TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT METHODS

The Scientific Management Movement

Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856–1915) is known as the father of scientific management. His principles
included the ideas that:
1. a worker’s job could be measured with scientific accuracy;
2. workers’ characteristics could be selected scientifically and could be developed to investigate the
causes of and solutions to work problems;
3. productivity would be improved through scientific selection of and progressive development of
the worker; and
4. there should be continuing cooperation of management and workers.

 Taylor’s scientific management principles were based on managing time, materials, and work
specialization.

 He developed the concept of the time and motion study, with the idea that wasted time and effort
could and should be eliminated.

 He analyzed workflow and created an inventory of stored materials. By controlling these variables,
he was able to decrease production costs and increase productivity. These strategies are highly
effective for managing task-oriented work.

 In the early 1980s, hospital facilities sought to use time and motion studies to determine
patient:nurse ratios and staffing needs. Nurses and other healthcare workers were shadowed by
analysts who tried to determine the amount of time required to provide patient care. However,
the application to a profession such as nursing failed to capture the critical thinking, decision
making, and judgment required for patient care.

 He implemented the concept of functional foremanship, in which each worker would fall under a
foreman responsible for each area of specialization. This emphasis on specialization was an early
impetus for the development of specialty certification in nursing and was really an extension of
the master apprentice paradigm.

General Administrative Theory

Henri Fayol (1841–1925) was a Frenchman remembered for the development of general administrative
theory. Management, according to Fayol’s work, includes five overriding concepts and 14 principles of
management that supports the concepts.
1. Prevoyance, or the anticipation of the future and the development of a plan of action to deal with
it
 Subordination of the individual interest to the corporate good
 Esprit de corps (a sense of unity and of common interests and responsibilities, as
developed among a group of persons closely associated in a task, cause, enterprise, etc)
 Initiative
2. Organization of people and materials
 Division of work
 Order
 3. Command of the activity among personnel
 Unity of command
 Unity of direction
4. Coordination of the parts of the organization into a unified whole
 Centralization/decentralization
 Stability of tenure of personnel
5. Control through application of rules and procedures
 Authority
 Discipline
 Scalar chain
 Remuneration
 Equity

Bureaucratic Management
 Max Weber (1846–1920) was a German sociologist who developed what was known as the “ideal
bureaucracy.”
 The ideal bureaucracy includes the concepts of division of labor, authority hierarchy, formal
selection, formal rules and regulations, impersonality, and career orientation.
 He recognized that it would be impossible for people to be completely impersonal in their
relationships at work, but he believed that impersonality would be optimal and would remove
favoritism.
 Weber believed that the more impersonal, rational, and regulated the work environment, the
more likely the employees were to be treated fairly, and the more likely the organization was to
reach its objectives. Weber focused on what it was that made people respond to authority. He
perceived that only through concentrating power in the hands of a few people in a hierarchical
structure could an organization be managed effectively and efficiently.
 While he did not necessarily agree that bureaucracy was the best strategy, because it removed
autonomy from the individual, he believed it was the only way to assure the overall success of an
organization.

Continuing Influence of Traditional Management Theory

 Job descriptions that outline the responsibilities of each person, thereby dividing the labor
 Job descriptions that emphasize the functions to be associated with each job
 Organization charts that depict the hierarchical structure and the areas of authority for
particular positions.

Note: One of the functions of the manager is to avoid overlap between positions and to
delineate clearly the functions expected

THE BEHAVIORAL MANAGEMENT MOVEMENT

What Is the Hawthorne Effect?

The Hawthorne Effect is the supposed inclination of people who are the subjects of an experiment or
study to change or improve the behavior being evaluated only because it is being studied and not because
of changes in the experiment parameters or stimulus.
Management must be concerned with preserving the dignity of the workers, demonstrating appreciation
for their accomplishments and, in general, recognizing workers as social beings with social needs (Mayo,
1953).

Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor, 1960)

Theory X represented the traditional viewpoints of management, which hold managers responsible for
organizing money, materials, equipment, and people as well as for directing workers’ efforts and
motivating workers, controlling their actions, and modifying their behavior to fit the needs of the
organization. Theory X suggests that, without active intervention by management, workers would be
passive and nonproductive in their roles in the organization.

Theory Y assumes that the desire to work is just as natural as the desire to play or rest, that external
control and threat or punishment are not required to achieve organizational objectives because workers
are self-motivated, and that the capacity to work creatively to solve problems is widely distributed in the
workforce.

THEORY Z: JAPANESE MANAGEMENT STYLE (Ouchi, 1981)

Employment is described as being lifelong, dependent upon the development of consensus, collaborative
work, incentives for group work, and pride in the product or service being developed or provided.

There are three components to a valid consensus:

(1) I believe that you have heard and understand me,
(2) I have heard and understand your point of view, and
(3) I can support the decision we have made together

Kaizen - the principle of encouraging all people in the organization to contribute improvement ideas on a
biweekly basis

The more leadership encourages participation and ownership among the employees, the more productive
the organization becomes. Ouchi discusses the importance of encouraging group contributions.

In Japan, individuals rarely desire personal recognition because they believe that nothing is possible
without everyone’s contributions.

