Chemistry Xi Term 2 All Chapters

TERM -II
CLASS XI CHEMISTRY
by MAHENDRA KALRA
MAHENDRA KALRA
KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA ITARANA ALWAR
CHEMISTRY SIMPLY THE BEST…………………ENJOY CHEMISTRY
5.States of Matter
1. Intermolecular forces are the forces of attraction and repulsion between interacting particles
(atoms and molecules). This term does not include the electrostatic forces that exist between the
two oppositely charged ions and the forces that hold atoms of a molecule together i.e., covalent
bonds. Attractive intermolecular forces are known as van der Waals forces, in honour of Dutch
scientist Johannes van der Waals (1837-1923).
2. Dipole - Dipole Forces: Dipole-dipole forces act between the molecules possessing permanent
dipole. Ends of the dipoles possess “partial charges” and these charges are shown by Greek letter
delta (δ
Example :between HCl
molecules
.
3. Dipole -Induced Dipole Forces: This type of attractive forces operate between the polar
molecules having permanent dipole and the molecules lacking permanent dipole. Permanent
dipole of the polar molecule induces dipole on the electrically neutral molecule by deforming its
electronic cloud.Thus an induced dipole is developed in the other molecule
.
4. Dispersion Forces or London Forces:Atoms and nonpolar molecules are electrically symmetrical
and have no dipole moment because their electronic charge cloud is symmetrically distributed.
But a dipole may develop momentarily even in such atoms and molecules. This can be
understood as follows. Suppose we have two atoms ‘A’ and ‘B’ in the close vicinity of each other
(Fig. 5.1a NCERT page 133). It may so happen that momentarily electronic charge distribution in
one of the atoms, say ‘A’, becomes unsymmetrical i.e., the charge cloud is more on one side than
the other (Fig. 5.1 b and c NCERT page 133). This results in the development of instantaneous
dipole on the atom ‘A’ for a very short time. This instantaneous or transient dipole distorts the
electron density of the other atom ‘B’, which is close to it and as a consequence a dipole is
induced in the atom ‘B’. The temporary dipoles of atom ‘A’ and ‘B’ attract each other. Similarly
temporary dipoles are induced in molecules also. This force of attraction was first proposed by
the German physicist Fritz London, and for this reason force of attraction between two
temporary dipoles is known as London force. Another name for this force is dispersion force.
5. Hydrogen bond: Hydrogen bond is represented by a dotted line (– – –) while a solid line
represents the covalent bond. Thus, hydrogen bond can be defined as the attractive force which
binds hydrogen atom of one molecule with the electronegative atom (F, O or N) of another
molecule this is special case of dipole-dipole interaction..
Kalra sir, 09462305605,kalra1977@gmail.com

6. Boyle’s law (Volume – Pressure Relationship)
 Statement: For a fixed amount of gas (i.e., number of moles n) at constant temperature,
the volume occupied by the gas is inversely proportional to the pressure applied on the gas
or pressure of the gas.
1
 Mathematically V  (at constant T & n) hence PV = K1 (constant) , K1 constant will be
p
dependent on the amount of the gas and temperature of the gas.
 Applications of Boyles Law. For the two parts ‘A’ and ‘B’ P1V1 = K & P2V2 = K hence it
follows that P1V1 = P2V2 .
 Graphs
 Atmospheric pressure: The pressure exerted by atomosphere on earth’s surface at sea level is
called 1 atm. 1 atm = 1.013 bar 1 atm = 1.013 x 105 N/m2 = 1.013 bar = 760 torr
7. Charles law : (Volume – Temperature Relationship)
 Statement: For a fixed amount of gas (i.e., number of moles n) at constant pressure volume
occupied by the gas is directly proportional to temperature of the gas on absolute scale of
temperature.
V
 Mathematically V  T (at constant P & n) hence V = K2T  K2
T
where ‘K2’ is a proportionality constant and is dependent on amount of gas and pressure.
V1 V2
 Applications of Charles law. For the two parts ‘A’ and ‘B’ 
T1 T2
Temperature on absolute scale, kelvin scale or ideal gas scale.
 Graphs
Relation: T = t + 273
Isobar is the plot beween V and T for a definite amount of a gas at a constant Pressure.
 Since volume is proportional to absolute temperature, T the volume of a gas should be
theoretically at absolute zero is zero.
 Infact on substance exists as gas at a temperature near absolute zero, through the straight
line plots can be extra polated to zero volume. Absolute zero can never be attained
practically though it can be approach only.
