Transformer Testing Theory and Case Studies

Mike Anderson
Principal Engineer
Doble Engineering Company
Please remember to complete
your evaluation form.
Transformer Field Testing
• Dielectric Testing
• Transformer
Insulation system health (PF & Capacitance)
• Bushings
• Surge Arresters
• Exciting Current & Losses Core magnetizing circuit
• Leakage Reactance & Loss
Mechanical integrity
• Frequency Response Analysis (FRA)
• Turns Ratio Testing (LV TTR, Doble TTR) Turns ratio of the transformer
• Winding Resistance HV, LV, TV winding DC resistance
• Insulating Fluid (DGA, moisture, etc) Oil analysis – probably single most important test
Transformer Field Testing
• Dielectric Testing
• Transformer
• Bushings
• Surge Arresters
• Exciting Current & Losses
• Leakage Reactance & Loss
• Sweep Frequency Response Analysis (SFRA)
• Turns Ratio Testing (LV TTR, Doble TTR)
• Winding Resistance
• Insulating Fluid (DGA, moisture, etc)
Transformer Construction
Dielectric Testing
Materials fall into two main categories

Conductors: The electrons are loosely held by the nucleus

and are able to move readily from atom to atom.

Insulators: The electrons are held firmly by the nucleus, and

a relatively high potential difference produces only a very
small movement of electrons from atom to atom.
General Concept

Imeas
• Apply a voltage (VAPP)
• AC voltage at power frequency
Insulation
• Measure a response ( Imeas ) VAPP System
Under Test
• At same frequency as signal
• Referenced to the applied voltage
• Calculate measured parameters
• measure the fundamental AC electrical characteristics of
the insulation system
Reactive & Real Component Measurements
What are these “fundamental AC electrical characteristics of the insulation
system” we are talking about?

The measured current (Imeas) is comprised of two main components:

• Reactive Component – Capacitance (pF) & Capacitive Current (mA)
• Provide indication of PHYSICAL CHANGES within the insulation system
• Real Component - Dielectric Loss (Watts Loss) & %Power Factor
• Provide indication of the SEVERITY of CONTAMINATION and/or
DETERIORATION within the insulation system
Insulation System Model

HV Core
LV

Core Insulation Windings

Tank Tank
Capacitance Measurement

𝐴𝐴𝜀𝜀
𝐶𝐶 =
𝑑𝑑
• A = Area of the conductors
• ε = Permittivity or Dielectric Constant
• both directly proportional to
Capacitance

• d = Distance between conductors

• Inverse relationship with Capacitance

These are all physical properties

Capacitance (and Capacitive Current)
• A change in capacitance (pF) & capacitive current (mA) indicates
a physical change in the insulation system
• Area
• Dielectric Constant
• Distance
• We don’t want Capacitance to change!
Capacitance (and Capacitive Current)
• A change in capacitance (pF) & capacitive current (mA) indicates
a physical change in the insulation system
Watts Loss
• In a perfect (ideal) insulation system, there would be no losses
• For a REAL insulation system, there are resistive currents due to:
• Normal losses – ALL insulating materials have some losses
• Insulating material deterioration – breakdown, aging, etc
• Insulation system contamination – moisture, impurities, etc

Resistive current (IR) that Heat/Watts

passes through the insulation
(dielectric) creates heat (Watts
Loss) IR
Overall, IR <<< IC
Watts Loss
• An increase in Watts Loss, caused by an increase in Resistive
Current (IR), indicates increased severity of the insulation
system contamination &/or deterioration
• Always some Watts Loss for MOST systems, but…
• We don’t want the losses to increase!
Watts Loss
• An increase in Watts Loss, caused by an increase in Resistive
Current (IR), indicates increased severity of the insulation
system contamination &/or deterioration
%Power Factor

IC Imeas Imeas

VAPP I C R I
C R

PF = Cos θ
θ
IR VAPP • Remember, overall, IR <<< IC
• Therefore, Imeas ~ IC
%Power Factor
θ (°) PF (%)
90 0 (perfect insulation)
89.714 0.5
89.427 1.0
45 70.7
30 86.6
0 100 (resistance only)

As IR increases, more of the Imeas is comprised of IR =>

smaller angle θ => %PF goes up!
Dielectric Testing Summary
• Capacitance (& Capacitive Current) measurements – provides indication of
physical changes in the insulation system
• Whatever the nameplate/benchmark capacitance is, we do not want it to
change!
• Watts Loss & %PF measurements – indication of the severity of insulation
system contamination and/or deterioration
• As contamination/deterioration worsens, resistive current (IR) increases:
• Watts (heat) losses increase and
• %PF increases (more of the Imeas is comprised of IR)
General Limits (most modern oil-filled transformers)
%Power Factor Results
< 0.5% OK
0.5% to 0.7% Deteriorated
> 0.7% Further investigation required

These are GENERAL GUIDELINES!!!

