www.uptunotes.com Non-Conventional Energy Resources Unit-1T Geothermal Energy: Resources of geothermal energy, thermodynamics of geo-thermal energy conversion-electrical conversion, non-electrical conversion, environmental considerations Magneto-hydrodynamies (MHD): Principle of working of MHD Power plant, performance considerations Fuel Cells: Principle of working of various types of fuel cells and their working, performance and limitations. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY ‘3.1(4) Geothermal Energy: Geothermal energy isa form of renewable energy, having the source of natural heat insidl Tear is renewable since the earth's interior will continue to energy having high energy density. It is inexhaustible like solétley witR’Gnergy. The geothermal energy in the form of heat eneray can be utilized economically and efficiently for powes-generétiog and other applications with the existing available technologies. Though the amount of thermal eneray within the earth is Wery/large, useful scothermal encray is limited to certain ste only in the world because of the feasibility to access and extract hep, The bites fom where the thermal energy can be extracted are cslled geothermal fields. The commercial utilization of thig/fieray Sted first in Italy in derello in 1904, Latdell (1913), Iceland (1930) and other part of the world by 2000. In India about $0 shallow wells are drilled for sieam production in J&K belt. The thermal springs are found in different parts of India ie. Himachal Prldesh, Maharashtra, Cambay of Guiarat, Uttar Pradesh and some parts of Bihar and near Jawai in Assam, an $4.40) Origin of Geothermal Enera The earth's interior having mass of hot liquids, gases and steam is cooling slowly and the temperature of the earth's core is estimated to be about 400°C. > The average geothermal heat dissipated fiom the land is about 0.06 Win? as compare to solar heat energy of 1 kW > Below the solid crust i the molten mass called magma whichis still fa the process of cooling ‘ > The earth's vibrations caused the magma to come near the earl surat} thus causes active voleanoes, hot springs and geysers watepexis > The bot magma near the sure solidifies into igneous sock. The helt of rmagma is conducted upwards into this rock and souk Wier hat finds its way down to this rock through fissures in it willbg by teat ofthe sock or by mixina with hot gases and steam emagatingMijia the magma. > The heated water will then nse upward by eBaveation snto porous and permeable reservoir above the igneous rock: This covered by the layer of Solid impermeable rock. Tt taps the Hobyyaterig the reservoir called hydrothermal field y Y > A well made by driling hote in MRupper ordet in the region of seothermal field can be usedjto trap steam for use in @ conventional power plant. The steam originating dtom magma is called meteortie : steam, largest source of géBipegmal steam. Fig. A typical geothermal field Welt 3.1(6) Classifications of Geotifévinal Energy Resources/Systems: Geothermal resources vary in temperature from 30-350 °C and consist of dry, a mixture of steam and water or hot water only The water is the tfatlfBq Medium in order to extract geothermal heat from the earth, Table given below lists the basic technologies normally utilizedageotding to resources temperature High Temperature Water orstzam Power Generation Flash Steam; Combined (Flash & Binary) Cycle 3180-200 °C Direct Fluid Use; heat Exchangers; Heat Pumps ‘Medium Temperature Water Power Generation Binary Cycle Direct Fluid Use; heat Exchangers; Heat 100-180 °C. Pumps Low Temperature Water Direct Use Direct Fluid Use; heat Exchangers; Heat PumpsThe 1. Hydrothermal; www.uptunotes.com scothermal energy systems may be classified as: 2. Hot dry roc! k (HDR) 3. Geo-press red system; 3.1(@) Hydrothermal (Convective) Resources: These resources are located at shallow to moderate depths of 100 m to 5 km and in such, w: 4. Dry steam fields (Vapour dominated); is heated by contact with the hot rock and high pressurized steam is generated up to about 380°C. ‘These resources further divided into following categories, depending upon whether steam or hot water is the dominating product. SAG) Dry Steam/ Vapour Dominated Systems Such