 By considering – 273.15ºC as the lowest approachable limit, Kelvin developed temperature
scale which is known as absolute scale.
8. Gay-lussac’s law : (Pressure – Temperature Relationship):
 Statement: For a fixed amount of gas (i.e., number of moles n) at constant volume, pressure
of the gas is directly proportional to temperature of the gas on absolute scale of temperature.
 Mathematically P  T (at constant V & n) hence P  K3(constant)  dependent on amount
T
and volume of gas .

P1 P2
 Applications of Gay-lussac’s law. For the two parts ‘A’ and ‘B’ 
T1 T2
 temp on absolute
scale
 Graphs
Isochore is the plot beween P and T for a definite amount of a gas at a constant volume.
9. Avogadro’s Hypothesis (Volume – Amount Relationship):
 Statement: It states that equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules. i.e. V  n hence. V =K4n.
For similar values of pressure & temperature equal number of molecules of different gases
will occupy equal volume.
 Standard Temperature and Pressure STP denotes the same temperature of 0ºC (273.15k),
but a slightly higher pressure of 1 atm (101.325 kPa).
 Standard Ambient Temperature and Pressure (SATP), conditions are also used in some
scientific works, SATP conditions means 298.15 k and 1 bar (i.e. exactly 10 5 Pa) At SATP (1 bar
and 298.15 K), the molar volume of an ideal gas is 24.789 L mol-1
10. Avogadro Law (Volume – Amount Relationship): It states that equal volumes of all gases under
the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules. i.e. V ά n
i.e. V =K4n. Since volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of moles; one
mole of each gas at standard temperature and pressure (STP)* will have same volume. Standard
temperature and pressure means 273.15 K (0oC) temperature and 1 bar (i.e., exactly 105 pascal)
pressure
11. Ideal gas: A gas that follows Boyle’s law, Charles’ law and Avogadro law strictly.
12. Ideal Gas Equation:
1
 Boyle’s law V  ……….(1) Charles’ law V  T…………(2) Avogadro law V  n……….(3)
p
nT pV
Combining (1),(2)& (3) we get…….. V  Hence  cons tan t [Universal constant] =
p nT
R [ideal gas constant or universal gas constant]
PV = n RT Ideal Gas Equation
13. Universal Gas Constant :R is called gas constant. It is same for all gases. R= 8.314 Pa m3 K–1 mol–1
= 8.314 × 10–2 bar L K–1 mol–1 = 8.314 J K–1 mol–1 R = 8.314 J/Kmol  25/3 R = 1.987 cal/mol  2
R = .0821 Latm/mol K  1/12
14. Density and Molar Mass of a Gaseous Substance:
 PV = nRT ………..(1)
mRT m
 pv  ……..(2) as n  n= number of moles, m=Mass, M=molar mass
M M
Rearranging equation (2)
Mpv  mRT
mRT
M 
vP
dRT m
M= … ………………as d  d= density m=mass, V=volume
P V
 PM=dRT
15. Equation of State: Combining all the gas relations in a single expression which describes
relationship between pressure, volume and temperature, of a given mass of gas we get an
expression known as equation of state.
PV
= constant (dependent on amount of the gas (n))
T
P1V1 P2 V2

T1 T2
16. Daltons law of partial pressure :

Statement: It states that the total pressure exerted by the mixture of non-reactive gases is equal to
the sum of the partial pressures of individual gases i.e., the pressures which these gases would exert
if they were enclosed separately in the same volume and under the same conditions of temperature.
In a mixture of gases, the pressure exerted by the individual gas is called partial pressure.
Mathematically, pTotal = p1+p2+p3+......(at constant T, V) where pTotal is the total pressure
exerted by the mixture of gases and p1, p2 , p3 etc. are partial pressures of gases
n1 RT n2 RT n 3 RT
P1 = P2 = P3 =
v v v
Total pressure = P1 + P2 + P3
PTotal = P1 + P2 + P3 = (n1  n 2  n3 ) RT
v
P1 n1 P2 n 2
  x 1 (mole fraction of first component gas)   x 2 (mole fraction of second component
PT n T PT n T
P3 n 3
gas)   x 3 (mole fraction of third component gas)
PT n T
17. KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OFGASES:
 Postulates / assumptions of KTG :
 A gas consists of tiny spherical particles called molecules of the gas which are identical in shape
& size (mass)
 The volume occupied by the molecule is negligible in comparison to total volume of the gas. For
an ideal gas, volume of the ideal gas molecule  0.
