BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

DR. MABEL OTI-BOADI

Investigating the
Brain and Mind:
How did we move beyond
phrenology and get inside the
skull and under the “bumps”?
▪by finding what happens
when part of the brain is
damaged or otherwise unable
to work properly
▪by looking at the structure
and activity of the brain: CAT,
MRI, fMRI, and PET scans
Strategies for finding out what
is different about the mind
when part of the brain isn’t
working normally:
▪case studies of accidents
(e.g. Phineas Gage)
▪case studies of split-brain
patients (corpus callosum cut
to stop seizures)
▪lesioning brain parts in
animals to find out what
happens
▪chemically numbing,
magnetically deactivating, or
electrically stimulating parts of
the brain
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Studying cases of brain damage
When a stroke or injury damages part of the brain,
we have a chance to see the impact on the mind.

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Intentional brain damage:
Lesions (surgical
destruction of brain
tissue)
• performed on animals
• has yielded some
insights, especially
about less complex brain
structures

• no longer necessary, as
we now can chemically
or magnetically
deactivate brain areas to
get similar information
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 Split-Brain Patients
• “Split” = surgery in
which the connection
between the brain
hemispheres is cut in
order to end severe
full-brain seizures

• Study of split-brain
patients has yielded
insights.

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We can stimulate parts of the brain
to see what happens
• Parts of the brain, and even neurons, can
be stimulated electrically, chemically, or
magnetically.

• This can result in behaviors such as

giggling, head turning, or simulated vivid
recall.

• Researchers can see which neurons or

neural networks fire in conjunction with
certain mental experiences, and even
specific concepts.

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 EEG: PET: positron emission
electroencephalogram tomography

An EEG
The PET scan allows us to
(electroencephalogram) is a
see what part of the brain is
recording of the electrical
active by tracing where a
waves sweeping across the
radioactive form of glucose
brain’s surface. It is useful in
goes while the brain
studying seizures and sleep.
performs a given task.

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 MRI: magnetic fMRI: functional MRI
resonance imaging

MRI (magnetic resonance

imaging) makes images from
signals produced by brain tissue Functional MRI reveals
after magnets align the spin of brain activity and
atoms. function rather than
structures.
The arrows below show ventricular
enlargement in a schizophrenic
patient (right).
Functional MRI
compares successive
MRI images taken a
split second apart, and
shows changes in the
level of oxygen in
bloodflow in the brain.

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9
Parts of the brain and their functions

The brainstem The cortex (the

and cerebellum: The limbic outer covering):
(border) system:
• coordinates
• manages • integrates
the body
emotions, and information
movements
connects
thought to
body

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BRAIN-CEREBRAL CORTEX
• Weight of average
adult human brain : 1300 to 1400
grams or around 3 pounds or 1.5kg
• Length: 15 centimeters long.
• Weight of Newborn brain: 350 to
400 grams or three-quarters of a
pound.
• Get fully developed by age 25
CEREBRAL CORTEX
• Covered with protective membranes
called Meninges

• Expands to form large cavities called

Ventricles
MENINGES
• The brain and spinal cord are enclosed
by 3 membranes, collectively known as
the meninges
• Dura mater -- Outermost, tough
membrane closest to bone.
• Arachnoid mater- Spider web layer
that is the middle membrane.
• Pia mater- Inner thin vascular layer
adherent to contours of brain.
MENINGES
VENTRICLES
• A set of 4 communicating cavities located within
the brain that contain cerebral spinal fluid (CSF).
• 2 Lateral ventricles are in the cerebral hemispheres.
• Third Ventricle-It is in the midline, between the left and
right lateral ventricles.
• Fourth Ventricle: It is located within the pons or in the
upper part of the medulla oblongata.

• The fourth and third are connected by the cerebral

aqueduct.
• Cerebral aqueduct is a channel that connects the third
ventricle with the fourth ventricle and allows
cerebrospinal fluid to pass between them.
•
BRAIN-VENTRICLES
VENTRICLES
• Responsible for the production, transport
and removal of cerebrospinal fluid,
which bathes the central nervous system.

