Simulink.
 Figure 11. Equivalent circuit of the locked rotor.
Energies 2022, 15, 3564 11 of 21

Figure 12 illustrates a static model of an induction motor.

Figure 12.
Figure 12. A
A static
static model
model of
of an
an induction
induction motor.
motor.

8.
8. Results
Results
The
The following
following parameters
parameters were
were acquired
acquired from
from experimental
experimental work
work with
with aa three-phase
three-phase
induction
induction motor. These settings were then utilised to simulate and examine the behaviour
motor. These settings were then utilised to simulate and examine the behaviour
of
of the
the induction
induction motor
motor using
using Matlab/Simulink.
Matlab/Simulink.

8.1.
8.1. The
The Machine’s
Machine’s Steady-State
Steady-StatePerformance
PerformanceBehaviour
BehaviourWhen
WhenLoaded
Loadedfrom
from00to
to125%
125%ofof the
the Rated
Rated
Load, Shown in Both Tabular and Graphical Form with Current, Power Factor, Real Power,
Load, Shown in Both Tabular and Graphical Form with Current, Power Factor, Real Power,
Reactive Power, Speed, Efficiency, and Power Factor versus the Percentage or Per-Unit LoadingReac-
tive Power, Speed, Efficiency, and Power Factor versus the Percentage or Per-Unit Loading
The parameters indicated in Table 1 were used to simulate the induction machine
usingThe parameters indicated
Matlab/Simulink were: in Table 1 were used to simulate the induction machine
using Matlab/Simulink were:
Table 1. Parameters used for induction motor simulation.

Prated 7.5 kW Ls 42.5e − 3H

f 60 Hz Lr 41.8e − 3H
Vm 220 V Lm 41.2e − 3H
rs 288e − 3Ω Lls Ls − Lm
rr 158e − 3Ω Llr Lr − L m
J 0.4 kg· m2 P 4

The rated torque was not provided; therefore, before we can calculate the rated torque,
the synchronous speed of the machine must first be calculated. The synchronous speed is
calculated as follows:
120 × f
Ns = = 1800 rp
p
Knowing the synchronous speed of a four-pole, 60 Hz machine, the rated torque may
now be calculated.
P × 9.5493
T = rated = 39.78875 N.m
Ns
To simplify, 40 N.m was used as the rated torque value. Table 2 provides the results
obtained from the induction machine.
As seen in Figure 13a, the higher the torque load is, the higher the current will be. In
Figure 13b, we can see that the active power drawn by the induction machine is almost
linear. Thus, the active power is proportional to the percentage of the loading.
As shown in Figure 14a, the efficiency of the induction motor is poor when the machine
is lightly loaded. Theoretically, the optimal point must be at 100% loading; however, in
this case, the optimal point is at 80–90%. This is mainly due to additional power losses
(theoretical vs practical).
Figure 14b illustrates that the reactive power initially decreases. This is because the
power factor is poor with no load and increases with the increase in the load; however, the
reactive power drawn will also increase due to the increase in the load.
Energies 2022, 15, 3564 12 of 21

Table 2. The induction machine’s results.

Torque Pin Pout Efficiency Qin Power Speed

Current (A) Tem (N.m)
Load (%) (W) (W) (%) (Var) Factor (PF) (rpm)

0 9.708 81.42 1.14 × 10−7 1.40 × 10−9 4530 0.01797 1800 6.05 × 10−10
10 9.826 837.4 752.7 0.8988 4509 0.1826 1797 4
20 10.23 1598 1503 0.9401 4499 0.3348 1794 8
30 10.9 2365 2250 0.9411 4502 0.465 1790 12
Energies
40 2022, 15, x FOR
11.78PEER REVIEW
3136 2994 0.9452 4517 0.5703 1787 16 13 of 22
50 12.85 3913 3736 0.9497 4544 0.6525 1784 20
60 14.06 4695 4475 0.9521 4584 0.7155 1780 24
70 15.39 5482 5210 0.9532 4638 0.7635 1777 28
80 30 16.81 Current
6276 vs Torque Load0.9549
5943 12000
4705 Active Power
0.8001 vs Torque Load
1773 32

Active Power (W)

90 25 18.3 7075 6672 0.9549 4786
10000 0.8283 1770 36
100
Current (A)

19.86 7881 7399 0.9531 4881 0.8502 1766 40

20 8000
110 21.48 8692 8122 0.9504 4990 0.8672 1763 44
1202022,15 23.14PEER REVIEW
9510 8841 0.9469 6000
5115 0.8807 1759 48 13 of 22
Energies 15, x FOR
125 10 23.99 9922 9199 0.9454 4000
5184 0.8863 1757 50
5 2000
0 0
Current vs Torque Load Active Power vs Torque Load

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
125
12000
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
125

30
Active Power (W)

25 10000
Torque Load (%) Torque Load (%)
Current (A)