 Gaseous molecules are always in random motion and collide with other gaseous molecule & with
walls of the container.
 Pressure of the gas is due to these molecular collisions with walls of the container
 These collisions are elastic in nature
 Molecular attraction forces are negligible. Infact, for an ideal gas attraction or repulsion forces
are equal to zero.
18. Real Gases
 Real gases do not obey the ideal gas laws exactly under all
conditions of temperature and pressure.
 Real gases deviates from ideal behaviour because
o Real gaseous molecules have a finite volume.
{Since on liquefaction real gases occupy a finite volume}
o Inter molecular attraction focus between real gas molecules is
not zero. {Real gases can be converted into liquid where as ideal
gases cant be}

19. The deviation from ideal behaviour can be measured in terms of compressibility factor Z, which
pV
is the ratio of product pV and nRT. Mathematically Z=
nRT
 Conclusions :
a) Z = 1 for ideal gas
b) Z < 1 indicates negative deviation i.e. gas is more compressible due predominance of
attractive forces
c) Z > 1 at high pressure (f indicates positive deviation i.e. gas is less compressible due
predominance of repulsive forces
20. Causes of deviation from ideal behaviour : The following two assumptions of the kinetic theory
of gases are faulty
(a) The volume occupied by the gas molecules is negligible as compared to the total volume of
the gas.
(b) The forces of attraction or repulsion between the gas molecules are negligible.
The above assumptions are correct only if the temperature is high or pressure is low.
21. Vander Waal Equation of real gases :
The ideal gas equation does not consider the effect of attractive forces and molecular volume.
vander Waal corrected the ideal gas equation by taking the effect of
(a) Molecular volume (b) Molecular attraction
 Volume correction :
 Volume Correction: (V–nb) where nb is approximately the total volume occupied by the molecules
themselves. Here, b is a constant
an 2
 Pressure correction of effect of molecular attraction forces : Pideal = Preal +
v2
Vander waal’s equation is
 2
 P  an  (v  nb)  nRT Constants a and b are called van der Waals constants
 
 v2 
22. Significance of Vander wall parameter: Vander wall parameter a is the measure of intermolecular forces
while b is the measure of effective size of gaseous molecules Unit of a = bar L3 mol-2 Unit of b = L mol-1
23.
24. The temperature at which a real gas obeys ideal gas law over an appreciable range of pressure is called
Boyle temperature or Boyle point.
25. Critical temperature (TC): The temperature above which a gas cannot be liquefied whatever high pressure
may be
26. Critical Pressure(PC): The minimum pressure required to liquefy a gas at its critical temperature.

27. Critical Volume (VC): Volume of one mole of the gas at critical temperature.
28. Maxwell and Boltzmann have shown that actual distribution of molecular speeds depends on
temperature and molecular mass of a gas. Maxwell derived a formula for calculating the number of
molecules possessing a particular speed. Fig.A(1) shows schematic plot of number of molecules vs.
molecular speed at two different temperatures T1 and T2 (Temperature T2 is higher than temperature
T1). The distribution of speeds shown in the plot is called Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of speeds.
The graph shows that number of molecules possessing very high and very low speed is very small.
Maximum in the curve represents speed possessed by maximum number of molecules. This speed is called
most probable speed, ump.This is very close to the average speed of the molecules. On increasing the
temperature most probable speed increases. Also, speed distribution curve broadens at higher
temperature. Broadening of curve shows that number of molecules moving at higher speed increases. Speed
distribution also depends upon mass of molecules. At the same temperature, gas molecules with heavier
mass have slower speed than lighter gas molecules. For example, at the same temperature lighter nitrogen
molecules move faster than heavier chlorine molecules. Hence, at any given temperature, nitrogen
molecules have higher value of most probable speed than the chlorine molecules. See the molecular speed
distribution curve of chlorine and nitrogen given in Fig. A(2). Though at a particular temperature the
individual speed of molecules keeps changing, the distribution of speeds remains same.
29. Vapour pressure : The equilibrium pressure by vapour of liquid in a container at given temperature
30. At higher altitude : The b.p. of water decreases b/c the atmospheric pressure is less than one
atmosphere.