• The fluid flows through the ventricles and

around the brain and spinal cord acting as
a cushion to prevent the brain hitting the
cranium - the brain bone surrounding the
brain.

• Provides nutrients and other vital

substances to nerve cells.
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
• A colorless fluid is produced in the
ventricles of the brain; it surrounds the
brain and spinal cord.

• It is maintained at a level around 1/2 -

2/3 cup.

• Brain produces & absorbs about 500

ml/day.
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
FUNCTIONS-CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
• Covers the brain so it is neutrally afloat-allowing the
relatively heavy brain to float within the skull.
• Protection -- cushions the brain and spinal cord from
shocks that could cause injury.
• Chemical stability – removes wastes products of the
brain's metabolism.
• Supplies the neurons with respiratory gases and
nutrients.
• Maintains the pressure of the brain
FUNCTIONS-CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
• In young infant, very rarely, the there
maybe an obstruction in the ventricle, the
fluid accumulates exerting pressure on the
skull bones.

• It leads to a condition called hydrocephalus.

In this condition, the CSF accumulates in
the skull putting pressure on the brain.

• When not treated, it may lead to cognitive

deficits in the affected child.
HYDROCEPHALUS
• Also also called water in the brain, is a condition where there is an abnormal build up of
CSF (cerebrospinal fluid) in the cavities (ventricles) of the brain.
• Excess fluid increases the size of the ventricles and puts pressure
on the brain.
• The build-up is often caused by an obstruction that prevents
proper fluid drainage.
• Treatment: Surgery-Surgical insertion of a drainage system,
called a shunt.
Hydrocephalus
MENINGITIS
• Meningitis: Caused by a viral infection
• But can also be caused by bacteria or fungi
• Exposure to airborne dust and high temperatures are
significant risk factors for bacterial meningitis.
• Infants (3mths-2yrs)
• Symptoms:
• headache, fever and stiff neck.
• Mode of Transmission:
• coughs or sneezes.
• Diagnosis: CSF (Spinal Tap)
• Removing a sample of cerebrospinal
• fluid (CSF) from the subarachnoid
• space in the spine.
• (This test is similar to a blood test,
• in which a needle is inserted
• into an artery to collect blood for testing.)
The Brainstem:
Pons and Medulla

▪ The medulla controls the most basic functions such as heartbeat and breathing.

▪ Someone with total brain damage above the medulla could still breathe independently, but someone with damage in this area could not.

▪ Pons-From the Latin word for ‘bridge’ between midbrain and medulla oblongata.

▪ helps coordinate automatic and unconscious movements.

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The Thalamus (“Inner Chamber”)
• The thalamus is the “sensory
switchboard” or “router.”

• All sensory messages, except

smell, are routed through the
thalamus on the way to the
cortex (higher, outer brain).

• The thalamus also sends

messages from the cortex to
the medulla and cerebellum.

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Reticular (“Netlike”) Formation
• The reticular formation is a nerve
network in the brainstem.
• It enables alertness, (arousal)
from coma to wide awake (as
demonstrated in the cat
experiments).
• It also filters incoming sensory
information.

• Damage: leads to irreversible

coma
• general anesthetics blocks this
system
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 Cerebellum (“little brain”)
• Coordinates muscle
activity and maintains
balance of the body.
• It also adjusts muscles
to automatically
maintain posture (
standing, walking,
sitting etc).
• The cerebellum helps
coordinate voluntary
movement such as
playing a sport.

The cerebellum has many other functions,

including enabling nonverbal learning and
memory. 28
Cerebellum (“little brain”)

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Cerebellum (“little brain”)
• Damage:
• Loss of balance and muscle movement
• Problems with shifting attention back and forth between
auditory and visual stimuli.