Change (+/-) in Capacitance (pF) from Nameplate/Benchmark

< 5% OK
between 5-10% Investigate
> 10% Do Not Return to Service
Power Factor (%PF) Limits
CH Power Factor for Power Transformers
30000 28431

Typically, the vast majority fall somewhere

Number of Transformers

25000
between 0.2% – 0.5% PF (corrected).
20000 18077
These are general limits – there are MANY
15000
exceptions!
10176
8869
10000

5207
5000
2480
1361
813 520 317 240
0
0.1 to 0.2 0.2 to 0.3 0.3 to 0.4 0.4 to 0.5 0.5 to 0.6 0.6 to 0.7 0.7 to 0.8 0.8 to 0.9 0.9 to 1.0 1.0 to 1.1 1.1 to 1.2
%PF Corrected to 20°C
Power Factor (%PF) Limits
Typical limits for most modern oil-filled power
transformers rated 230 kV and below (temperature
corrected)
• Less Than 0.5% -- GOOD
• >0.5% but < 0.7% -- DETERIORATED
• >0.5% but <0.8% & increasing -- INVESTIGATE
• Greater than 0.7% -- BAD

GENERAL GUIDELINES! There are MANY

exceptions!
Power Factor (%PF) Limits
The larger the transformer, the lower the expected normal %PF

Rating Type New Used

0 - 500 KVA Distribution 1.0% 2.0%
> 500 KVA up to 230kV Power 0.5% 0.7%
> 500 KVA above 230kV Power 0.4% 0.6%

GENERAL GUIDELINES! There are MANY

exceptions!
Power Factor (%PF) Limits – Dry Type Transformers
• Limits Are Determined Based on Manufacturer and
Rating
• Based on a 1999 Tabulation, the Following General
Guidelines Can Be Used:

Epoxy-Encapsulated
Ventilated Transformers
Transformers
CHL ≤ 2.0%
CHL ≤ 1.0%
CH ≤ 3.0%
CH ≤ 3.0%
CL ≤ 4.0%
CL ≤ 2.0%
Two Winding Transformer Test Setup

HV LV
H2 CHL X2

X1
H1 H3 X0
X3

CH CL
Tank & Core
Insulation Systems (CH and CL)
• CH & CL – insulation between the winding conductors and the grounded tank
& core
• Winding insulation
• HV & LV bushings (for each winding)
• Structural insulating members
• DETC and/or LTC (if present)
• Insulating fluid
Insulation Systems (CH and CL)

Test Measured Test kV mA Watts % PF Corr. Fac. Capacitance

1 CH + CHL 10 49.003 1.763 0.351 0.976 12998.2
2 CH 10 15.028 0.68 0.442 0.976 3986.3
3 CHL (UST) 10 33.959 1.079 0.310 0.976 9007.7
4 CHL 33.975 1.083 0.311 0.976 9011.9
5 CL + CHL 10 85.452 3.273 0.374 0.976 22666.5
6 CL 10 51.489 2.14 0.406 0.976 13657.7
7 CHL (UST) 10 33.943 1.101 0.317 0.976 9003.4
8 CHL 33.963 1.133 0.326 0.976 9008.8
9 CH’ 10.032 0.517 0.503 0.976 2661.0
10 CL’ 40.212 1.849 0.449 0.976 10666.5
Insulation Systems (CHL)
• CHL – insulation between the high-voltage and low-voltage windings
• Winding insulation barriers
• Insulating fluid
• Electrostatic shields (if present)

Note – does NOT include the HV and LV bushings!

Insulation Systems (CHL)

Test Measured Test kV mA Watts % PF Corr. Fac. Capacitance

1 CH + CHL 10 49.003 1.763 0.351 0.976 12998.2
2 CH 10 15.028 0.68 0.442 0.976 3986.3
3 CHL (UST) 10 33.959 1.079 0.310 0.976 9007.7
4 CHL CALC 33.975 1.083 0.311 0.976 9011.9
5 CL + CHL 10 85.452 3.273 0.374 0.976 22666.5
6 CL 10 51.489 2.14 0.406 0.976 13657.7
7 CHL (UST) 10 33.943 1.101 0.317 0.976 9003.4
8 CHL CALC 33.963 1.133 0.326 0.976 9008.8
9 CH’ 10.032 0.517 0.503 0.976 2661.0
10 CL’ 40.212 1.849 0.449 0.976 10666.5
Bushing Testing - What is a Bushing?
• A device for passing an energized conductor through a ground plane (apparatus
wall, tank, or chamber)
• It also provides mechanical support/terminals for other energized portions of the
apparatus

11
 Various Types of Bushings
Capacitor/Condenser Type Non-Condenser Type
Complex insulation system employing a mechanism to Simple insulation system, no voltage grading, typically
grade voltage across the insulation system employed on low voltage
• Oil-Impregnated Paper (OIP) or gas-filled bushings
GE Type U
Solid
•
• ABB O+C •
• Westinghouse Type O • Alternate Layers of Solid and Liquid
• Trench COTA
• Lapp POC Insulation
Ohio Brass
•
• Gas-Filled
• Resin Bonded Paper (RBP)
• Lapp PRC
• Resin Impregnated paper (Dry Type) This discussion will focus on
Micafil
Capacitor/Condenser Type bushings
•
• HSP
• Polymer (Solid)
• Solid
Typical Bushing Construction
Center Conductor
Sight-Glass
Liquid or Compound Filler
Insulating Weathershed