31. Surface tension is defined as the force acting per unit length perpendicular to the line drawn on the
surface of liquid. It is denoted by Greek letter γ . It has dimensions of kg s–2 and in SI unit it is
expressed as N m–1. It decreases with increases in T, it increases with increase in external pressure,
b/c of it falling drops of liquid are spherical, liquid in capillary tube rises.
32. Viscosity is a measure of resistance to flow which arises due to the internal friction between layers
of fluid as they slip past one another while liquid flows. Strong intermolecular forces between
molecules hold them together and resist movement of layers past one another. Greater the viscosity,
the more slowly the liquid flows.
33. Viscosity of liquids decreases as the temperature rises because at high temperature molecules have
high kinetic energy and can overcome the intermolecular forces to slip past one another between the
layers.
34. Viscosity coefficient is the force when velocity gradient is unity and the area of contact is unit area.
Thus ‘ η ’ is measure of viscosity. SI unit of viscosity coefficient is 1 newton second per square metre
(N s m–2) = pascal second (Pa s = 1kg m–1s–1).

Unit-5 STATES OF MATTER
1.Questions based on Intermolecular forces ,Boyle’s Law, Charles’s Law, Gay Lussac’s Law,
Avogadro’s Law
1. What are Intermolecular forces? Explain its different types with suitable example.
2. Give one example for each of the following types of inter-particle forces (a) London dispersion
forces (b)Dipole-Dipole forces (c) Hydrogen bond (d) Ion-dipole forces Answer:(a) noble gases.
(b) Between HCl molecules. (c) Between water molecules or HF molecules. (d)Between NO3- and
water molecules
3. State Boyle’s Law. Give its mathematical Expression & graphical representation.
4. A balloon is filled with hydrogen at room temperature. It will burst if pressure exceeds 0.2 bar. If
at 1 bar pressure the gas occupies 2.27 L volume, up to what volume can the balloon be
expanded?
Answer: According to Boyle’s Law: p1V1=p2V2 Given p1= 1 bar V1= 2.27 L p2 =0.2 bar
p1V 1 1 2.27
V2 =  V2 =  V2 =11.35 LSince balloon bursts at 0.2 bar pressure; the volume
p2 0.2
of balloon should be less than 11.35 L.
5. What will be the minimum pressure required to compress 500 dm3 of air at 1 bar to 200 dm3 at
30°C?
Answer: According to Boyle’s Law: p1V1=p2V2 Given p1= 1 bar V1= 500 dm3 V2 =200 dm3
p1V 1 1 500
p2 =  p2 =  p2 = 2.5 bar
V2 200
6. A vessel of 120 mL capacity contains a certain amount of gas at 35 °C and 1.2 bar pressure. The
gas is transferred to another vessel of volume 180 mL at 35 °C. What would be its pressure?
Answer: According to Boyle’s Law: p1V1=p2V2 Given p1= 1.2 bar V1= 120ml V2 =180 ml
p1V 1 1.2  120
 p2 =  p2 =  p2 = 0.8 bar
V2 180
7. State Charles’s Law. Give its mathematical Expression & graphical representation.
8. In terms of Charle’s law explain why -273o C is the lowest temperature?
Answer: At -273o C, the Volume of gas becomes equal to zero i. e. gas ceases to exist.
9. On a ship sailing in pacific ocean where temperature is 23.4 °C , a balloon is filled with 2 L air.
What will be the volume of the balloon when the ship reaches Indian ocean, where temperature
is 26.1°C ?
V1 V 2
Answer: According to Charles law 
T1 T 2
Given V1= 2 L T1= (23.4 + 273) K= 296.4 K T2 = (26.1 + 273) K= 299.1 K
V 1T 2 2  299.1
 V2 =  V2 =  V2 = 2.018L
T1 296.4
10. A student forgot to add the reaction mixture to the round bottomed flask at 27 °C but instead
he/she placed the flask on the flame. After a lapse of time, he realized his mistake, and using a
pyrometer he found the temperature of the flask was 477 °C. What fraction of air would have
been expelled out?
V1 V 2
Answer: According to Charles law 
T1 T 2
Given V1= V T1= (27 + 273) K= 300K T2 = (477 + 273) K= 750 K
V 1T 2 V  750
 V2 =  V2 =  V2 = 2.5V
T1 300
 Volume expelled =2.5V-V=1.5V
1.5V 3
 Fraction of air expelled = =
2.5V 5
11. State Gay Lussac’s Law. Give its mathematical Expression & graphical representation.
12. State Avogadro’s Law. Give its mathematical Expression.
2. Questions based on Ideal gas equation ,combined gas law equation,Dalton’s Law of Partial
Pressures
13. Derive Ideal gas equation. Give combined gas law equation.
14. Using the Ideal gas equation Show that the density of the gas is proportional to the gas pressure
p.