20 8000
15 6000
(a) (b)
10 4000
Figure 13. (a) Current vs torque load; (b) active power vs torque load.
5 2000
0 0
As shown in Figure 14a, the efficiency of the induction motor is poor when the ma-
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
125
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
125

chine is lightly loaded. Theoretically, the optimal point must be at 100% loading; however,
Torque Load
in this (%) the optimal point is at 80–90%. This is mainly
case, Torque
due Load (%)
to additional power losses
(theoretical vs practical).
(a) Figure 14b illustrates that the reactive power initially (b) decreases. This is because the
power factor
Figure 13.
13. (a)
is poor
(a) Current
Current vs
with no
vs torque
load
torque load;
and
load; (b)
increases
(b) active
active power
with
power vs
the
vs torque
increase in the load; however,
torque load.
load.
Figure
the reactive power drawn will also increase due to the increase in the load.
As shown in Figure 14a, the efficiency of the induction motor is poor when the ma-
1.2 Efficiency
chine isvs Torque
lightly Load
loaded. 5400
Theoretically, the Reactive
optimal Power
point must be atvs Torque
100% Load
loading; however,
Reactive Power (Var) Reactive Power (Var)

5200 This is mainly due to additional power losses

in this case, the optimal point is at 80–90%.
Efficiency (unit)

1
0.8 (theoretical vs practical). 5000
4800 power initially decreases. This is because the
Figure 14b illustrates that the reactive
0.6
0.4 power factor is poor with no load and4600 increases with the increase in the load; however,
4400 due to the increase in the load.
the reactive power drawn will also increase
0.2 4200
0 4000
Efficiency vs Torque Load 5400 Reactive
1 2 3 4 Power
5 6 7 8vs9Torque Load
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
125

1.2 10 11 12 13 14
5200
Efficiency (unit)

1
Torque Load (%) Torque Load (%)
0.8 5000
4800
0.6 (a) (b)
4600
0.4
Figure 14.
Figure 14. (a)
(a) Efficiency
Efficiency vs
vs torque
torque load; (b)4400
load;(b) reactivepower
reactive powervs
vstorque
torqueload.
load.
0.2 4200
0 4000factor is similar to the efficiency. The lower the
As shown
As shown in in Figure
Figure 15a,
15a, the
the power
power factor is similar to the efficiency. The lower the
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
125

load is, the lower the power factor will be, and 1 a2 very
3 4 good
5 6 power
7 8 9factor
10 11is12reached
13 14 at the
load is, the lower the power factor will be, and a very good power factor is reached at the
Torque
ratedLoad
rated (%)
torque.
torque. Torque Load (%)
As shown in Figure 15b, the induction machine’s speed
As shown in Figure 15b, the induction machine’s speed decreases decreases as
as the
the torque
torque load
load
(a)
increases, starting
increases, starting from
from aa value
value that
that is
is very
very close
close to
tothe (b)
thesynchronous
synchronousspeed.
speed. Because
Because the
the
machine
machine acts
acts as
as an
an induction
induction motor,
motor, it
it will
will always
always run
run below
below the
the synchronous
synchronous
Figure 14. (a) Efficiency vs torque load; (b) reactive power vs torque load. speed.
speed.

As shown in Figure 15a, the power factor is similar to the efficiency. The lower the
load is, the lower the power factor will be, and a very good power factor is reached at the
rated torque.
Energies
Energies2022,
Energies 2022,15,
2022, 15,x3564
15, xFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 14
14ofof
13 of22
21
22

11 Power
PowerFactor
Factorvs
vsTorque
TorqueLoad
Load 1810
1810 Speed
Speedvs
vsTorque
TorqueLoad
Load
1800
1800
0.8
Factor

0.8

(rpm)
1790
PowerFactor

Speed(rpm)
1790
0.6 1780
1780
0.6
1770
1770

Speed
Power

0.4
0.4 1760
1760
1750
1750
0.2
0.2 1740
1740
00 1730
1730

00
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
125
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
125
11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 10
1011
1112
1213
1314
14
Torque
TorqueLoad
Load(%)
(%) Torque
TorqueLoad
Load(%)
(%)