system delivers steam with litle or no water of high pressure and temperature up to 200°C, This steam is used to generate electrical energy by electro- mechanical energy conversion, ‘The steam extracted from such fields may contain some amoust of water and solid particles: those are removed in a centrifugal separator. ‘This pure dry steam is then directly supplied to a steam turbine, which is coupled to a generator. The condenser is used to condense the exhaust steam from the turbine for recirculation purpose of cold water. ‘This cold water is either sent to chemical recovery or itis re- injected into hot field with the help of condensate pump. ‘The main drawbacks of these plants are the presence of corrosive gases and abrasive materials which cause the environmental problems, 2, Wet steam fields (Liquid dominated): Separator Cold water Hot water Condensate to chemical recovery ‘production well injection well Fig. Dry steam power plant 3.4(4.2) Wet Steam / Liquid Dominated Systems: The temperature rand of sugh fields is in the range of 100° - 315°C and these fields daposits hot water without much amount of steam, These can be further classified and explained in following categories: () High Temperature Wet Steam System: > > The high temperature wet steam system having resource temperature above 180°C, suitable for power generation. A In such systems the hot water with steam at high presstige and high temperature is extracted by deep wells drill inthe ground. This hot water fiom underground from » depy"8Papoute km (point. A) at high pressure (about 35 — 40\gr) reaches the well head (point. B) at lower pressure, bis process produces thvo phase mixture having the steam of lowtygantity, This mixture is feed to flash chambeB\ brine Sepastfor which separates dry steam from brine (whi@hAs collected fiom bottom) This dry steam is supplied,to sigam flrbine which is coupled to a generator, produces elestital encray. The hot brine is rejrfeBteg into the ground along with steam condensate from the'condenser. (i) Low Temperature Binary Fluid System: > These hydrotheralFesources are available in the temperature range of 90° 170°C which is not suitable for production of tovo phase mixture of steam, In sttlpsitdation to utilize this geothermal heat, a Quid of low Doiling\ pom (eg. isobutane) is used under pressure in a primaryeheat exchanger The fluid vapour so generated is passed through a turbine ‘where it expands and this mechanical power of turbine is converted into electrical energy by a generator: ‘The exhaust of the turbine is passed through # heat exchanger and condenser where itis cooled and then condensed, The thermal fluid after twansferring heat is re-injected through a well into the ground, Cold water Hot water Hot brine injection well production well Fig. High temprature wet steam system production well reinjection well, Fig. Low temprature binary fluid systemwww.uptunotes.com Heat exchanger 3.(@) Hot Dry Rock (HDR) or Petro-Geothermal Systems: > Hot dry rock receives heat energy stom molten rock (naema). > These reservoirs are artificially created by fracturing deep compact rocks up to depth of 8 -15 km by hydraulically / chemically or by nuclear explosion for injecting high pressure water. > The water is pumped into the fractured well (injection vwell) and withdrawn from another well (production, well) to extract heat to generate steam for power production, To prevent mixing of water inthe reservoir the depth of production well is kept slightly less than re- \ injection well, -o M/ $10 Geo pressured Systems: ‘hese reservoirs were develope by sad depois canis down by svete and enteapoed brine snd matt ass a depth 9 4-6 a and ate located at different levels and at differen places. > These systems comprise of heavily compressed sediments that methane andgfrebsurized hot water > When well is drilled inthis zon the reserve energy comes ont in the form of high pressofzel water having temperature about 160°C, heat and natural gas (methane) which are sefbl for power generation, > These sources have been found in offshore wells in Texas and US Gulf Coast arg / 3.1(g) Main Features of Geo-thermal Energy: Sonie part of condensable gates (COs, H:S,.NEls, CR, Nz and H,) and radio