15. What is meant by compressibility factor of gases? How does its value deviate from that of an ideal gas in case of real
gases and what does it indicate?
16. At 25°C and 760 mm of Hg pressure a gas occupies 600 mL volume. What will be its pressure at a
height where temperature is 10°C and volume of the gas is 640 mL.
Answer: P1= 760 mm Hg V1= 600 mL T1= 25 + 273 = 298 K
P2= ? V2= 640 mLT2= 10 + 273 = 283
P1V 1 P 2V 2 P1V 1T 2
According to Combined gas law: =  P2 =
T1 T2 V 2T 1
760  600  283
 P2 =
640  298
 P2= 676.6 mm Hg
17. At 0°C, the density of a certain oxide of a gas at 2 bar is same as that of dinitrogen at 5 bar. What
is the molecular mass of the oxide?
Answer:
Gaseous Oxide Nitrogen(N2)
P1=2 bar P2=5 bar
M1=? M2=28
T1=273K T2=273K
PM
Using the expression d =
RT
For Gaseous Oxide For Nitrogen (N2)
2M1 5  28
d1 = d2 =
RT RT
0
As per question density is same as that of Nitrogen atO C.(273K)
i.e d1= d2
2M1 5  28
 =
RT RT
5  28
M1= = 70u
2
18. . Pressure of 1 g of an ideal gas A at 27 °C is found to be 2 bar. When 2 g of another ideal gas B is
introduced in the same flask at same temperature the pressure becomes 3 bar. Find a
relationship between their molecular masses.
Gas A Gas B
PA=2 bar PB=1 bar
mA=1g mB=2g
TA=300K TB=300K
VA =V VB =V
Using the expression: PV=nRT
m
 PV= RT
M
mA 1
For Gas A PAV= RT  2V= RT ……………(1)
MA MA
mB 2
For Gas B PBV= RT  1V= RT ……………(2)
MB MB
Dividing (1) by (2) w get:  MB=4MA
19. What will be the pressure exerted by a mixture of 3.2 g of methane and 4.4 g of carbon dioxide
contained in a 9 dm3 flask at 27 °C ?
20. What will be the pressure of the gaseous mixture when 0.5 L of H 2 at 0.8 bar and 2.0 L of
dioxygen at 0.7 bar are introduced in a 1L vessel at 27°C?
21. Density of a gas is found to be 5.46 g/dm3 at 27 °C at 2 bar pressure. What will be its density at
STP?
22. 34.05 mL of phosphorus vapour weighs 0.0625 g at 546 °C and 0.1 bar pressure. What is the
molar mass of phosphorus?
23. Calculate the temperature of 4.0 mol of a gas occupying 5 dm3 at 3.32 bar. (R = 0.083 bar dm 3 K–1
mol–1).
Answer:
24. Calculate the volume occupied by 8.8 g of CO2 at 31.1°C and 1 bar pressure. R = 0.083 bar L K –1
m m
mol–1. Answer: Using the expression: PV=nRT  PV= RT  V= RT
M MP
8.8
V= 0.083 X 304.1  V=5.048L
44  1
25. Calculate the total pressure in a mixture of 4 g of dioxygen and 2 g of dihydrogen confined in a
vessel of 1 L at 0°C. R = 0.083 Latm mol–1
Answer:
26. A mixture of dihydrogen and dioxygen at one bar pressure contains 20% by weight of dihydrogen.
Calculate the partial pressure of dihydrogen.
Answer:

27. 2.9 g of a gas at 95 °C occupied the same volume as 0.184 g of dihydrogen at 17 °C, at the same
pressure. What is the molar mass of the gas?
28. State Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures. Express partial pressure in terms of mole fraction.
3.Questions based on Kinetic molecular theory of gases, Vander Waal modified the ideal gas
equation,Vapour Pressure, Surface Tension & Viscosity
29. Give the postulates of Kinetic molecular theory of gases.
30. Explain the pressure and volume corrections in ideal gas equation?
Answer: At low temperature and high pressure intermolecular attractions cannot be neglected,
the observed pressure P is smaller than the ideal pressure Pi. Therefore, Pi = P + p = P + an2/V2
As volume of gas molecules is not negligible as compared to total volume of the gas the ideal
volume Vi is smaller than the observed volume. Therefore, Vi = V + v = V - nb
31. How Vander Waal modified the ideal gas equation. Explain the significance of the Vander Waal’s
parameters?