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure15.
15.Power
Powerfactor
factorvs
vstorque
torqueload
load(a);
(a);speed
speedvs
vstorque
torqueload
load(b).
(b).
Figure 15. Power factor vs torque load (a); speed vs torque load (b).
8.2.
8.2.Transient
8.2. TransientBehaviour
Transient Behaviourof
Behaviour ofofthe
theCurrent
the Currentand
Current andTorque
and TorqueVersus
Torque VersusSpeed
Versus Speedduring
Speed duringStarting,
during Starting,Assuming
Starting, Assumingthat
Assuming That
that
(i)
(i) the Machine Is Unloaded, (ii) the Machine Is 50% Loaded, and (iii) the Machine Is100%
(i)the
theMachine
Machine Is
Is Unloaded,
Unloaded, (ii)
(ii) the
the Machine
Machine Is
Is 50%
50% Loaded,
Loaded, and
and (iii)
(iii) the
the Machine
Machine Is
Is 100%Loaded
100% Loaded
Loaded
InInFigure
In Figure16b,
Figure 16b,we
16b, wesee
we see the
see three-phase
the
the three-phase
three-phase current.
current.
current. One
One characteristic
One ofofan
characteristic
characteristic anofinduction ma-
an induction
induction ma-
machine
chine is is
that that
it hasit has
a a
very very
high high starting
starting current
current in in
the
chine is that it has a very high starting current in the transient state. the transient
transient state.state.
As
As seen
Asseen
seenin in Figure
inFigure 17a,
Figure17a,17a,thethe electromagnetic
theelectromagnetic
electromagnetictorque torque oscillates
torqueoscillates during
oscillatesduring
duringthe the transient
thetransient state
transientstate
state
until
until the
untilthe oscillation
theoscillation stops
oscillationstops
stopsand and moves
andmoves towards
movestowards
towardsthe the torque
thetorque load.
torqueload.
load.
In
In Figure
InFigure 17b,
Figure17b,
17b,we we
weseesee the
seethe same
thesame oscillation
sameoscillation behaviour
behaviourinin
oscillationbehaviour the
inthe transient
thetransient state;
transientstate; however,
state;however,
however,
the
the machine reaches optimal point that is close to the
the machine reaches an optimal point that is close to the synchronous speed dueto
machine reaches an point that is close to thesynchronous
synchronous speed
speed due to
due lack
tolackof
lack
aofload.
of aaload.
load.
In
In Figure
InFigure
Figure18,18,
18,we wesee
we seeaaasmall
see smalldisturbance
small disturbance
disturbance ininin
the the
the speed.
speed.
speed. This
This
This isdue
isisdue due to
totothe
the the oscillation
oscillation
oscillation ofof
of
the the electromagnetic
theelectromagnetic
electromagnetictorque. torque.
torque.The The
Themotormotor reaches
motorreaches a steady-state
reachesaasteady-state
steady-statecloseclose to
closetotothe the synchronous
thesynchronous
synchronous
speeddue
speed due to thelack lack of a load.
speed duetotothe the lackofofaaload.
load.

CRITERIA—0%
CRITERIA—0%Torque
TorqueLoad;
Load;thus,
thus,00N.m
N.m
Voltage Supply Line Current under no-load
250 Voltage Supply Line Current under no-load
250 Va ia
300
Vb Va 300 ib ia
Vc Vb ic ib
200 Vc ic
200

200
150 200
150

100
100
100
100

50
50
Current (A)
Voltage (V)

Current (A)
Voltage (V)

0 0
0 0

-50
-50
-100
-100
-100
-100

-150 -200
-150 -200

-200
-200

-300
-300
-250 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
0
-250 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Time (sec) 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Time (sec) 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Time (sec)
Time (sec)

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure16.
Figure 16.(a)
16. (a)Voltage
(a) Voltagesupply
Voltage supplyunder
underno-load;
no-load;(b)
(b)line
linecurrents
currentsunder
underno-load.
no-load.
Energies 2022, 15, x3564
FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of
15 of 22
21
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 22

Electrostatic Torque under no-load Electromagnetic Torque vs. Speed under no-load
250 250
Tem Te
Electrostatic Torque under no-load Electromagnetic Torque vs. Speed under no-load
250 250
Tem Te

200 200

200 200

150 150

150 150

Electromagnetic Torque (N.m)

Electrostatic Torque (N.m)

100 100

Electromagnetic Torque (N.m)

Electrostatic Torque (N.m)

100 100

50 50

50 50

0 0

0 0

-50 -50

-50 -50

-100 -100
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Time (sec) Speed (rpm)
-100 -100
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Time (sec) Speed (rpm)

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 17.
17. (a)
(a)Electromagnetic
Electromagnetictorque under
torque no-load;
under (b)(b)
no-load; electromagnetic torque
electromagnetic vs speed
torque under
vs speed no-
under
Figure 17. (a) Electromagnetic torque under no-load; (b) electromagnetic torque vs speed under no-
load.
no-load.
load.
Speed under no-load
2000
Speed under no-load Speed
2000
Speed
1800

1800

1600

1600

1400

1400

1200

1200
Speed (rpm)

1000
Speed (rpm)

1000

800

800

600

600

400

400

200

200

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time (sec)
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time (sec)

Figure 18. Speed under no load.

Figure 18. Speed under no load.
Figure 18. Speed under no load.
The supply stays the same because no impedances exist at the source in this simula-
Thesupply
tion. The
Figuresupply
19a–c stays
stays thesame
the
illustrates same because
because
that nono impedances
impedances
the steady-state exist
exist
reached at the
at the source
source
approximately in sthis
in0.15
this simula-
simulation.
later than
tion.
Figure
with Figure
no19a–c 19a–c illustrates
load. illustrates that the steady-state
that the steady-state
This was expected because of thereached reached approximately
approximately
increase 0.15 s later
in the load. 0.15 s later than with than
with no
no load. load. This
Thisinwas
As seen was
expected
Figure expected
19a, thebecausebecause of
of thewas
amplitude the
increase increase in the
in the load.
not affected load.
by the higher magnitude of the
As
As seen
seen in
in Figure
Figure 19a,
19a, the
the amplitude
amplitude was
was not
not
load. Therefore, the conclusion can be drawn that the machine affected
affected by the
by the higherismagnitude
higher
current magnitude of the
of
only a function the
load.
load. Therefore,
Therefore, the
the conclusion
conclusion
of the machine’s parameters. can
can bebe drawn
drawn that
that thethe machine
machine current
current is is only
only a a function
function of
of the
the machine’s
machine’s parameters.
parameters.
As seen in Figure 20, the optimal point is at a lower speed than with no load.
As seen
As seen in
in Figure
Figure20, 20,the
theoptimal
optimalpoint
pointisisat
ataalower
lowerspeed
speedthanthanwith
withnonoload.
load.
As seen previously, as the loading increases, it takes longer for the steady-state to be
achieved. At a full load (100% torque load), reaching the steady-state took approximately
0.2 s longer than with the half load (50% torque load). This can be seen in Figure 21a–c.
Energies 2022, 15,
Energies 2022, 15, 3564
x FOR PEER REVIEW 15
16 of
of 21
22
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 22