Main Insulating Core

Tap Insulation
Tap Electrode
Mounting Flange
Ground Sleeve
Tapped Capacitance-Graded Layer
Lower Insulator
15
 Typical Oil Impregnated Paper (OIP) Bushing

Top/Center
Conductor

Oil Sight
Glass

Bottom
Tap

Flange
16
Main Core Construction
Semi-Conducting Paper
Foil or Ink Herringbone Pattern
Core Wind Core Wind

Tapped Layer Tapped Layer

Common Construction Distributed Capacitance

GE Type U

17
Main Core Construction (ABB O+C Bushing)

Foil Layers

18
Main Core Construction (GE Type U Bushing)

19
Bushing C2 Plate (ABB O+C Bushing)

Tapped Layer
Main Core Voltage Grading
Main Insulation
C1
Insulation C2

CA = CB = CC = CD = CE = CF = CG = CH = CI = CJ CK
Center Grounded
Conductor Layer/Flange
V1 = V2 = V3 = V4 = V5 = V6 = V7 = V8 = V9 = V10 Tap
Electrode

Line-to-Ground System Voltage

• The condenser bushing allows an energized conductor to penetrate a grounded

plane
• Voltage is stressed equally across each condenser layer of the bushing
Bushing C1 and C2 Insulation Systems
C1 – Main core insulation (capacitive layers) between
center conductor and tapped layer

C2 – insulation between tap tapped layer and

ground, to include:
• Tap insulation
• Core insulation between tap and ground sleeve
• Small portion of liquid/filler compound
• Portion of weather shed near ground sleeve

22
Routine Bushing Tests

• Main Core Insulation Test (C1 Test)

• Energize center conductor
• Measure current from center conductor to tap electrode

• Tap Insulation Test (C2 Test)

• Energize tap electrode
• Measure current from tap electrode to ground (any ground)

24
C1 (Main Core Insulation) Test Setup
HV Lead

LV Lead

Ground
Lead

Remember – only one

bushing tap cover off at a
time!
27
C1 (Main Core Insulation) Test
HV Lead
C1 Test
Main Insulation

Guard LV Lead

Ground Lead

Bushing and
Apparatus Ground
28
C1 (Main Core Insulation) Test – Dielectric Circuit

Center Conductor
HV Lead
Tap Electrode

C1
C2

LV Ground
Lead Lead
IC1
Guard
Test
Measurement Circuit Ground

29
C2 (Tap Insulation) Test
LV Lead

C2 Test
• Tap Insulator
• Core Insulation between tapped Layer and Bushing Ground
Sleeve
• Portion of Liquid or Compound Filler
• Portion of Weathershed near Flange

HV Lead

IC2
Guard
Ground
Measurement Circuit
Lead
31
Bushing C2 (Tap Insulation) Test - Dielectric Circuit
LV Lead

Center Conductor
HV Lead Tap Electrode

C1
C2

IC2 Ground Lead

Guard

Measurement Test
Circuit Ground
32
Results Analysis - %Power Factor
% PF and Watts Loss measurement – provides indication of the
severity of the CONTAMINATION and/or DETERIORATION of the
apparatus insulation system
• Contaminants (moisture) in the oil
• Deterioration of the solid (paper or resin) insulation
• Contaminants* and/or moisture (high humidity) on bushing surface
• Contaminants* and/or moisture (high humidity) in tap area

*Dirt, salt deposits, coal dust, algae, etc.

40
Results Analysis - Capacitance

Capacitance & Capacitive Current measurement – changes from

nameplate/benchmark indicate PHYSICAL CHANGES within the
apparatus insulation system
• Physical movement of paper core
• Shorted capacitive layer(s)
• Loss of oil
• Condition of tap connection
• Poor connection between bushing and tank flanges
• Poor flange ground can cause circulating currents to develop at the flange/tank interface