32. Why vegetables are cooked with difficulty at hill station.
Answer:At hill station the atmospheric pressure is less and so boiling point decreases.
33. Give three differences between evaporation and boiling.
Answer:.i) Evaporation occurs at all temperatures while boiling occurs at boiling point. ii)
Evaporation is surface phenomenon while boiling occurs throughout the bulk of liquid.
iii) Evaporation is slow while boiling is rapid.
34. Write a short note on: Surface Tension & Viscosity.
35. Why liquid drops are spherical in shape?
Answer:Because of surface tension, the molecules tend to minimize the surface area and sphere
has minimum surface area.
36. .Critical temperature for CO2 and CH4 are 31.0˚C and – 81.9˚C respectively. Which of these
has stronger intermolecular forces and why ?
Answer: CO2 has strong vander waal’s forces of attraction than CH4. Because of greater polarity
and high molecular mass.

6.Thermodynamics
Important Points and Terms of the Chapter
1. Thermodynamics : The branch of science which deals with different forms of energy & their
interconversion in chemistry using thermodynamics.
2. Application of thermo dynamics : We can predict feasibility of the reaction that is if two substances
are mixed then the reaction between them will takes place or not.
 If Reaction does take place then what are the energy changes involved during the reaction.
3. System : A system in thermodynamics refers to that part of universe which is under study for energy
changes. Ex. Air in a room, water in a bottle, any living body.
4. Surrounding : Rest of the universe
5. Universe : Universe = System + Surroundings
6. Boundary : Anything which separates system & surroundings is called boundary.

 Boundary can be real or imaginary.
 Boundary can be flexible or rigid
 e.g.-air in a flexible balloon (flexible boundary) while air in a room (fixed boundary).
 Boundary can be adiabatic (non-conducting) or diathermic (conducting).
7. Types of system :
a) Open system : System which can exchange energy & matter both with the surroundings. E.g. :
Living systems (any living organism) are open systems, air in an open room
b) Closed system : System which can exchange only energy but cannot exchange matter with
the surrounding is called closed system. E.g. : any matter in a closed container.
c) Isolated system : System which cannot exchange energy and matter both with the
surroundings. E.g. : Water in thermos flask. (Though not a perfectly isolated system but can
be taken as, for small interval of time as the energy exchanges are negligible).
 Whole of universe is a perfect isolated system.
8. State of a system :
 It means the condition in which the system is present.
 It can be specified/defined by measuring/ specifying some observable/measurable properties
of the system like pressure, volume, temperature, amount of substance, elasticity, heat
capacity etc. e.g. For an ideal gaseous system state of the system can be defined by specifying
volume, temperature and pressure.
9. State function :
 Property of a system which is dependent only on the state of the system i.e. it is a point
function
 It is independent of the path adopted to attain a particular state.
1
kalra1977@gmail.com MAHENDRA KALRA
 for any thermodynamic system, Temperature, Pressure, volume, Total internal energy (E or
U), Enthalpy(H), Gibbs free energy (G), Entropy (S) are all state functions.
e.g.
In the above example the final temperature, pressure, and the volume will be same in both the
above ways but work involved and the heat exchanged during the processes will be different.
10. Path function :
 Quantities which are dependent on the path/way the system has achieved a particular state.
e.g. Heat, work, Heat capacities (Molar heat capacities, specific heat capacities etc.).
11. Types of properties
 Extensive properties :
 Functions or properties of the system which are dependent on mass or on size of the system
are called Extensive Properties.
 Extensive functions are additive in nature (The addition of the volumes of the two parts equals
the volume of the whole of the room)
 e.g. Volume, Mass, Total heat capacity, total internal energy (E), enthalpy (H), Gibbs Free
Energy (G), Entropy (S).
 Intensive properties :
 Functions or properties which are not mass dependent or size dependent are called intensive
function.
 Intensive properties are not additive in nature.
 e.g. Temperature, pressure, molar heat capacity, specific heat capacity, density,
concentration, vapour pressure.
How to identify extensive or intensive properties
If a system in a particular state is divided into two equal or unequal parts, the properties which have
value equal to the original value of that property for the whole of the system is called an Intensive
property. While the properties which have values different from the values for whole of the system
are called Extensive Properties.