CRITERIA—50% Torque Load; thus, 20 N.m

CRITERIA—50% Torque Load; thus, 20 N.m Line Currents at 50% Loading

Line Currents at 50% Loading ia

300
ib
300 icia
ib
ic

200

200

100

100
Current (A)

0
Current (A)

-100

-100

-200

-200

-300

-300
0 0.5 1 1.5
Time (sec)
0 0.5 1 1.5
Time (sec)

(a)
250
Electromagnetic Torque at 50 % Loading (a) 250
Electromagnetic Torque vs. Speed at 50% Loading

Tem Tem
Electromagnetic Torque at 50 % Loading
Electromagnetic Torque vs. Speed at 50% Loading
250 250
Tem Tem

200 200

200 200

150 150

150 150
Electromagnetic Torque (N.m)

Electromagnetic Torque (N.m)

100 100
Electromagnetic Torque (N.m)

Electromagnetic Torque (N.m)

100 100

50 50

50 50

0 0

0 0

-50 -50

-50 -50

-100 -100
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Time (sec) Speed (rpm)
-100 -100
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Time (sec) Speed (rpm)

(b) (c)
(b) (c)
Figure 19.
19. (a)
(a) Line
Line currents
currents at
at 50%
50% loading.
loading. (b)
(b) Electromagnetic torque at 50%
50% loading. (c) Electro-
Figure
Figure 19.torque
magnetic (a) Line
vs.currents
speed atat50%50% loading. (b)Electromagnetic
loading. Electromagnetictorque
torqueat
at 50%loading.
loading. (c)
(c) Electro-
Electro-
magnetic
magnetictorque
torquevs.vs.speed
speedatat50%
50%loading.
loading.
Speed at 50% Loading
1800
Speed at 50% Loading Speed
1800
Speed
1600

1600

1400

1400

1200

1200

1000

1000
Speed(rpm)

800
Speed(rpm)

800

600

600

400

400

200

200

-200
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time (sec)
-200
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time (sec)

Figure 20. The speed at 50% loading.

Figure 20. The speed at 50% loading.
Figure 20. The speed at 50% loading.
As seen previously, as the loading increases, it takes longer for the steady-state to be
As seen
achieved. At apreviously, as thetorque
full load (100% loading increases,
load), it takes
reaching longer for the
the steady-state steady-state
took to be
approximately
achieved. At a full load (100% torque load), reaching the steady-state took approximately
0.2 s longer than with the half load (50% torque load). This can be seen in Figure 21a–c.
0.2 s longer than with the half load (50% torque load). This can be seen in Figure 21a–c.
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 22
Energies 2022, 15, 3564 16 of 21
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 22

CRITERIA—100% Torque Load; thus, 40 N.m

CRITERIA—100% Torque Load; thus, 40 N.m
Line Current at 100% Loading

300 ia
Line Current at 100% Loading ib
ic
300 ia
ib
ic

200

200

100

100
urrent (A)

0
C
urrent (A)

0
C

-100

-100

-200

-200

-300

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

-300 Time (sec)

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Time (sec)
(a)
250
Electromagnetic Torque at 100% Loading

Tem
(a) 250
Electromagnetic Torque vs. Speed at 100% Loading

Tem

Electromagnetic Torque at 100% Loading Electromagnetic Torque vs. Speed at 100% Loading
250 250
Tem Tem
200 200

200 200

150 150

150 150
Electromagnetic Torque (N.m)

Electromagnetic Torque(N.m)

100 100
Electromagnetic Torque (N.m)

Electromagnetic Torque(N.m)

100 100

50 50

50 50

0 0

0 0
-50 -50

-50 -50
-100 -100
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Time (sec) Speed (rpm)

-100 -100
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

(b) Time (sec)

(c) Speed (rpm)

(b) (c)
Figure 21. (a) Current at 100% loading. (b) Electromagnetic torque at 100% loading. (c) Electromag-
Figure 21. (a) Current at 100% loading. (b) Electromagnetic torque at 100% loading. (c) Electromag-
netic torque
Figure vsCurrent
21. (a) speed atat100%
100%loading.
loading.As
(b)seen in Figure 22b,
Electromagnetic the optimal
torque at 100%point is at (c)
loading. a lower speed
Electromag-
netic torque vs speed at 100% loading. As seen in Figure 22b, the optimal point is at a lower speed
than
neticwith no-load
torque or half-load.
vs speed at 100% loading. As seen in Figure 22b, the optimal point is at a lower speed
than with no-load or half-load.
than with no-load or half-load.
Speed at 100% Loading
1800
Speed

Speed at 100% Loading

1800
1600
Speed

1600
1400

1400
1200

1200
1000
Speed (rpm)

1000
800
Speed (rpm)

800
600

600
400

400
200

200
0

0
-200
0 0.5 1 1.5
Time (sec)

-200
0 0.5 1 1.5
Time (sec)

Figure 22. The speed at 100% loading.