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The Limbic (“Border”) System
The limbic system coordinates:
▪ emotions such as fear and
aggression.
▪ basic drives such as hunger
and sex.
▪ the formation of episodic
memories.
The hippocampus (“seahorse”)
▪ processes conscious, episodic
memories.
▪ works with the amygdala to
form emotionally charged
memories.
The Amygdala (“almond”)
▪ consists of two lima bean-
sized neural clusters.
▪ helps process emotions,
especially fear and aggression. 31
The Amygdala

• Electrical stimulation of a
cat’s amygdala provokes
aggressive reactions.

• If you move the electrode

very slightly and cage the
cat with a mouse, the cat
will cower in terror.

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The Hypothalamus:
Thalamus

▪ lies below (“hypo”) the

thalamus.

▪ regulates body
temperature and ensures
adequate food and water
intake (homeostasis), and Riddle: Why did the rat
is involved in sex drive. cross the grid?
Why did the rat want to
get to the other side?
▪ directs the endocrine
system via messages to
the pituitary gland.

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Review of Brain Structures

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 Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex
• outer grey “bark” structure that is wrinkled in order to create
more surface area for 20+ billion neurons.

• inner white stuff—axons linking parts of the brain.

• 180+ billion glial cells, which feed and protect neurons and
assist neural transmission.

• Two hemispheres connected by a bundle of nerves known

as Corpus Callosum
300 billion synaptic
connections

The brain has

left and right
hemispheres 35
36
The Lobes of the Cerebral
Cortex: Preview
involved in speaking and
▪Frontal Lobes muscle movements and in
making plans and judgments

▪Parietal Lobes include the sensory cortex

include the visual areas;

they receive visual
▪Occipital Lobes information from the
opposite visual field
include the auditory
▪Temporal Lobes processing areas
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38
Phineas Gage (1823-1860)
Case study: In a work accident, a metal rod shot up through Phineas Gage’s skull, destroying his eye and part of his frontal lobes.

After healing, he was able to function in many ways, but his personality changed; he was rude, odd, irritable, and unpredictable.

Possible explanation:

Damage to the frontal lobes could result in loss of the ability to suppress impulses and to modulate emotions.

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Frontal Lobe
• Insight into the function of the frontal lobes can be
obtained by examining the behavioural and
psychological changes of patients before and after
damage to this area. eg Phineas Gage.
• • Phineas Gage: working on railway when he
sustained severe damage to frontal lobe.
• • He survived with no paresis, aphasia or major
physical disability. But those close to him noted a
profound change in who he was.

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Occipital Lobe: The Visual Cortex

This fMRI scan

shows increased
activity in the
visual cortex
when a person
looks at a
photograph.

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Parietal Lobe Association Areas
This part of the brain has many functions in the
association areas behind the sensory strip:
▪managing input from multiple senses
▪performing spatial and mathematical reasoning
▪monitoring the sensation of movement

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Temporal Lobe Association Areas

Some abilities managed by association areas in this

“by the temples” lobe:
▪recognizing specific faces
▪managing sensory input related to sound, which
helps the understanding of spoken words 43
Sensory Functions of the Cortex

▪ The sensory strip deals with

information from touch
stimuli.
▪ The occipital lobe deals with
visual information.
▪ Auditory information is sent to
the temporal lobe.

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Association Areas:
Frontal Lobes
▪ The frontal lobes are active
in “executive functions”
such as judgment, planning,
and inhibition of impulses.
▪ The frontal lobes are also
active in the use of working
memory and the processing
of new memories.

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Whole-brain Association Activity
Whole-brain association activity
involves complex activities which
require communication among
association areas across the
brain such as:
▪memory
▪language
▪attention
▪meditation and spirituality
▪consciousness

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Specialization and Integration
Five steps in reading a word aloud:

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CNS AND PNS WORKING
TOGETHER

• If you have a question, you will raise your

hand to ask it. How does your CNS and
PNS work together to allow you to raise
your hand?