 For example consider air in a room at temp of 300K, 1 atm pressure. Now if the room is
divided by some boundary (imaginary or real) into two parts (equal or unequal) then in these
two parts :
 The temperature, pressure, density of the gas, concentration of gaseous molecules etc. will
have the same value as that of for whole of the system. (intensive)
While the volume of two parts, mass of gas in two parts, total energy of the gaseous molecules in the two
parts, entropy the two parts etc. will be different from the values of these properties as for the whole of the
system initially. (extensive)
12. Types of thermodynamic process on basis of state/conditions
Thermodynamic process : Any method/process by which can change its state from one state of
thermodynamic equilibrium to another state of thermodynamic equilibrium.
There can be infinite type of thermodynamic processes, out of these the following are important ones :
2
a) Isothermal process : T = constant dT = 0 T  0
b) Isochoric process : V = constant dV = 0 V  0
c) Isobaric process : P = constant dP = 0 P  0
d) Adiabatic process : q = 0 or heat exchange with the surrounding = 0(zero)
13. Types of thermodynamics processes on basis of the way the processes are carried out :
a) Reversible process: The process that can be reversed by a very small change is known as
reversible process.
 If a process is carried out in such a manner so that the system is always in thermodynamic
equilibrium at every stage of the process.
 An ideal reversible process will take infinite time to get completed.
 It is carried out infinitesimally slowly.
 Strictly speaking there is no ideal reversible process in universe.
b) Irreversible process : The process can not be reversed by a small change is known as irreversible.
 If process is carried out in such a manner so that the system is in thermodynamic
equilibrium
 Only at initial & final state of the process but not at the intermediate stages.
 Irreversible processes will get completed in finite time.
 At intermediate stages of the irreversible process, different state function such as
Pressure, temperature etc. are not defined.
 All real process are irreversible.
14. Difference between Reversible Process & Irreversible Process
Reversible Process Irreversible Process
1. The process is carried out 1. It is carried out rapidly
infinitesimally slowly 2. Equilibrium may exist only
2. At any stage, the equilibrium after the completion of the
is not disturbed process.
3. It takes infinite time for 3. It takes a finite time for
completion. completion.
4. Work obtained in this 4. Work obtained in this
process is maximum. process is not maximum
15. Modes of energy exchange :
 These are two ways by which a system can interact or can exchange energy with its
surroundings. (i) Heat & (ii) Work
 Heat & Work both are forms of energy.
 Heat : when the energy transfer takes place because of temperature difference between
system & surroundings. It is known as heat.
 Work : Energy transfer which is not heat or which is not because of temperature difference is
called work.
16. IUPAC Sing convention about Heat and Work
1. Heat given to the system = + ve
2. Heat coming out of the system = - ve
3. Work done on the system = +ve
4. Work done by the system = -ve
17. Internal Energy (E, also denoted by U) :
 Every system having some quantity of matter is associated with a definite amount of energy,
called internal energy.
 It is the sum of all forms of energies present in the system.
 E = ETransiational + ERotational + EVibrational + Ebonding + …..
  E = EFinal - Einitial
3
 E= qv, heat supplied to a gas at constant volume, since al the heat supplied goes to increase
the internal energy of the gas.
 It is an extensive property & a state function. It is exclusively a function of temperature.
 If T  0 :  E = 0 as well.
18. Total Heat capacity
 Heat required to raise the temperature of system by 1ºC under the given process is
known as total heat capacity.
 Mathematicaly CT = Δq = dq = j/oC
ΔT dT
 It is extensive properties and path function So dq = cdT
 on integrating q =  cdT
19. Molar heat capacity
 Heat required to raise temperature of 1 mole of a substance by 1ºC
 Mathematically C = q  dq = J mole-1k-1
nT ndT
20. Specific heat capacity (s):
 Heat required to raise temperature of unit mass (generally 1 g) of a substance by 1ºC.
 S = q  dq  jgm1 K
mT mdT
 Specific heat capacity is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one
unit mass of a substance by one degree celsius (or one kelvin). For finding out the heat, q,
required to raise the temperatures of a sample, we multiply the specific heat of the
substance, c, by the mass m, and temperatures change, ΔT as q=c×m×ΔT =CΔT .
21. First Law of Thermodynamics
Statement:
 Energy of total universe is always conserved.
Or
 Total energy of an isolated system is always conserved.