Figure22.
Figure 22.The
Thespeed
speedatat100%
100%loading.
loading.
8.3. Dynamic Behaviour of the Machine When (i) the Load Was Suddenly Changed from 50% to
100% and (ii) the
8.3. Dynamic Supply of
Behaviour Voltage (for theWhen
the Machine Motors) or the
(i) the Torque
Load Input (forChanged
Was Suddenly the Generators)
from 50%Wasto
Suddenly
100% andHalved
(ii) theWhile theVoltage
Supply Load Was
(forMaintained
the Motors)ator100%
the Torque Input (for the Generators) Was
Suddenly Halved While the Load Was Maintained at 100%
Energies 2022, 15, 3564 17 of 21

8.3. Dynamic Behaviour of the Machine When (i) the Load Was Suddenly Changed from 50% to
100% and (ii) the Supply Voltage (for the Motors) or the Torque Input (for the Generators) Was
Suddenly Halved While the Load Was Maintained at 100%
As seen in Figure 23a, we have a normal transient state; however, an increase in
currents may be seen as the load changes from a half load to a full load (50% to 100%).
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW As seen in Figure 23b, we have a normal transient state; however, with an increase 18 ofin
22
the electromagnetic torque, the load changes from a half load to a full load (50% to 100%).
It can be seen in Figure 23c that the optimal point of the full load (100%) is at a lower speed;
however, there is a higher torque than with the half load.
As seen in Figure 23a, we have a normal transient state; however, an increase in cur-
In Figure 24, we see the decrease in the speed of the machine after 1 s when the load
rents may be seen as the load changes from a half load to a full load (50% to 100%).
changes from 50% to 100%.
As seen in Figure 23b, we have a normal transient state; however, with an increase in
As seen in Figure 25a, the voltage supply is halved at 1.5 s. We can see in Figure 25b
the electromagnetic torque, the load changes from a half load to a full load (50% to 100%).
that the current at 1.5 s approximately doubles. At 1.5 s, the protection of the induction
It can be seen in Figure 23c that the optimal point of the full load (100%) is at a lower
machine will operate with a disconnect from the supply voltage.
speed; however, there is a higher torque than with the half load.
In Figure 26a, at 1.5 s, the machine cannot produce the electromagnetic torque required
for theInload
Figure 24, we
torque; seethe
thus, thespeed
decrease in machine
of the the speeddecreases.
of the machine after
In Figure 1 s we
26b, when
seethe
thatload
no
changes from 50% to 100%.
stable point has been reached.

Dynamic simulations: Load changes from 50% to 100% at 1 s

Line Current at 50 % to 100% Loading at time 1 second

300 ia
ib
ic

200

100
Current (A)

-100

-200

-300

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

Time (sec)

(a)
Electromagnetic Torque at 50% to 100% Loading at time 1 second Electromagnetic Torque vs. Speed at 50% to 100% Loading at time 1 second
250 250
Tem
Tem

200 200

150 150
Electromagnetic Torque (N.m)

Electromagnetic Torque (N.m)

100 100

50 50

0
0

-50
-50

-100
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 -100
-200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Time (sec) Speed (rpm)

(b) (c)
Figure 23. (a) Line current at 50% to 100% loading at 1 s. (b) Electromagnetic torque at 50% to 100%
Figure 23. (a) Line current at 50% to 100% loading at 1 s. (b) Electromagnetic torque at 50% to 100%
loading at 1 s. (c) Electromagnetic torque vs. speed at 50% to 100% loading at 1 s.
loading at 1 s. (c) Electromagnetic torque vs. speed at 50% to 100% loading at 1 s.
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 22

Speed at 50% to 100% Loading at time 1 second

1800
Energies 2022,15,
Energies2022, 15,3564
x FOR PEER REVIEW 18
19of
of21
22
1600

1400

Speed at 50% to 100% Loading at time 1 second

1200
1800

1000
1600

Speed (rpm)
800
1400

600
1200

400
1000
Speed (rpm)

200
800

0
600

-200
400
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Time (sec)

200

Figure 24. Speed at 50% to 100% loading at 1 s.

0

As seen in Figure 25a, the voltage supply is halved at 1.5 s. We can see in Figure 25b
-200
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Time (sec)

that the current at 1.5 s approximately doubles. At 1.5 s, the protection of the induction
machine
Figure 24.will
Figure
Speed
24. Speedoperate
at 50% with a disconnect
at 50% to 100%
to 100% loading at 1from
loading at 1 s. the supply voltage.
s.