actives are escaped to environment at various points and cause air pollution ey There is possibilities of seismic disturbance’ becadae of extraction and re-injection of saline. Water pollution of rivers and lakes is potenti hazird as geo water contains high amount of dissolved solid with silica, The heat energy of turbine exhaust stearisfejected to atmosphere in cooling towers, It causes dense fog, increase in moisture. In such systems soil erosion takes place duc to drilling of wells in geothermal fields ‘The exploitation of geotheyal nergy may cause earthquakes also. 3.1(b) Potential of Geo-thermat Resources in India ‘Tn India about 150 knows! Remapérmal sites which can produce working fluids up to 170°C, Main locations of such fields ae: (@ Geothermal Fields.of Puga-Chhumathang valley in J&K: A pilot project for space heating ipyplvelf eBustruction of a shed at an altitude of 4000 m and 4400 m in Ladakh disrict, Samp & Kashmir and using steam at 125°C, Gi) Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh): This project “cold storage plant” has been recently ‘Commissioned by the collaboration of Geological Survey of India, IIT Delhigend 2-P. Government (ii) Geotfetmal Fields of Beas and Parbati Valleys, Himachal Pradesh: Beas and Parbati valleys are well known for their hot springs in Kulu district, Himachal Pradesh. The spring's temperature varies from 22°C to 59°C in Beas and 21°C to 96°C in Parbati valley at an altitude between 1300 m to 3000 m. (iv) Sohana near Delhi, (v) Tuwa in Gujrat Index: Himalayan Province, 1 Aravall, Naga Lucha, West Coast, IT Gondwana, Son Navbada, Voleani Arc (Andaman Province), IV- Deep Sedimentry Basia,V- Radio Active Provinee, vyvyywww.uptunotes.com M 3.2(a) Magneto Hydrodynamfe Generator: MHD is a device which converts heat energy of an ionized fluid at high temperature directly through the applied magnetic field, without a conventional electric generator. In such systems power generation is based on the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. Ia such condition when plasma passes through a strong magnetic field then forve begin to act on its ions, this force act on plate P; for ~ions and towards P: for ions. Due to migration of these charges a potential difference creates, between the plates. If a load is connected between these plates then electricity begin to flow. This process takes place in MED channel. r 3.2() Working Principle: When a charged particle moving in a magnetic field, having charge q and velocity v, then the force acting om it: Feqox B). IPF is the clectric field acts, then the total force: » "The velco be sed in tov auton (ste veto of gas vlc an the pale il elo: Th face 8 piven by @ tite writen FoqE +0 xB +UxB). where (3) Fig: Directions of magnetic fu, gas velocity ‘and force in MED system rom figure, the motion of gas isin x-directib/maanetic field 3 sin y-direction andthe force on the particle is in 2 direction TE the distance betesn tbe BS then the esis intensity b/w the plates is Ez = "Yip. 4) The total electric field if’ EE, + Bi “) 3 (Bed -v) Insulating Anode ‘Wall Fig: MED Channel ‘The electromagnetic fields Ey afd B agting on the moving gas produce the same foree on the ious as"the electromaanetic eld 2’ and B produce on gx@ With zegp average velocity. The term Bvd gives the internal. ema feRopen circuit voltage) of the MED generator ay If Ry and Ry bel Ue infernal resistance of generator and load resistance refpéctielyaiien the curent through the cireuit be: SV Qik @ | So the Paper otiput: P = Vol = FPRo = (2%) Ry The oust delivered to the load is maximum when load ‘Yesistand® = Ry = Ry a -a- (Bvay? BvtdoA aR = electrode surface area (in") Beto = conductivity of gas (21"/m): So maximum power output per unit volume “The maximum current Vo _ Bed _ AaBva Rot Ri 2h 2 3.2(6) MHD Cycles & Working Fluids: © Open Cyete MHD Systems: In an open cyele system the shorking Auid is used on the once throvah basis. The working uid afer generating electrigal chefiy is discharged to the atmosphere ‘through"#8tack. Generally coal is used as fuel as it produces more condnetive plasma; this is becanse ryverTer | —+ AC Supply nacre of more carbon atom as compared to hydrogen storm, The working temperature of such