EXPERIMENT 7: MAJOR LOSSES IN PIPE

1.0 Objective

Determine pipe friction factors (f)/resistance coefficients.

2.0 Apparatus

Pressure measurement test-bench (depicted in Figure 1).

Two Tube Six Tube Differential Digital Display

Manometer Manometer Pressure Sensor for Pressure
Rotameter
Pump Switch
Thermometer

Gate Valve Main Switch

Feeding Hose
Electronic Pressure
Sensor
Various Measuring
Section
Return Hose

Return Valve

Pump
Interchangeable
Measuring
Water Tank Objects

Drain Valve

Figure 1: Pressure measurement test-bench

3.0 Theory

Generally, in turbulent pipe flow (4 x 103 < Reynolds (Re) < 5 x 105) between two (2) points for
the horizontal (z1 = z2) pipe which has constant internal diameter (Di), with no minor head loss
(hLm) accounted, whereby the total head loss (h LT) = major head loss (hL), the pressure loss (P)
and major head loss (hL) using Bernoulli equation could be determined experimentally as
follows [1-2]:

fl
P = 2Di ρV (Eq. 1)
2
 fl V2
hL = Di 2g (Eq. 2)

Where:
P = Pressure loss between two (2) points: P1 - P2 (Pa)
f = Coefficient of pipe friction (dimensionless)
l = Length of the pipe (m)
Di = Internal diameter of pipe (m)
 = Density of flowing medium (kg/m3)
V2 = Square of the speed of flowing medium (m2/s2)
g = Gravity constant (9.81 m/s2)
hL = Major head loss (m)

For the turbulent pipe flow, the pipe friction coefficient (f) depends on the equivalent pipe
roughness (ϵ), and Reynolds number (Re). An example of the equivalent roughness based on
types of pipe are listed in Table 1.

Table 1: Equivalent roughness for the pipe [1]

Pipe Equivalent roughness (𝜖)
Feet (ft) Millimeters (mm)
Riveted steel 0.003 - 0.03 0.9 - 9.0
Concrete 0.001 - 0.01 0.3 - 3.0
Wood stave 0.0006 - 0.003 0.18 - 0.9
Cast iron 0.00085 0.26
Galvanized iron 0.0005 0.15
Commercial steel or wrought iron 0.00015 0.045
Drawn tubing 0.000005 0.0015
Plastic, glass 0.0 (smooth) 0.0 (smooth)

Moody's chart in Figure 2 summarized the relationship between Re, f, 𝜖, and Di.
 Figure 2: Moody chart [1]

The Re can be calculated using the data of Di, V, kinematic viscosity of flowing medium (ν), and it
is as follows [1-2]:

VDi
Re =
ν
(Eq. 3)
Where:
Re = Reynolds number (dimensionless)
V = Speed of flowing medium (m/s)
Di = Internal diameter of pipe (m)
ν = Kinematic viscosity of flowing medium (m2/s)
The kinematic viscosity for water is listed in Table 2 [1].

Table 2: Kinematic viscosity of water as a function of temperature [1]

Temperature (° C) Kinematic viscosity (ν) (m2/s)
0 1.787 x 10-6
5 1.519 x 10-6
10 1.307 x 10-6
20 1.004 x 10-6
30 8.009 x 10-7
40 6.580 x 10-7
50 5.534 x 10-7
60 4.745 x 10-7
70 4.134 x 10-7
80 3.650 x 10-7
90 3.260 x 10-7
100 2.940 x 10-7

The speed of flowing medium (V) can be calculated using the data of the internal pipe cross-
sectional area (Ai), flow rate (Q), and it is as follows [1-2]:

4Q
V = πD2i (Eq. 4)

Where:
V = Speed of flowing medium (m/s)
Q = Flowrate of flowing medium (m3/s)
Di = Internal diameter of pipe (m)

For the turbulent flow in smooth pipes, the f for the Blasius formula, valid for Re ≤ 105, can be
calculated as follows [1-2]:

f = 0.316⁄4 (Eq. 5)
√Re
Meanwhile for the Colebrook formula, the f in turbulent flow can be calculated using [1-2]:
ϵ
1 ⁄D
= −2.0 log ( i
+ 2.51
) (Eq. 6)
√f 3.7 Re√f

Eq. 6 is an implicit formula that has to be iteratively resolved. First of all, estimates the value of
f, place it in the formula (Eq. 6), and calculate the initial approximation. This approximation is
re-used in the equation to calculate a second approximation. If the estimated value is taken from
the Moody chart, the initial approximation is generally sufficiently accurate and the values only
differ after the third (3rd) decimal place.

The f in turbulence flow also could be determine using a Moody formula:

f = 0.001375 [1
+ 6 1⁄3
200ϵ + 10 ] (Eq. 7)
Di Re

Alternatively, the values f can directly be obtained using a Moody chart.