• Your CNS passes a signal to a motor

neuron in your PNS causing you to raise
your hand.
Central Nervous System (CNS)

• Brain

• Spinal Cord
(transmits
information
into & out of
the brain )

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2010

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
SPINAL CORD
• A long, thin, tubular structure made up of
nervous tissue, which extends from the
brainstem to the lumbar region of the vertebral
column.
• It is suspended in the vertebral column and
surrounded by meninges and the cerebro-
spinal fluid.
• 45 cm in length (18 inches)-thickness of the
little finger.
• Communicates with all the sense organs and
muscles below the level of the head.
SEGMENTS OF THE SPINAL CORD
• Spinal Cord Consists of:
• Cervical region-head, neck, arms,
hands
• Thoracic region-hand, finger, chest,
abdomen.
• Lumbar region-hips, knee, ankle, toe
• Sacral region-legs, toe, bladder, anal
• Coccygeal region-skin around the
coccygeal
FEATURES OF THE SPINAL CORD
• 31 segments:
• 8 cervical segments-C1-C8 vertebrae;
• 12 thoracic segments -T1-T12 vertebrae;
• 5 lumbar segments -L1-L5 vertebrae,
• 5 sacral segments-S1-S5 vertebrae,
• 1 coccygeal segment.
• Each segment sends sensory information to the brain
and receives motor commands.
• Impulses travel back and forth to the brain and back to
the muscles.
• When the SC is damaged at a given segment, no
sensory/motor information is transmitted to organs
below that segment.
SEGMENTS OF THE SPINAL CORD

•
FUNCTIONS OF THE SPINAL CORD
• Relays information between the brain and the rest
of the body.

• Pass along messages from sensory receptors to

the brain

• Coordinates reflexes
• Sensory neuron sends impulse to spinal cord
• Spinal cord directs impulse to motor neuron
• Does not involve the brain (signals do not travel up the
brain).
SPINAL CORD
SPINAL REFLEXES
• The spinal cord is also responsible for
involuntary, automatic behaviors called
reflexes.
• Reflexes – automatic, subconscious
responses to external or internal stimuli
• Maintain homeostasis by controlling: heart
rate, breathing rate, blood pressure,
digestion, swallowing, sneezing, coughing,
and vomiting.

• Normally, sensory (afferent) neurons take

information up through the spine to the brain.

• Examples of reflexes: Hand reflex, knee jerk

reflex, eye reflex (Lacrimal reflex).
SPINAL REFLEXES

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2010

REFLEX ACTION
• Occurs when sensory neurons reach just the
spinal cord.

• For survival purposes- Protection of body from

injury.

• Example: If you accidentally touched a hot

object your hand will withdraw immediately
even before your brain can register the
sensation.

• An impulse from your skin receptors goes to

the spinal cord through sensory neurons.

• In the spinal cord, the impulses are processed

and a response is relayed back.
REFLEX ACTION
REFLEX ARC
• The simplest neural pathway through which a reflex
action occurs is the reflex arc.
• It involves one or more sensory neurons,
inter neurons/association neurons in the
spine, and motor neurons.
• Carry sensory information from the
receptor to the spinal cord.
• Carries out the reflex entirely before the
brain is aware of the response.
SIMPLE HAND WITHDRAWAL REFLEX
COMPONENTS OF THE REFLEX ARC
• Stimulus
• Sensory neurons
• Spinal cord
• Motor neurons
• Reflex action (response)
CHARACTERISTICS OF REFLEX ACTION
• Spontaneous
• Automatic
• Involuntary
• Quick
• Mechanical response produced by
stimulating receptors
SPINAL CORD INJURY
• Spinal cord injuries affect mainly the
CNS
• Disrupts transmission of nerve signals
• Swelling can disrupt or shut down
every system in the body
CAUSES OF SPINAL CORD INJURY
• Tumors
• Infectious conditions
• Spondylosis
• Osteoporosis
• Developmental disorders
• Trauma especially
from automobile accidents
EFFECTS OF SPINAL CORD INJURY
• Paralysis
• Dysfunction of bowels and bladder
• Infertility
• Inability to regulate blood pressure
• Inability to sweat below level of injury
• Chronic pain
Pause & Reflect: Assessment
1. You touch a hot stove & then
immediately & reflexively pull away.
This action was controlled by _____.