41
C1 (Main Core Insulation) Limits – % Power Factor
• Good Rating (typical modern condenser type bushings):
• Typically less than 0.5%
• Deteriorated:
• Between 0.5% to 1.0%
• Investigate:
• Above 1.0%
• ANY sharp increase (ex: doubling from nameplate)
• These are GENERAL values – there are MANY exceptions
• Depends on manufacturer and bushing type - contact manufacturer for
specific recommendations
• Results temperature corrected to 20° C
42
C1 (Main Core Insulation) Limits – Capacitance
• Doble suggested/recommended limits:
Change (+/-) in Capacitance (pF) Rating
< 5% Good
between 5-10% Investigate
> 10% Bad
• Each shorted capacitance layer will cause an increase in C1 capacitance of
5% to 15%.
• If the tap electrode becomes disconnected from the C2 plate there will
usually be a dramatic decrease in C2 capacitance.
• Oil or compound leaks may cause a decrease in capacitance.
43
C2 (Tap Insulation) Limits – % Power Factor
• Good Rating (typical modern condenser type bushings):
• Typically on the order of 0.5% to 1.0%
• Deteriorated: C2 results are heavily
• Between 1.0% to 2.0%
influenced by test conditions!
• Investigate:
• Above 2.0%
• ANY sharp increase (ex: doubling from nameplate)
• These are GENERAL values – there are MANY exceptions
• Depends on the manufacturer and bushing type – contact manufacturer for
specific recommendations
• No temperature correction factors are used
44
C2 (Tap Insulation) Limits – Capacitance
• Doble suggested/recommended limits
Change (+/-) in Capacitance (pF) Rating
< 5% Good
between 5-10% Investigate
> 10% Bad
• Varies according to bushing & test conditions and depends on:
• Manufacturer and bushing type
• Type of tap (Test Tap or Potential Tap)
• Test conditions (metal stand, near ground plane, installed, etc)
45
Exciting Current & Losses
Testing
What is an Exciting Current test?
An open-circuit (secondary winding floated) test measurement of
current and losses using low-voltage (up to 10 kV), single-phase,
50/60 Hz, power source for excitation of the winding.
• Typically performed on the high-voltage winding
• Used to evaluate the magnetizing circuit of the transformer
core
What can it detect?
• Exciting Current and Loss Test is performed primarily to detect problems in the
transformer core structure (shorted core laminations, joint dislocations, etc)
• Can also detect:
• Turn-to-turn insulation issues (shorted turns) – REMEMBER THIS!
• Open Circuits
• Tap changer issues, shorted core laminations, joint dislocations, etc
• Changes in these conditions result in changes to the effective reluctance of the
electromagnetic circuit (core), which changes the exciting current required to
produce a given flux in the core (for a given voltage).
 Electro-magnetic Process – No Load Conditions
Iex Φmain

VApp cemf VSec

VApp Iex Φmain cemf (cemf = Npri(dΦ/dt))

v/t Transformer works to maintain the
Φmain VSec (VSec = Nsec(dΦ/dt)) turns ratio of the primary windings
Equilibrium!

Iex Φmain

VApp cemf VSEC

The transformer Φmain is the driving component!

Φmain will always draw the necessary Iex from the source for a
given VApp in an attempt to maintain the turns ratio!
 Electro-magnetic Process – Under Load
Sum of Iex and
ISec is the NEW Iex ISec
for that condition Iex + ISec Φmain+ ΦSec ΦSec

VApp cemf VSec ZLOAD

ZLOAD ISec ΦSec is created which opposes the Φmain Φmain weakens

cemf offers less opposition to VApp (cemf = Npri(dΦ/dt)) Iex increases

by the amount of the secondary current( Iex + ISec ) Φmain increases!

Electro-magnetic Process – Summary

• Transformer attempts to maintain the turns ratio of the primary and

secondary windings under all loading conditions
• V/Tpri & V/Tsec or (NPri(dΦ/dt) & NSec(dΦ/dt))

• Φmain will draw the necessary Iex from the source for a given Vapp in order to
do this

• Anything that affects the main field (Φmain ) will therefore be indicated by a
change in exciting current ( Iex )
Test Setup and Recommended Testing
Delta Winding Wye Winding
Test H1 H2 H3 H2
Test HV cable
instrument HV cable instrument
UST
UST LV lead H0

LV lead H1 H3

Single Phase DETC LTC

Test H1
HV cable 1,2,3,4,5 N
instrument UST
Rated and Operating 1L,N,1R thru16R
LV lead Position OR
H0 1R,N,1L thru 16L
Data Analysis
Data analysis is largely based on identifying a known pattern.
Measured mA
Position
H3-H1 H1-H2 H2-H3
1 23.1 11.7 23.9

DETC with
LTC in N
2 24.1 12.2 24.9
3 25.2 12.8 26.0
4 26.4 13.4 27.2
5 27.6 14.1 28.5
1L 67.6 56.5 68.3

DETC pattern 1R
2R
67.5
25.2
56.5
12.8
68.2
26.0
3R 202.8 191.6 203.1
4R 25.2 12.8 26.1

LTC with DETC in 3

5R 67.5 56.5 68.3
6R
7R
25.2
67.5
12.8
56.5
26.1
68.3
LTC pattern
8R 25.2 12.8 26.0
9R 203.0 192.0 203.4
10R 25.2 12.8 26.1
11R 67.5 56.5 68.3

Phase pattern
12R 25.2 12.8 26.1
13R 67.5 56.5 68.3
14R 25.2 12.8 26.1
15R
16R
202.9 191.9
25.2 12.8
203.3
26.1
“High-Low-High”
Pattern Analysis
High-Low-High Pattern

High Low High

Note: Wye primary with inaccessible neutral exhibits a L-H-L pattern

Turns Ratio Testing (TTR)
Turns Ratio Testing (TTR)
Two methods – both measure turns ratio of the transformer:

• Low Voltage TTR (Conventional TTR) –typically performed in the range of

50-250V
• Simple test – excellent for routine testing

• HV TTR –performed at a much higher voltage (up to 10kV) than

conventional low voltage turns-ratio testing
Advantages & Disadvantages
Low Voltage TTR – better at finding winding open-circuit conditions
• Higher applied voltages (up to 10kV) used for HV TTR may arc over the
discontinuity/open-circuit