As seen
Supply in Figure
voltage 25a, the
changes voltage
from supply
100% is halved
to 50% at 1.5
at 1.5 s s. We can see in Figure 25b
that the current at 1.5 s approximately doubles. At 1.5 s, the protection of the induction
machine will operate with a disconnect from the supply voltage.
Line Current at 100% to 50% supply voltage at time 1.5 seconds
Voltage Supply at 100% to 50% at time 1.5 seconds
250
300 ia
Va
ib
Vb
Vc ic
200

Supply voltage changes from 100% to 50% at 1.5 s

200
150

100

100
Line Current at 100% to 50% supply voltage at time 1.5 seconds
Voltage Supply at 100% to 50% at time 1.5 seconds
250
50
300 ia
Va
ib
Vb
Current (A)

ic
Voltage (V)

Vc
200
0 0

200
150
-50

-100

100
-100
100

50
-150 -200
Current (A)
Voltage (V)

0
-2000

-300
-50
-250
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Time (sec) Time (sec)
-100

-100

-150
(a) -200
(b)
Figure 25. (a) The change in the voltage supply from 100% to 50% at 1.5 s. (b) Line current when
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW -200
20 ofthe
22
Figure 25. (a) The change in the voltage supply from 100% to 50% at 1.5 s. (b) Line current when the -300

-250
0 0.5 1
voltage changes from 100% to 50% at 1.5 s.
1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

voltage changes from 100% to 50% at 1.5 s.

Time (sec) Time (sec)

(a) In Figure 26a, at 1.5 s, the machine cannot produce the (b) electromagnetic torque re-
Electromagnetic Torque at 100% to 50% Supply voltage at time 1.5 seconds Electromagnetic Torque vs. Speed at 100% to 50% Supply voltage at time 1.5 seconds
250 250

quired for(a)
Figure 25. theThe
load torque;
change thus,
in the the speed
voltage supplyof the100%
from machine decreases.
to 50% at 1.5 s. (b)InLine
Tem
Figure 26b,when
current we see
the Tem

200
that no changes
voltage stable point
from has
100% been reached.
to 50% at 1.5 s. 200

150 150

100
In Figure 26a, at 1.5 s, the machine cannot produce the electromagnetic torque re- 100
Electromagnetic Torque (N.m)
Electromagnetic Torque (N.m)

quired for the load torque; thus, the speed of the machine decreases. In Figure 26b, we see
50 50

that no stable point has been reached.

0 0

-50
-50

-100
-100

-150
-150 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Speed (rpm)
Time (sec)

(a) (b)
Figure 26. (a) Electromagnetic torque when the supply voltage changes from 100% to 50% at 1.5 s.
Figure 26. (a) Electromagnetic torque when the supply voltage changes from 100% to 50% at 1.5 s. (b)
(b) Electromagnetic torque vs speed when the supply voltage changes from 100% to 50% at 1.5 s.
Electromagnetic torque vs speed when the supply voltage changes from 100% to 50% at 1.5 s.

As seen
As seen in
in Figure
Figure 27,
27,the
thespeed
speeddecreases
decreasesduedueto tothe
thesupply
supplyvoltage
voltagebeing
being halved
halved at
at
1.5 s; thus, the electromagnetic torque is less than the loading torque. This means that
1.5 s; thus, the electromagnetic torque is less than the loading torque. This means that the the
machineisisnot
machine notable
abletotooperate
operateunder
underthese
thesespecific
specificconditions.
conditions.

Speed at 100% to 50% Supply voltage at time 1.5 seconds

1800
Speed

1600

1400
 (a) (b)
Figure 26. (a) Electromagnetic torque when the supply voltage changes from 100% to 50% at 1.5 s.
(b) Electromagnetic torque vs speed when the supply voltage changes from 100% to 50% at 1.5 s.

Energies 2022, 15, 3564 As seen in Figure 27, the speed decreases due to the supply voltage being halved at
19 of 21
1.5 s; thus, the electromagnetic torque is less than the loading torque. This means that the
machine is not able to operate under these specific conditions.

Speed at 100% to 50% Supply voltage at time 1.5 seconds

1800
Speed

1600

1400

1200

1000

Speed (rpm)
800

600

400

200

-200
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Time (sec)

Figure 27. The speed when the supply voltage changes from 100% to 50% at 1.5 s.
Figure 27. The speed when the supply voltage changes from 100% to 50% at 1.5 s.