2. After being startled by the sight &

sound of a fierce dog rushing toward
you, it is most likely that your _____ is
dominant.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2010

NEUROPLASTICITY
• The lifelong ability of the brain to reorganize (to
change itself-for better or worse) neural
pathways based on new experiences.

• Neural connections are formed in response to

experiences in the environment, sensory
stimulation, injury, and normal development.

• The brain engages in synaptic pruning, deleting

the neural connections that are no longer
necessary or useful, and strengthening the
necessary ones.
Plasticity: The Brain is Flexible
• If the brain is damaged,
especially in the general
association areas of the
cortex:
• the brain does not repair
damaged neurons, BUT it
can restore some functions

• it can form new connections,

reassign existing networks,
and insert new neurons,
some grown from stem cells
This 6-year-old had a
hemispherectomy to end life-
threatening seizures; her
remaining hemisphere
compensated for the damage.
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NEUROPLASTICITY
73
NEUROPLASTICITY
NEUROPLASTICITY
• From the time the brain begins to develop in utero until the
day we die, the connections among the cells in our brains
reorganize in response to our changing needs.

• Brain Plasticity occurs

• Beginning of life
• In case of brain injury
• Through out life when new learning and memories are
formed.

• Without this ability, any brain, not just the human brain,
would be unable to develop from infancy through to
adulthood or recover from brain injury.
POSITIVE NEUROPLASTICITY
• The brains ability to adapt to changes which result in
beneficial outcomes.
• Nutrition
• Stimulation
• (Exercise induced neuroplasticity
• Affection
• Learning new things and taking up challenges

• Neuroplasticity and Occupational Therapy

• Brains ability to change and grow into old age
• as long as it is engaged in meaningful works.
NEGATIVE PLASTICITY
• This occurs when you practice
behaviours which are not healthy for the
brain
• Worrying
• Habits (e.g. substance abuse)
• Brain decline-not challenging the
brain
• Sedentary life style
• Mental illness
TYPES OF NEUROPLASTICITY
• Functional plasticity: The brain's ability to move functions
from a damaged area of the brain to other undamaged areas.
• Example:
• When one part of the brain is damaged, such as the area
of the left hemisphere that controls speech, the right
hemisphere of the brain may recognize this and take
over some of the language abilities that were lost.

• Structural plasticity: The brain's ability to actually change

its physical structure as a result of learning.
TYPES OF NEUROPLASTICITY
ENHANCING NEUROPLASTICITY
• Intermittent fasting
• Traveling
• Use mnemonic devices
• Learning a musical instrument
• Non-dominant hand exercises: Like brushing teeth with
left hand.
• Reading fiction
• Learn a new language
• Creating Artwork
• Exercise: Aerobics, dancing: creation of new brain cells
(neurogenesis) and reduces the risk of Alzheimer’s.
• Sleeping
BALL JUGGLING
BENEFITS OF NEUROPLASTICITY
• Improves cognition- intelligence and memory
• Helps recovery from brain events like strokes, and
traumatic brain injuries.
• Ability to rewire functions in the brain (e.g., if an area
that controls one sense is damaged, other areas may be
able to pick up)
• Protects against neurodegenerative disease like
• Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.
• Helps brain to adapt to changes
• More effective learning.
 Our Two
Hemispheres

Lateralization (“going to one side”)

The two hemispheres serve some different functions.
How do we know about these differences?
• Brain damage studies revealed many functions of
the left hemisphere.
• Brain scans and split brain studies show more about
the functions of the two hemispheres, and how they
coordinate with each other.
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The intact but lateralized brain
Right-Left Hemisphere Differences
Left Hemisphere
Thoughts and logic
Details such as “trees”
Language: words and
definitions
Linear and literal
Calculation
Pieces and details
Right Hemisphere
Feelings and intuition
Big picture such as “forest”
Language: tone, inflection,
context
Inferences and associations
Perception
Wholes, including the self
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 Split- Brain Studies

To end severe whole-brain

seizures, some people
have had surgery to cut the
corpus callosum,
a band of axons connecting
the hemispheres.