HV TTR – better at evaluating short-circuit turn-to-turn insulation problems

• Conventional TTR (LV TTR) test performed at very low voltages which may not
be sufficient to overcome a high resistance, turn-to-turn short
Evaluating Data
• Expect measured ratio to deviate from calculated ratio by less than 0.5%
• Deviation can be greater than 0.5% at ends of tap range
• Deviation may be greater in order to complete a winding turn
• Smaller units might not be designed to meet tolerances
• Should agree with excitation results (both good, both bad)
• If not, significant!
Winding Resistance
Purpose

Winding Resistance is used to detect:

• Shorted turns
• Open circuits
• High resistance connections (including tap changer)
• Corrosion, loose connections, coking
Winding Resistance Theory
• DC voltage is applied to the winding until a target current is reached
• This should be above the saturation current of the transformer core
• Once flux in the core stabilizes, the measurement can then be
performed 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑤𝑤 + 𝐿𝐿
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• The goal is to eliminate the inductive component from the measurement,
leaving only the resistive component
• Core is no longer contributing to the measurement
Flux Stabilization

dψ/dt dψ/dt dψ /dt

dψ/dt
Data Analysis

• Comparisons are made among phases and also to the factory

measurement
• Values obtained for each phase should be within 2% of the other phases
and within 5% of original factory measurements
• However, results within 5% of both factory results and sister phases is
usually considered acceptable per IEEE C57.152-2013
Safety – discharge due to inductive kickback

WARNING
Safety must be carefully considered before disconnecting test leads. Energy stored
in the transformer winding from the applied direct current can create large
discharge voltages (inductive kickback).
A discharge circuit must be employed that can dissipate the stored energy quickly.

In addition to an automatic discharge circuit, a manual means of discharge should

be separately applied. This includes grounds, the use of hot sticks or any other
appropriate method. Best to consult your company best practice for a safe method.
Physics – inductive kickback example
If, during test at 10 A, we pull the current lead off *:
• current drops by 63% in τ = Lm / R = 0.002/(0.026 + 1000) = 2 µsec
• while changing at rate di/dt = 0.63*I /τ = 0.63*10/0.000002 = 3150 kA/sec
• creating in Lm voltage across open circuit = Lmdi/dt = 0.002*3,150,000 = 6.3 kV
Current lead
Measurement in process pulled off
10 A
I = 10 A 26 mΩ I 26 mΩ

+ Flux stable with + 1000 Ω

magnetic energy 2 mH
- stored in core - Resistance due
to open circuit 6.3 kV

* It is assumed that Lm and di/dt remain constant during 2 µsec following switch opening.
Questions?
Before condemning the apparatus verify…
• Test procedures, test setup, test connections, etc
• Operation of test set
• Condition of test leads
• Grounding
• Nameplate information
• Environmental conditions
• Why are you testing? Commissioning? Routine? Fault?
• With any apparatus, sometimes best to step back and take a minute
Before condemning the transformer…
For transformers:
• CH, CHL, CL – what changed? How did it change?
• Is the problem with %PF? Capacitance? Both?
• Is there more than one issue?
• How do the measurements compare with the other results?
• Do the CHL (high-low & low-high) match?
• If more than one measurement affected, what they have in common?
• What is the test mode (GST-Ground, GST-Guard, UST)?
• Have you tested the bushings yet (CH and CL)?
Before condemning the transformer…(cont.)
For transformers:
• Do results of other tests confirm suspect test data?
• %PF
• Bushing C1 (for CH and CL)
• Tip-up test
• Iex, TTR, WR
• Oil analysis (DGA, moisture, etc)
• Capacitance issues
• Leakage Reactance
• SFRA Mechanical integrity
• Internal inspection – last resort!
Before condemning the transformer…(cont.)
For transformers:
• Do results of other tests confirm suspect test data?
• Exciting Current & Loss Test
• HV and/or LV TTR
• WR
• SFRA (and to lesser degree, LR)
• Turns Ratio
• Exciting Current & Loss Test
• HV TTR (compared to LV TTR) and LV TTR (compared to HV TTR)
• WR
• LR and/or SFRA
Before condemning the bushing…
For bushings:
• C1 and/or C2 – what changed? How did it change?
• Is the problem with %PF? Capacitance? Both?
• Is there more than one issue?
• How do the measurements compare with each other?
• If more than one measurement affected, what they have in common?
• What is the test mode (GST-Guard, UST)?
• Environmental conditions, particularly with C2?
Example #1
Transformer Information

• Westinghouse
• 115 kV : 13.8 kV
• 24/32/40 MVA,
• D-Y
• Manuf. 1982
• Overall test performed 2006
• Previous results from 1986 and 1998
Overall Results from November 2006
History of CH, CHL and CL
CH

CHL

CL
Water Content
• Water Content is difficult to assess without oil temperatures at time of sample
• Latest sample indicated transformer very wet
Date Sampled Top Oil Temp, Moisture % Relative
°C Content, ppm Saturation

11/15/2006 30 29 35
9/14/2005 Not given 36 -
11/16/2004 Not given 17 -
8/13/2004 Not given 26 -
10/29/1997 Not given 19 -
Oil Quality – End of Life