4.0 Experimental Procedure

i. Connect both the feeding and return hose to the tested pipe section.
ii. Connect the manometer tubes at one of the two-tube manometer (h1-inlet and h2-outlet) to
the tested pipe section.
iii. Turn on the main switch and the pump. Slowly open the gate valve until the reading of
rotameter or actual flowrate (QAct) reach two (2) m3/h.
iv. Open the ventilation valve (black) on top of the two-tube manometer by turning it to
anticlockwise direction to release all the bubbles (if have) in the system. If there is no
bubbles presence, close the ventilation valve (black) by turning it to clockwise direction.
v. Close the gate valve and turn off the pump. Slowly open the ventilation valve (white) on
top of the two-tube manometer until the pre-set minimum reading of two-tube manometer
reach twenty-five (25) mm for galvanized steel and PVC pipes, while one (1) mm for
copper, PVC twenty (20) and PVC thirty-two (32) pipes.
vi. Slowly open the gate valve until the level of water at two-tube manometer of h1 reach the
maximum while h2 at minimum. Record the two-tube manometer reading (h1 and h2),
temperature, and QAct at rotameter (two (2) m3/h). Reduce the Q Act to five (5) different
values by adjusting/reducing the opening of the gate valve (the minimum value of Q Act
should around zero point two (0.2) m3/h). Record all the reading (multi-tube manometer:
h1 and h2, temperature, and rotameter: QAct).
vii. Transfer the manometer tubes at the two-tube manometer to the differential pressure
sensor (P1-inlet and P2-outlet). Prior to recording the reading of differential pressure
sensor (at digital display for pressure) for five (5) different values of Q Act as in step (vi)-
maximum two (2) m3/h, minimum zero point two (0.2) m3/h, ensure that there are no
 bubbles present in the system. This could be done by opening the ventilation valve at the
differential pressure sensor. If there is no bubbles presence, close the ventilation valve
and record the Qct, temperature, and the differential pressure reading.

viii. Remove all the manometer tubes from the system. Closed the gate valve and turn off the
pump before changing the feeding and return hose to another pipe section. Repeat steps
(ii) to (vii).
ix. After finished, remove all the manometer tubes from the system. Close the gate valve,
and turn off the pump and the main switch.
5.0 Results

Record your data using Table 3 to Table 7.

Table 3: Data for galvanized steel pipe: Internal diameter (Di) = 12.7 mm or 0.50”; length of pipe
(l) = 1000 mm
Rotameter/ actual flowrate Temperature h1 h2 Δh Differential pressure
(QAct) (° C) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mbar)
(m /h)
3

Table 4: Data for copper pipe: Outer diameter (Do) = 18 mm or 0.71"; thickness (t) = 1 mm;
length of pipe (l) = 1000 mm
Rotameter/ actual flowrate Temperature h1 h2 Δh Differential pressure
(QAct) (° C) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mbar)
(m /h)
3

Table 5: Data for PVC pipe: Outer diameter (Do) = 20 mm or 0.79"; thickness (t) = 1.5 mm;
length of pipe (l) = 1000 mm
Rotameter/ actual flowrate Temperature h1 h2 Δh Differential pressure
(QAct) (° C) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mbar)
(m3/h)
Table 6: Data for PVC pipe: Outer diameter (D o) = 16 mm or 0.63"; thickness (t) = 1.8 mm;
length of pipe (l) = 1000 mm
Rotameter/ actual flowrate Temperature h1 h2 Δh Differential pressure
(QAct) (° C) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mbar)
(m /h)
3

Table 7: Data for PVC pipe: Outer diameter (Do) = 32 mm or 1.26"; thickness (t) = 1.9 mm;
length of pipe (l) = 1000 mm
Rotameter/ actual flowrate Temperature h1 h2 Δh Differential pressure
(QAct) (° C) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mbar)
(m3/h)

6.0 Discussion
Discuss on the following items:
i. Compare the coefficient of friction (f) for each of the tested pipe in your experiment with
the coefficient of friction (f) from Moody chart and calculation using a formula of
Blasius, Colebrook, and Moody. Explain on the possible reasons for the difference in
their values.
ii. Ranks the pipe in ascending trend based on their major head loss (hL) value obtained from
your experiment. Briefly explain on the factors that influence your pipe ranking selection.
iii. Factors contributing to errors or inaccuracy in experimental data, and the possible
recommendations to improve the existing results.

7.0 Conclusion

State the conclusions that could be drawn from the experiment.

8.0 References

[1] B. R. Munson, A. P. Rothmayer, T. H. Okiishi. 2012. Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics,

7th Edition, Wiley.
[2] R. W. Fox, P. J. Pritchard, A. T. McDonald. 2011. Fox and McDonald's Introduction to
Fluid Mechanics 8th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.