Researchers have studied the

impact of this surgery on
patients’ functioning.
85
 BRAIN INJURY
• Acquired Brain Injury (ABI) and Traumatic Brain
Injury (TBI)
• ABI- damage to brain by internal factors. Not
hereditary or congenital., e.g. Stroke
• May be caused by lack of oxygen to the brain,
exposure to toxins, pressure from a tumor.

• TBI –caused by external factors such as falls,

assaults, motor accidents, and sport injuries.
• Injury to the head from a blunt or penetrating
object
• Injury from rapid movement of the head that
causes back and forth movement inside the
skull.
BRAIN INJURY
• Possible causes of Brain Injury
• Vehicular accidents
• Falls
• Tumors
• Infections
• Exposure to radiation, toxins
• Shaken Baby Syndrome
• Degenerative conditions (e.g. Parkinson’s and
Alzheimer's)
• Too little oxygen or blood flow in the brain
(examples: heart attack, stroke, carbon
monoxide poisoning, near suffocation).
BRAIN INJURY
• Shaken Baby Syndrome
 BRAIN INJURY
• A mild brain injury is also known as a “concussion”

• In a split second……

• A brain injury affects who we are, the way we

think, act and feel. It changes everything about
ourselves.

• Usually affects the frontal and temporal lobes

BRAIN INJURY

Normal brain works with a series of electrical signals (wires) that

result in smooth thinking and movement
BRAIN INJURY

After brain injury this is probably how the brain looks like
BRAIN INJURY
• Stroke: A stroke is a cerebrovascular accident
(CVA) that involves rapidly developing loss of
brain function after disturbance of blood supply
to a brain area.

• - Ischemia (blood clot or obstruction in artery

• lack of glucose & oxygen supply).
• - Hemorrhage (bleeding into brain tissue or
raptured artery).
BRAIN INJURY
 RECOVERY AFTER BRAIN INJURY
• The brain relies on its neuroplasticity abilities to
make significant changes, reorganize, and
recover from a brain injury.

• Cells are damaged but not beyond repair and

they begin to regenerate; new cells are even
created in a process called neurogenesis.

• When adult brain cells are injured, they revert

to an embryonic state. In their newly adopted
immature state, the cells become capable of
re-growing new connections that, under the
right conditions, can help to restore lost
function.
TREATMENT FOR BRAIN INJURY
• Medications
• Diuretics: To reduce the amount of fluid in the
tissues
• Anti-seizure medications

• Surgery
• Remove blood clots
• Remove broken skull

• When a person loses the ability to move part of the

body due to damage, those areas must be repopulated
with healthy connecting neurons to regain full
movement.
RECOVERY AFTER BRAIN INJURY
• Recovery depends mostly on increased activity by
the spared cells surrounding the damaged area.

• If neurons are destroyed, nearby neurons may

partly compensate for the damage by making new
connections that replace the lost ones.

• The brain recovers from stroke through the

formation of new connections.
MIRROR THERAPY-STROKE PATIENTS
• A therapeutic approach that uses a mirror box to regenerate
neural networks that control limbs and other parts of the
body.
• Underlying principle: Movement of the affected limb can be
stimulated via visual cues originating from the opposite side of
the body.
• Focuses on moving unimpaired limb, while the patient
watches its mirror reflection superimposed over the
impaired limb that is unseen,
• The positive visual feedback will encourage neuroplastic
change, leading to a more swift recovery for survivors
MIRROR THERAPY