MHD COAL™*) PRE IHEATER| senerators lies approximately in the range above 230°C. ‘The different generator are parts of open cycle COMBUSTOR Lj REMOVAL OF Fig Open Cycle MED System N2&S (a) Compressor: Compressor is used to raise the pressure of the air supplied in combustion chamber for efficient burning of fuel, Thewww.uptunotes.com pre-cooled air is compressed in compressor before being supplied inthe pre-cooler (b) Pre-heater: The compressed air pre-heated in the pre-beater at 1100°C from the exhaust gases of the generator to increase the combustion efficiency of working fli (© Combustor: The fluid is burt in this section of generator inthe presence of ot air coming ftom pre-heater & gas is seeded with cesium to ionize the gas (@ Nozzle: The high temperature gases after combustor pass through convergent-divergent nozzle to increase its velocity of order of 1000 ms (e) Generator Dust: It is made of heat resisting & insulating material, The high magnetic flux is applied in this section of the duet at perpendicular to flow direction of gases. As the moving gas cuts the line of magnetic flux the induced electric field pfbdiges DC current through generator in tis section. The duct is water cooled to remove the heat. ( Inverter: The generated DC is converted into AC by using the inverter before supply to eri ey (@) Gas Chamber: The exhaust hor nesses passes through the air leaner to contol ihe patti & remove harafil es. (hy Speed Recovery System: Seed material is expensive & need recovery sytem along wih open MED pose le fofurber use, The removed seeds are supplied back in the combustor. ( (i) Closed Cycle MHD System: In this system the very high thermal efficiency is. gTacK ef achieved with low cycle cost AIR. in closed plant & provides more useful power at low COAL—>| temperature at 160°C. The ducts of these units are small STEANL because of high pressure > Helium or argon is used as working fluid, heated in heat exchanger & get ionized, alkali metals is mixed with fnet gas to provide the necessary conductivity is closed cycle plant, where recovery is possible > The working fluid in closed cycle is seeded with Otgium nd circulated in a closed loop. Gas is bumed in the combustor is supplied in the heat exchanger, where the heat@fr@msfeffed to the working fluid “The ionized gas passes through the magnetisfield t0 produce DC power. The combustion products are discharged.g th? atmosphere after removal of heat in heat exchanger It shows the schematic of liquid metal MED generator. The superhested metallic vapour is expanded through the supersonic nozzle and enters inthe generator id Mgyid sort with velocity of 150 mm. > The clerical conduatiity of metalic #pBur is poor. That brings the everll conversion efficiency lower than that of gas 0s @ ‘working substance. ARGON s, CP- Combustion products ‘of nitrogen and sulphur vy (ii) Hybrid MHD Generator: > The hybrid MHD gareritar ig developed to improve the thermal efficiency of plant. The efficiency up to 60% is achieved in the hybrid system.) > The working gstentdes in the MED at 3000°C and will eave at 2000°C through the steam turbine coupled with generator. > A steam par plants connested along with MHD generator to us the remaining energy of exhaust gases of MHD generator and converted it info-electrical energy. > The MED plant may be open ora closed type, This team powerplant works on Rankine ele 3 2aragvantages & Disadvantages of MD System: ‘Advantages Disadvantages 1. These systems having higher efficiency (60-68%) because of 1. Power generation in MHD is directly proportional to square of higher operating temperature magnetic flux, it needs very large power to create it which increases to cost of the system. 