9.9.Conclusions
Conclusions
Theperformance
The performanceofofthe thestator
statorand
androtor
rotorvariables
variableswaswaseffectively
effectivelystudied
studiedby byutilising
utilising
dynamicand
dynamic andstatic
static Simulink
Simulink designs
designs forfor
thethe modelling
modelling of anofinduction
an induction machine.
machine. In con-
In contrast
totrast to several
several existing
existing induction
induction machine
machine design
design applications,
applications, thethe operator
operator hashasaccess
accesstoto
allinternal
all internal parameters
parameters in this
this design
designin inorder
ordertotogain
gainknowledge
knowledge about thethe
about machine’s
machine’s op-
erations. By
operations. Byutilising
utilisingsuch
suchdesigns,
designs,anyany machine
machine control
control method can can be
be modelled
modelledininthe the
Matlab/Simulink
Matlab/Simulink software
software without
withoutestimation
estimationtechniques.
techniques.For Forevery
everymodule,
module,individual
individual
variable
variablecalculations
calculationswere
wereperformed.
performed.Each Eachdesigner’s
designer’sfunction
functionwaswasmodelled,
modelled,and andcritical
critical
variables
variableswere
wereobserved.
observed.
InInthis
thiswork,
work,aadq0-direct
dq0-directaxis axisalgorithm
algorithmwas waspresented
presentedininorderordertotoimplement
implementboth both
static
staticand
anddynamic
dynamicmodelling
modellingofofaathree-phase
three-phaseinduction
inductionmachine
machinedue duetotopossible
possiblefaults
faults
and
andhigh-performance
high-performance requirements for forinduction
inductionmachines.
machines.The The proposed
proposed algorithm
algorithm was
was
compared with several conventional methods. It was observed that under stable stable
compared with several conventional methods. It was observed that under condi-
conditions
tions of theofmachinery,
the machinery, the proposed
the proposed algorithm
algorithm couldcould
removeremove any developing
any developing faults.
faults. This
This conserves
conserves timetime
and and minimises
minimises the labour
the labour required
required of anofoperator,
an operator, which
which makes
makes the
the pro-
proposed algorithmmore
posed algorithm moreefficient.
efficient.Furthermore,
Furthermore, the the machine
machine demonstrated
demonstrated aasteady-state
steady-state
performance
performancewith withrespect
respectto tothethecurrent,
current,active
activepower,
power,efficiency,
efficiency,reactive
reactivepower,
power,power
power
factor,
factor, and speed when the torque loads ranged from 0% to 125% of the nominaltorque.
and speed when the torque loads ranged from 0% to 125% of the nominal torque.
The
Thetransient
transientbehaviour
behaviourofofthe themachine
machinewas wasshown
shownthrough
throughthe thecurrent,
current,electromagnetic
electromagnetic
torque, electromagnetic torque versus speed, and speed under no-load, half-load (50%), and
full-load (100%) conditions. Finally, the results of the proposed technique were compared
to the results of the measured parameters. It was found that when the load changed from
a half load (50%) to a full load (100%), the supply voltage was suddenly halved with the
load at full load (100%). It was observed that the proposed algorithm provides accurate
estimates with a deviation of not more than +/−2% from the measured parameters.

Author Contributions: Conceptualisation and methodology, P.F.L.R. and M.K.N.; Software, P.F.L.R.;
Validation, P.F.L.R.; Investigation, P.F.L.R.; Writing—original draft preparation, P.F.L.R. and M.K.N.;
Writing—review and editing, P.F.L.R.; Supervision, P.F.L.R. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge the reviewers for their academic and
specialist assistance and beneficial remarks.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Energies 2022, 15, 3564 20 of 21