Dielectric Breakdown D877 43

Dielectric Breakdown D1816 28

Interfacial Tension D971 24

Neutralization No. D974 0.16
Power Factor 25C D924 0.336
Power Factor 100C D924 13.00
Specific Gravity D1298 0.896
December 2006 – Post Oil Reclamation and Drying
Example #2
Transformer Information

• McGraw Edison
• 138 kV : 69 kV : 12 kV
• 60 MVA
• Autotransformer w/ tert.
• Overall test performed 1982
• Previous results from 1965, 1968, and 1974
CHT Test Results

Test Dates I (mA) Watts % PF Cap (pF)

1965 10.0 0.20 0.20 2650
1968 10.4 0.30 0.29 2756
1974 14.0 0.40 0.29 3710
1982 19.0 0.61 0.32 5100

Change in Capacitance
• Problem evident between 1968 and 1974 test results – did they act?
• Even worse for most recent results.
Winding Deformation
Example #3
1st Test – BRAND NEW Transformer
1st Tests - New Transformer
Test PF PF Corr Insulation
# kV mA W Meas Corr Factor Cap Measured
1 2 11.76 0.600 0.71 3121 CH + CHL
2 2 3.040 0.955 3.14 2.23 0.71 805.9 CH
3 2 8.729 -0.350 -0.40 -0.3 0.71 2315 CHL
4 8.720 -0.355 -0.41 -0.3 0.71 2315 CHL
5 1 15.23 1.634 0.71 4041 CL + CHL
6 1 6.514 1.952 3.00 2.13 0.71 1727 CL
7 1 8.729 -0.330 -0.38 -0.3 0.71 2315 CHL
8 1 8.716 -0.318 -0.36 -0.3 0.71 2314 CHL
What stands out?

• CH and CL (GST tests) are elevated

• CHT (UST tests) are negative
• Does this make sense?
• Potential causes?

Transformer tank not properly

grounded!
Two Winding Transformer Test Setup

HV LV
H2 CHL X2

X1
H1 H3 X0
X3

CH Heat/Watts CL
Tank & Core
Improper ground – high
resistance connection!
CHL Measurement
HV Cable ICHL
High Low
ICH
Tank & Core
ICH

Ground ICHL
UST
ICH Lead
ICHL
LV Lead
Guard Measurement Circuit
2nd Test – Tank Properly Grounded
2nd Tests - New Transformer
Test PF PF Insulation
# kV mA W Meas Corr CF Cap Measured
1 10 11.82 0.314 0.80 3135 CH + CHL
2 10 3.206 0.111 0.35 0.28 0.80 850.4 CH
3 10 8.616 0.205 0.24 0.19 0.80 2285 CHL
4 8.614 0.203 0.24 0.19 0.80 2284.6 CHL
5 1 15.49 0.335 0.80 4109 CL + CHL
6 1 6.874 0.123 0.18 0.14 0.80 1823 CL
7 1 8.616 0.191 0.22 0.18 0.80 2285 CHL
8 1 8.616 0.212 0.25 0.20 0.80 2286 CHL
Example #4
Transformer Information
• Westinghouse
• 140 kV : 72 kV : 13.2 kV
• 80MVA
• Autotransformer w/ tert.
• Manuf. 1975
• Tripped out on No. 2 transformer differential 9/25
• Tests performed: PF/cap, excitation, TTR (HV and LV), winding
resistance, and SFRA
• DGA samples taken on 9/25 & 9/27
Overall Results
Excitation Currents

• H1-H0/X0 and H3-H0/X0 tests performed at 5kV

• H2-H0/X0 trips on overcurrent
Turns Ratio Results
• Low Voltage TTR - passed

• High Voltage TTR - unsuccessful

Winding Resistance
DGA Results
Internal Inspection-Crossover Links Burnt
Crossover Links Cut Out
Example #5
Bushing Nameplate and Test Results
• CGE Bushing, Type TTI-SU, 345 kV

• Nameplate %PF Cap (pF)

C1 0.34 501
C2 0.40 1012
• Post-installation 1999
C1 10kV 40 0.722
C2 2kV 2.3 23.14
Both C1 & C2 capacitance decreased (%PF increased) significantly
Problem: Tap electrode lost contact with core

Open Circuited Tap

Questions?
Example #6
Bushing Hot Collar Testing
Bushing Hot Collar Testing is performed by applying voltage to an external
semi-conductive collar wrapped around porcelain weather shed
• Measures leakage currents (Watts) along the surface of the porcelain
• Indicates severity of weather shed surface contamination
• Also measures current (mA) from porcelain surface to bushing center conductor
• Core/liquid or compound filler insulation at hot collar connection point
• Can be used to verify/validate oil level indication
• Can be used to compare currents between like bushings

33
When to perform

• Oil filled bushings not equipped with C2 tap electrode

• Single hot-collar test on small bushings (rated 15 kV and below)
• Several hot-collar tests for large bushings (rated above 15 kV)
• Compound-filled bushings
• Solid porcelain bushings
• Gas-filled bushings

37
When to perform (continued)

• Verify/check oil level

• Liquid-filled bushings without a liquid-level gauge or sight glass
• Verify/check bushing with liquid-level gauge whenever the gauge
is suspect
• As a supplemental test when the C1 and/or C2 tests indicate potential
problems