2. Requires lees area and maintenance as compare to conventional 2. High temperature gases causes corrosion and chemical erosion, power plants of same capacity 3. Less pollution to the environment because of less fuel consumption as compared to other conventional power plants It is difficult to built equipments to withstand very high emperatire, used in MED.www.uptunotes.com 4. They are compact in size, have low specific weight and high 4, High initial cast due to large sized magnets and equipments, power density, having instant operation and suitable as peak load. 8. Provides direct conversion of heat directly into electrical energy High thermal and frictional losses. FUEL CFLS 3.3(a) Fuel Cells: A fuel cell is @ device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity through 2 chemical resetion ‘with oxygen or another oxidizing agent. . Fuel cells are different ftom batteries in that they require a constant source of fuel and oxyzeniair to sustain the chemical reaction: however. fuel cells can produce electricity continuously for as long as these inputs are supplied. There are many types of fuel cells, but they all consist of an anode, a cathode and an electrolyte that allows charges%tg move between the two sides of the fuel cell. Electrons are drawn from the anode to the cathode through an extemal circuit, producing @iréct current elesriiy. As the main difference azsong fel ell ype ste electolyt, fel eels are clasitid by the wpe oPelestolyte they use. 3.3(b) Working Principle of Fuel Coll ¢ % The basic design features ofa fel cel are: ~o te % The electrolyte substance. The electrolyte substance usually defines the typeof fel eel. \ > The fel that is used. The most common felis hydrogen. \ > The anode catalyst breaks dawn the fuel into electrons and ions. The anode catalyst is usually map of very fine platinum powder. > The cathode eatalyst turns the ions into the waste chemicals like water or carbon dioxide MINE Bihode catalyst i often made up of nickel but it ean also be a nanomaterial based catalyst, ts working may be explained as: > The cell consists of two electrodes between which electrolyte (40% KOH) cin Serves as a carrying media for charged. The fel (sully hydrogen) is supplied at anode side and oxidant (oxygef SRA) Pie cathode side The electrolyte between the inner face ofthe bath electrodes is kept sti to pevent stay of fons for longtime atthe surface The formed ions migrate through electrolyte to the opposite side ofelectades because of pressure difference between the reactant gases and the electrolyte. vy > Sometimes cays generally Platnum) ae used to increage tassc iy at electrodes for breaking the isl molecule. > During chemical reaction A and OH’ ions are produced aa interiediat prog > The H” ions migrate to the cathode and reacts with oxydtp to fofina water and vice-versa for oxygen ions. % The electrons release ata anode travels through We ext@hyalcitcuit to form the oxidizing products and the reactions are taken place as 3.3(0 Types of Fuel Calls: a (@ Phosphoric acid fuel een AFC): a.” > In these calls phosphoric acid (HRRO.) 1 used” as a non- conductive electrolyte to pass positive Rydfogen ions ftom the anode to the cathode, PAFClis a non-conductive liquid acid which forces electrons to,fravel from anode to cathode through an extetnal electica cigcuitl > The hydrogen ion pfedugsign rate on the anode ie small so platinum is used as Catalyst to increase this ionization rate, > These cells commodly work in temperatures of 150 to 200 degrees Celsius. | © > This hil, fempraipre will cause heat and energy loss if the heat is not removed and used properly > ‘Thisthigat, tan be used to produce steam for saul oy arial cen) conuns > “The eemical reaction in this fel call areas follows: conditioning Anode Reaction: Cathode Reaction: Electrolyte to coolent Fig. Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell Overall reaction: He +10:-- 0+ a.www.uptunotes.com (i) Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC): > In these fuel cells mixture of He and CO is used as fuel and Os or air as oxidant > MCFCs use lithium potassium carbonate salt as an electrolyte, and this salt liquefies at high temperan allowing for the movement of charge within the cell — this case, negative carbonate ions. > Working range of such fuel cells is 650°C — 700°C. > The hydrogen in the gas reacts with carbonate ions from the electrolyte to produce water, carbon dioxide, electrons and small amounts of other chemicals. > The electrons travel through an extemal circuit creating electricity and return to the cathode, > Oxygen from the air and carbon dioxide recycled from the anode react with the electrons to form carbonate ions that replenish the electrolyte, completing the circuit. 