References
1. Rajput, S.; Bender, E.; Averbukh, M. Simplified algorithm for assessment equivalent circuit parameters of induction motors. IET
Electr. Power Appl. 2020, 14, 426–432. [CrossRef]
2. Ahmed, M.; Vahidnia, A.; Datta, M.; Meegahapola, L. An adaptive power oscillation damping controller for a hybrid AC/DC
microgrid. IEEE Access 2020, 8, 69482–69495. [CrossRef]
3. Iegorov, O.; Iegorova, O.; Miroshnyk, O.; Savchenko, O. Improving the accuracy of determining the parameters of induction
motors in transient starting modes. Energetika 2020, 66, 15–23. [CrossRef]
4. Wang, H.; Chau, K.; Lee, C.H.; Cao, L.; Lam, W.H. Design, Analysis, and Implementation of Wireless Shaded-Pole Induction
Motors. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2020, 68, 6493–6503. [CrossRef]
5. Rahaman, N.; Govindraju, H. Modeling and Simulation of a Three-Phase Electric Traction Induction Motor Using MAT-
LAB/Simulink. Int. J. Electr. Electron. Comput. Syst. 2014, 2, 5.
6. Kozjaruk, A.E.; Vasilev, B.U.; Shtop, S.A.; Serdukov, N.A. Currents in bearings of induction motors of electric drives with
semiconductor converter. In Proceedings of the 17th International Ural Conference on AC Electric Drives (ACED), Ekaterinburg,
Russia, 26–30 March 2018; pp. 1–5.
7. Maleki, M.G.; Chabanloo, R.M.; Farrokhifar, M. Accurate coordination method based on the dynamic model of overcurrent relay
for industrial power networks taking contribution of induction motors into account. IET Gener. Transm. Distrib. 2019, 14, 645–655.
[CrossRef]
8. Abdelwanis, M.I.; Selim, F.; El-Sehiemy, R. An efficient sensorless slip dependent thermal motor protection schemes applied to
submersible pumps. Int. J. Eng. Res. Afr. 2015, 14, 75–86. [CrossRef]
9. Chitra, V.; Prabhakar, R. Induction motor speed control using fuzzy logic controller. World Acad. Sci. Eng. Technol. 2006, 23, 17–22.
10. Elnaghi, B.E.; Mohammed, R.H.; Dessouky, S.S.; Shehata, M.K. Load test of induction motors based on PWM technique using
genetic algorithm. Int. J. Eng. Manuf. 2019, 9, 1. [CrossRef]
11. Sadasivan, J.; Mammen, O. Genetic algorithm based parameter identification of three phase induction motors. Int. J. Comput.
Appl. 2011, 31, 51–56.
12. Jirdehi, M.A.; Rezaei, A. Parameters estimation of squirrel-cage induction motors using ANN and ANFIS. Alex. Eng. J. 2016,
55, 357–368. [CrossRef]
13. Keerthipala, W.; Duggal, B.; Chun, M.H. Torque and speed control of induction motors using ANN observers. Int. Conf. Power
Electron. Drives Energy Syst. Ind. Growth Proc. 1998, 1, 282–288.
14. Chen, J.; Severson, E.L. Design and modeling of the bearingless induction motor. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Electric
Machines & Drives Conference (IEMDC), San Diego, CA, USA, 12–15 May 2019; pp. 343–350.
15. Swami, H.; Jain, A.K. An Improved Scalar Controlled Drive Based on Steady State Model of Vector Controlled Drive for Squirrel
Cage Induction Motor. In Proceedings of the IEEE 30th International Symposium on Industrial Electronics (ISIE), Kyoto, Japan,
20–23 June 2021; pp. 1–6.
16. Levi, E.; Vukosavic, S.; Jones, M. Vector control schemes for series-connected six-phase two-motor drive systems. IEEE Proc.-Electr.
Power Appl. 2005, 15, 226–238. [CrossRef]
17. Goolak, S.; Gubarevych, O.; Yermolenko, E.; Slobodyanyuk, M.; Gorobchenko, O. Mathematical modeling of an induction motor
for vehicles. East.-Eur. J. Enterp. Technol. 2020, 2, 104. [CrossRef]
18. Prabakaran, S.; Venkatesan, S. Analysis of 3 phase Induction Motor Protection Using Numerical Relay. Int. J. Eng. Tech. 2018,
4, 513–519.
19. Yildiz, R.; Barut, M.; Demir, R. Extended Kalman filter based estimations for improving speed-sensored control performance of
induction motors. IET Electr. Power Appl. 2020, 14, 2471–2479. [CrossRef]
20. Zhefeng, M.L.; Zhang, G.; Diao, L.; Liu, Z. Extended Kalman Filter based on inverse Γ model of induction motor. In Proceedings
of the IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, Harbin, China, 3–5 September 2008; pp. 1–5.
21. Khamehchi, S.; Mölsä, E.; Hinkkanen, M. Comparison of standstill parameter identification methods for induction motors. In
Proceedings of the IEEE 9th International Symposium on Sensorless Control for Electrical Drives (SLED), Helsinki, Finland,
13–14 September 2018; pp. 156–161.
22. Bimal, K. Modern Power Electronics and AC Drives; Prentice-Hall: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2001.
23. Tang, Y.; He, X.; Cao, J. Fast calculation method of transient temperature rise of motor for electro-mechanical braking. Sci. Prog.
2021, 104, 368504211024553. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
24. Krause, P.C.; Wasynczuk, O.; Sudhoff, S.D.; Pekarek, S.D. Analysis of Electric Machinery and Drive Systems; John Wiley & Sons:
Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2013.
25. Wang, L.; Aleksandrov, S.; Tang, Y.; Paulides, J.J.; Lomonova, E.A. Fault-tolerant electric drive and space-phasor modulation of
flux-switching permanent magnet machine for aerospace application. IET Electr. Power Appl. 2017, 11, 1416–1423. [CrossRef]
26. Duan, N.; Ma, X.; Lu, S.; Wang, S.; Wang, S. Simulation Calculation of Loss of Induction Traction Motor. In The Proceedings of the
9th Frontier Academic Forum of Electrical Engineering; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2021; pp. 599–606.
27. Liu, Y.; Bazzi, A.M. A detailed induction machine core loss model in the arbitrary reference frame. In Proceedings of the IEEE
Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition (APEC), Charlotte, NC, USA, 15–19 March 2015; pp. 2617–2622.
28. Shepard, R.A. A Computational Investigation of Cathode Materials for Next-Generation Secondary Batteries. Ph.D. Thesis,
State University of New York at Binghamton, Binghamton, NY, USA, 2021.
Energies 2022, 15, 3564 21 of 21

29. Claassens, A.J. Transient Modelling of Induction Motors in a Petrochemical Plant Using Matlab. Master’s Thesis,
Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 2008.
30. Smith, J.R.; Chen, M.J. Three-Phase Electrical Machine Systems: Computer Simulation; Research Studies Press Taunton: Taunton, UK, 1993.
31. Pereira, L.; Kosterev, D.; Mackin, P.; Davies, D.; Undrill, J.; Zhu, W. An interim dynamic induction motor model for stability
tudies in the WSCC. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 2002, 17, 1108–1115. [CrossRef]
32. Diaz, A.; Saltares, R.; Rodriguez, C.; Nunez, R.F.; Ortiz-Rivera, E.I.; Gonzalez-Llorente, J. Induction motor equivalent circuit
for dynamic simulation. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Electric Machines and Drives Conference, Miami, FL, USA,
3–6 May 2009; pp. 858–863.