38
Hot Collar Test Setup
• Tightly wrap hot collar under weather shed closest to external
termination
• Larger bushings may required multiple connection points
• Connect HV hook to Hot Collar D-ring
• Test voltage 10 kV for all Hot Collar tests – remember, not energizing
any conductors or windings

34
Single Hot Collar Test
Single Hot Collar Test
LV Lead Measured
HV Lead surface
leakage

Hot Collar Test

• Portion of the insulating weather shed (surface leakage)
• Core insulation/liquid or compound filler at collar connection
point

Unmeasured
I(mA) Ground surface
Lead leakage

Guard Measurement
Circuit
 Hot Collar Limits – Watts Loss
• Watt-Loss – increase in measured results
• Contamination of the insulation
• Maximum acceptable limit: 0.1 Watts
• Compare results between like bushings in same environment
• Current (mA) - similar values for same type bushings
• Decrease in current (mA) indication of
• Voids
• Low liquid level or loss of compound material
• Results are heavily influenced by environmental conditions
©2017 Doble Engineering Company. All Rights Reserved 46
Hot Collar Test Results Westinghouse Type “S” Bushing
Good Condition General Contamination
Bushing Current Watts Bushing Current Watts

X1 110 µA 0.06 X1 110 µA 0.16

X2 110 µA 0.04 X2 110 µA 0.18
X3 110 µA 0.05 X3 110 µA 0.17

Defective Bushing - Physical Changes Defective Bushing - Contamination

Bushing Current Watts Bushing Current Watts

X1 110 µA 0.06 X1 110 µA 0.06

X2 80 µA 0.05 X2 110 µA 0.05
X3 110 µA 0.05 X3 120 µA 0.20
Example #7
Bushing Information

• McGraw Edison PA Bushing

• 138kV, 1600A
• Manuf. 1985
• Installed in an OCB
Bushing C1 Power Factor and Capacitance
Bushing C1 Power Factor and Capacitance
Bushing C2 Power Factor and Capacitance
Bushing C2 Power Factor and Capacitance
Troubleshooting

• Test another bushing again – No. 5 tested good again

• Check continuity on center conductor of HV cable
• Check continuity of LV lead
• Clean tap and bushing porcelain thoroughly
• Jumper between bushing flange and ground
• No improvement in results
Findings

• What would make C1 and C2 have such low current/capacitance?

• Braised connection behind tap was burned clear
• No connection between tapped condenser layer and bushing
potential tap
• UST mode for C1 – measured oil space in bushing
• GST mode for C2 – measured tap insulation to bushing flange
Inspect Bushing
Inspect Bushing
Example #8
Transformer Information

• Westinghouse
• 69 kV : 24 kV : 3.75 kV
• 5.25 MVA
• Manuf. 1965
• Routine maintenance
Transformer Power Factor and Capacitance
Transformer Power Factor and Capacitance

• CH 91.8% PF
• CHL 0.205% PF
• CT 0.253% PF
• CHT current too small, don’t evaluate PF
Troubleshooting

• Look closer at insulation that makes up CH

– Bushings
• Confirm nothing else is connected to H winding
• Confirm no H winding LTC
Bushing Power Factor and Capacitance

• H0 tests exceptionally poor

• Could only test C1 at 2kV (bushing rated at 39.8kV)
• Could only test C2 at 100V or less
• All other bushings tested good
• Condenser core completely compromised
• How could the transformer have still been in service?
• Bushing was replaced, follow up results acceptable
• Back in service
Bushing Power Factor and Capacitance
Transformer Power Factor and Capacitance
Example #9
Transformer Description
• GE Prolec
• Manuf. 2008
• 230 kV : 34.5 kV
• 120MVA
• ABB O+C bushings
Bushing C2 Results
Troubleshooting

• What does C2 look at?

• Tap to ground
• What got worse?
• PF… contamination/deterioration
• What might cause an increase?
Troubleshooting

• 80% humidity, started raining after X3

• Why would humidity and moisture from the air impact C2?
• Tap to ground!
• Tested in better conditions…
Bushing C2 Results
Example #10
Transformer Description

• Waukesha
• 138 kV : 13.2 kV
• 41.7 MVA
• Manuf. 2006
• Routine maintenance testing
Transformer Overall Power Factor Results
Insulation Watts Loss %PF Capacitance
Structure (%) (pF)
CH 0.679 .605 2912
CHL 0.226 0.123 4779
CL 1.288 0.199 16,762
CH’ 0.667 1.068 1622
CL’ 1.145 0.197 15,072
• CH high for a transformer less than 10 years old
• No other test results indicated an issue within the transformer
• CH’ appears to indicate that issues (contamination. moisture, PD,
etc.) appear to exist within the transformer.
C1 Power Factor Results
Nameplate Measured/Corrected
Designation %PF Capacitance Watts Loss %PF Capacitance
(%) (pF) (W) (%) (pF)
H1 0.26 435 -0.010 -0.061 432
H2 0.27 436 0.012 0.073 433
H3 0.26 427 0.010 0.062 435

• C1 on all three bushings abnormally low/negative – likely that all

three are bad?
• Low/negative UST (C1) – continuous leakage path to ground
• H bushing C2 readings all good, X bushings C1 and C2 good
Test Set Up Issue