3s can be expressed as follows, (Overall Cell Reaction: H, = CO + 0, > H,0 + CO,=8E (li Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs): These are also known as a "solid polymer electrolyte fuel call" (SPEFC). > In this type of fuel cell, solid polymer membrane of an Fun’ organic material such as polystyrene is used as electrolyte ) > On the anode side the HT ions are conducted throuah the ““Y membrane tothe cathode, but the electrons are forged 1S travel in an external circuit (supplying power) esi the membrane is electrically insulating ma > On the cathode catalyst, oxygen molecules:sfact With the electrons (which have traveled through the Extgual Sout) and protons to form water. . The chemical reactions can be expredged a8 Blow’ = Excess Fuel we “Anode Reaction: Cathode Reaction: Overall Cell Reactio (lid Oxide FOCTPUNSOFO: Solid oxide fyel cells (SOFCs) use a solid material, most commonly a ceraitie material (e.g. zirconium dioxide) as the clestlyte, > They teduite high operating temperatures (800-1000 °C), Gusttonyhich no catalyst is required > The anode in such cells is made up of porous nickel and cathode is of metal oxide. “Anode Reaction: Cathode Reaction: 2H: + 20" 2H0 +40 ‘Overall Cell Reaction: 2H: + 0; > 24.0 + AE Fig. Solid oxide fuel cellswww.uptunotes.com > The output voltage is about 0.65V at about 800°C, > Generally Ho is uses as fuel in this cells but other fuel may be methanol, ammonia and hydrazine (NH). > These cells having efficiency about 6 70%, (8) Regenerative Fuel Cells (RFO: > A regenerative fual cell or reverse fuel cell (RFC) isa fuel cell operate and run in ‘closed loop, where reactants are regenerated from the products > These cells produce electricity from fuel (Hy) and oxygen and generate energy and water as by a product. > The excess water is divided into H; and O: by electrolysis using electricity from other sources like solar, wind ete. > The chemical reactions can be expressed as follows, Anode Resetlon: 0+ 26 +H) +0 Cathode Reaction: OQ” — 1/20, +28 Overall Cell Reaction: HO — 1/20; + H. 3.3 (d) Performance Analysis of Fuel Cell: Ti fuel cell the electro-chemical reaction takes place and electrical power and ( produced. Fuel cel’s performance may be describes with the help of Gibbs eneray segeenanee equation. The enerey balanced equation mav be describes as: _G-H-TS... Oy , Fi Bea wc of fora constant temperature process AG = AH - TS mow but from the first law of thermodynamics: Q+ WH AH 6m. SomoA3) (where His work in, and is negative) From second law of thermodynamics! = TAS...nugh- Myon od) ‘So from equations (3) & (4) W=AH- TAS tS) This applies for a chemical process at constant temiPataturs pressure, and is the maximum possible useful work or available energy, known as the “free energy”. So itis clear from equations (2) & (5) 3G 6) ‘The ratio of work output to the energy suppBed{o tH fuel cell is defined as the efficiency, » of energy conversion of fuel output work WW energy supplied —aH cell. Therefore Yond its maximum efficiency: | moe fuel CBUYAG =-237191K/kg mol (approx), and AH = 288838 kg mol (approx). ells: pox = ZEEE = 0.829 07 83% At room temperature (25°C), for H. > Maximum efficiency of 3.3(6) Advantages, Disadvantages & Applications of Fuel Cells: Advantages Disadvantages Applications 41. Less pollution and higligr efficiency 1. High initial eost. 1. Used in automotive vehicles 2. Less maintenarjce réqutted. 2. Short life because of degrading of 2, Power generation upto 1 MW, * electrodes. 43. Since there's ireet Conversion of energy 3. Proper handling is required due to operate 3. Used for space applications. so efficeheyis Bich ‘with hydrogen and oxygen, 4. Wate is formed as product which may be 4. Efficieney goes down with time, 4. Used for military applications sed for nfiay other applications. 5, Having fast starting time 5, Used for submarine applications 3.3 ( Present Status in India: In India, fuel cell technology is in developing stage. It is supported by Ministry of non-conventional energy sources and financially supported to import a 200 KW Phosphoric acid fuel cells. Lots of research and developments are involved in this field. Bharat Heavy Electrical Ltd (BHEL) is developing a 50 KW fuel cell power plants.