21ST-CENTURY MANAGEMENT THOUGHT

 Management theory in the first decade of the 21st century is influenced by a new worldview,
which has, once again, had its roots in the physical sciences. Managers are beginning to recognize
that the direct cause and effect relationships, to which they held in the past, frequently do not
exist in reality. Additionally, management theories are being promulgated in more complex
systems and in professional systems.

 Hock (2000) coined a new term for management based in complexity science: chaordic (kay-
ordic). The word borrows the first syllable of the word chaos and the word order. He defines the
term chaord as “any self-organizing, self-governing, adaptive, nonlinear, complex organism,
organization, community or system, whether physical, biological or social, the behavior of which
blends characteristics of both chaos and order”.
  Organizations have elements of both chaos and order, with innovation and progress occurring “at
the edge of chaos.”
 Application of complexity science represents a significant divergence from the traditional
management notion that employees are “machines” to be controlled by management through
specific job descriptions and charts.
 Organizations become “living entities” encompassing all of the traits and foibles of the individuals
of which they are composed.
 Employees, managers, and organizations are rapidly changing and becoming more flexible in their
interactions with each other.
 Employees are actually “knowledge workers” who necessarily know more about their area of
responsibility than do their managers.
 The knowledge worker must be able to make decisions and implement strategies that work; these
changes can be made more effectively and efficiently at the point of contact of the worker with
the environment than by management removed by several layers.

 Managers first must manage themselves to ensure their own integrity, character, ethics,
knowledge, wisdom, words, and acts.
 Managers should be managing the people who have authority over them to ensure that they will
have higher-up support. The support and consent of those managers above are vital for achieving
goals and desired results.
 Managers must manage peers, competitors, and customers. This is done through developing
collaborative relationships that result in outcomes that are good for all and tailored to meet the
needs of peers and customers.
 Managers should hire ethical people who are in tune with the goals of the organization and then
unleash them to do what they were hired to do.

Management for Nurses

The nurse manager has many varied formal and informal roles, which involve team building, decision
making, communication, negotiation, delegation, and mentorship.

TEAM BUILDER
In order to lead and manage effectively, a nurse must be able to build a strong team. The delivery of health
care is a team activity, involving professionals and unlicensed personnel from a variety of disciplines.

Managers must first recognize that the workers they “supervise” are knowledge workers who can and will
make the right contributions to patient care. Managers must communicate to all team members their
belief in the ability of the team to work well together.

The manager must communicate a strong belief in the team’s contributions to the goals of the
organization. This conversation serves the purpose of empowering each team member to contribute fully
to the work that is to be accomplished.

DECISION MAKER
The individual who does the work of the organization is the one who knows the most about it.
Participative and transformational leaders enter into relationships with the professionals in their
organizations. They share information, discuss values, and collaborate on decisions. The self-esteem of
team members correlates with involvement with decision making.
Sometimes decisions need to be made quickly, but even in those circumstances the leader is ill-advised to
make the decision without gaining input from those who will be affected by the decision. If the decision
will involve the need for change, the greater the number of people whose views have been considered,
the greater will be the support for the change.

COMMUNICATOR
Information is power. Current literature recognizes the importance of keeping the members of an
organization informed about issues with which they are involved. Personal face-to-face communication is
optimal, so managers must make every effort to stagger their hours in the organization to allow this
communication on a regular basis. Both formal and informal communication is important. Managers who
make time for informal communication will have a more accurate understanding of the issues with which
the knowledge workers are dealing; will develop more open, trusting relationships within the
organization; as well as a greater understanding of factors affecting morale.

NEGOTIATOR
The nurse manager must exhibit excellent negotiation skills. These skills are important in helping a team
arrive at decisions, gaining organizational support or a new plan, gaining the cooperation of another
department or organization, and in many other facets of the manager’s role. The first rule of negotiation
is to understand the positions of the stakeholders, including nurses, patients, interdisciplinary
professionals, community members, families of patients, unlicensed assistive personnel, and
administration. One of the vital attributes of a negotiator is to encourage discussion and trust among
group members. The best negotiations result in win-win solutions.

MENTOR
Effective managers are always in the business of replacing themselves so their professional development
and advancement can continue. Mentorship is the process to accomplish this. Mentoring relationships
can be formal (assigned through an organization) or informal (simply a handshake agreement between a
seasoned leader and an aspiring one). Whether a mentoring relationship is formal or informal, there are
a few guidelines for success. Mutual respect, goal setting, accountability to each other, and open dialogue
are hallmarks of an effective mentoring relationship. The mentoring relationship must be mutually
rewarding; it must involve the opportunity for real work and stimulating challenges; there must be
agreement on ownership of any projects created through the partnership; and the relationship must
remain on professional grounds at all times. The mentor has the responsibility to create opportunities for
professional growth and involvement, whereas the protégé is responsible for responding to these
opportunities. The mentor has the responsibility to provide opportunities for the protégé to gain
recognition for the work accomplished; the protégé is accountable for being responsible and reliable with
the work accepted. The mentor empowers, encourages, and challenges the protégé.