• Wood cribbing used on H buswork

• Parallel to H bushings
• Why should it NOT be used there?
• Once removed, CH and all C1
power factors returned to
acceptable levels.
Overall Power Factor Results - Wood Cribbing Removed
Insulation Watts Loss %PF Capacitance
Structure (%) (pF)

CH 0.845 0.284 7692

CHL 0.222 0.120 4779
CL 1.281 0.198 16,750
Bushing C1 Tests After Wood Cribbing Removed
Nameplate Measured/Corrected
Designation %PF Capacitance Watts Loss %PF Capacitance
(%) (pF) (W) (%) (pF)
H1 0.26 435 0.045 0.276 432
H2 0.27 436 0.041 0.251 435
H3 0.26 427 0.047 0.289 437
Example #11
Transformer Description

• Westinghouse
• 142.8 kV : 13.2 kV
• 12/16/20 MVA
• Manuf. 1968
• Westinghouse Type O bushings on H winding
Bushing C1 and C2 Overall PF/Capacitance
Troubleshooting

• Check jumper – not contacting grounded top cover or bushing flange

• Clean tap
• Oil in the tap well heavily contaminated with water and particles
• Rust all over tap structure.
• Cleaned up cover and threads
• Replaced oil
• C2 power factor returned to reasonable/acceptable levels
Westinghouse Type O Bushing
Photos – Pre Cleaning
Photos – Post Cleaning
Bushing C1 and C2 Power Factor/Capacitance Tests – After Cleaning

Only changed C2 %PF, not capacitance. Does that make sense with the findings?
Example #12
Transformer Description

• Northern Transformer
• 44 kV : 4.16 kV
• 13MVA
• Manuf. 1991
Transformer Overall PF/Capacitance Results

• CHL capacitance values of 70 pF – exceptionally low

What Next?
• Look at the current levels
• Primary Side: • Secondary Side:
Insulation mA Insulation mA
CH + CHL 49.92 CL + CHL 13.79
CH 49.66 CL 13.74
CHL 0.26 CHL 0.015

• On each side, the majority of the current flows from the winding (either high or
low) to ground
• This is typically indicative of an electrostatic shield between the windings
• Disregard PF if current <0.3mA, evaluate W only
Confirm Shield on Nameplate
Confirm Shield on Nameplate

• Look for phasor diagram and

winding arrangement
Summary

• It is still meaningful to perform tests on unit with interwinding

shield
• Evaluate current levels
• <0.3mA, strictly focus on W and mA – not PF
• Compare and trend from prior test sessions
• PF and capacitance of other insulation (CH, CL) still valid
Summary

• Electrostatic shields are also common in three-winding transformers

• “Shielding” can also occur in 3 winding transformers:
• If the X winding is between the H and Y windings, it will intercept any current
from H to Y
Example #13
Transformer Description

• Jordan Transformer
• 69 kV : 12.47 kV
• 10/12/14 MVA
• Manuf. 1960
Reason for Concern - DGA
date Hydrogen Methane Ethylene Ethane Acetylene Carbon Carbon
Monoxide Dioxide

1/29/2013 193 28 8 11 0 250 4258

2/26/2014 102 37 10 27 0 213 6165

3/09/2015 12 39 9 13 0 264 5375

12/3/2015 296 168 398 36 620 381 4934

Overall Capacitance and Power Factor
• Compare favorably with previous tests.
Exciting Current and Loss
• Expected results
High Voltage Turns Ratio
Low Voltage Turns Ratio

Performed at 100V

TEST
REPEATED
Observation

• Anomaly only observed with a low voltage test potential was applied
• Unlikely a dielectric breakdown issue
• Possibility a continuity problem (high resistance)
• Recommended a Winding Resistance measurement
• Best if two independent measurements confirm a problem
Winding Resistance Results
• Confirmation
Example #14
Transformer Description
• GE Prolec
• 13.8 kV : 4.16kV
• 10/11.2 MVA
• Manuf. 2006
• Tested after transporting
Test Results
Test Results
• Expect high-low-high pattern
• Exceptionally high mA and Watts on H2-H3
• LV TTR at 40V good
• What else might confirm an issue?
 Test Results – Doble Ratio (HV TTR)

Test 1 – 5 kV

Test 2 – 2 kV
Teardown and Findings

High resistance
turn-to-turn short
Example #15
Transformer Description
• General Electric
• 110 kV : 12.47kV
• 10/12.5/15 MVA
• Manuf. 1982
• Tested during routine maintenance
Test Results
Test Results
• What could impact our shots from the low side so much?
• No other results pointed to problems
• CHL not impacted… what does this tell us?
• Think test modes
Test Results
• Rubber blankets and line-hose used for clearance on X
terminals
• HV cable was resting across “dirty” blanket
• Does it make sense?
• High losses to ground
• UST test (CHL) not impacted significantly
• Buswork completely removed, tests acceptable
Test Results After Removing Buswork/Insulation
Final Questions?
Mike Anderson
(617) 963-0871
manderson@doble.com
Please remember to complete
your evaluation form.
Thank you!