Or
 Hence absolute value of E can never be calculated only change in value of E can be calculated for
a particular process.
 Mathematical from of First Law of thermodynamics. If a system is initially in a particular state in
which its total internal energy is E1. Now q amount of heat is given to if and w amount of work is
done on it so that in new state its total internal energy becomes E 2. Then according to 1st Law of
thermodynamics.
 E2 = E1 + q + w
 E = (E2 – E1) = q + w
 Application of First Law
U= Q+ W Since W=-P V
 U =  Q - P V
22. Enthalpy, H:
 enthalpy H [Greek word enthalpien, heat content]
 It is a state function and extensive property
 It is mathematically defined as : H = U + pV
 For finite changes at constant pressure,
 we can write above equation as
 ΔH = ΔU + ΔpV Since p is constant
 we can write ΔH = ΔU + pΔV
 since pΔV=ΔngRT
4
 therefore ΔH = ΔU + ΔngRT
23. Relation between Cp and Cv and ideal gas Cp -CV=R
H = u + Pv
 dH = du + d(Pv)
for an ideal gas Pv = nRT
d(Pv) = d(nRT) = nRdT
nCp dT = nCvdT + nRdT  Cp - Cv = R only for ideal gas  Mayer’s Relationship
24. Enthalpy of formation :
 The standard enthalpy of formation of every element in its stable state of aggregation at one bar
pressure and at specified temperature is assigned a zero value”. The specified temperature is usually
taken as 25ºC. A few examples are ΔHof (O2, g) = 0 , ΔHof (C, graphite) = 0
 The standard enthalpy of formation of a compound is the change in the standard enthalpy when one
mole of the compound is formed starting from the requisite amounts of elements in their stable state
of aggregation”.
 The chemical equations corresponding to enthalpy of formation of few substances are given below.
 Enthalpy of formation of HBr(g) : 1 H2(g)  1 Br2 ( )  HBr(g)
2 2
 Enthalpy of formation of SO2 (g) : S(rhombic) + O2(g)  SO2(g)
25. Enthalpy Change of a reaction: The enthalpy change accompanying a reaction is called the reaction
enthalpy. The enthalpy change of a chemical reaction is given by the symbol ΔrH.
ΔrH = (sum of enthalpies of products) – (sum of enthalpies of reactants).
ΔrH=∑ai HProducts- ∑bi HReactants
26. The standard enthalpy of reaction is the enthalpy change for a reaction when all the participating
substances are in their standard states. The standard state of a substance at a specified temperature
is its pure form at1 bar. Standard conditions are denoted by adding the superscript o to the symbol
ΔH, e.g., ΔH o
27. Hess’s Law of constant heat summation :
 The heat absorbed or evolved in a given chemical equation is the same whether the process occurs
in one step or several steps.
 Enthalpy change for a reaction is the same whether it occurs in one step or in a series of steps.
 One of the important applications of Hess’s law is to determine enthalpy of reaction which is difficult
to determine experimentally. For example, the value rH for the reaction
1
C(graphite) + O2 (g)  CO(g)
2
which is difficult to determine experimentally, can be estimated from the following two reactions for
which
rH can be determined experimentally.
C(graphite) + O2(g)  CO2(g) rH1
1
CO(g) + O2(g)  CO2(g) rH2
2
Substracting the latter the latter from the former, we get
C(graphite) + 1 O2(g)  CO(g)
2
Consequently, rH  rH1  rH2
24. .Enthalpy of combustion :

 It is the enthalpy change when one mole of a compound combines with the requisite amount of
oxygen to given products in their stable forms.
5
 For example, the standard enthalpy of combustion of methane at 298 K is -890 kJ mol-1. This implies
the following reaction :
CH4 (g) + 2O2(g)  CO2(g) + 2H2O ( ) Ho = - 890 kJ mol-1
The standard enthalpy of combustion of methane at 298 K may be written as
-1
Hoc (CH4, g, 298 K) = - 890 kJ mol
25. Bomb calorimeter: Enthalpies of combustion are usually measured by placing a known mass of the
compound in a closed steel container (known as bomb calorimeter) which is filled with oxygen at
about 30 bar pressure.
The calorimeter is surrounded by a known mass of water. The entire apparatus is kept in an insulated
jacket to prevent heat entering into or leaving from the container, as shown in figure. The sample is
ignited electrically to bring about the combustion reaction. The heat evolved is used in raising the
temperature of water and the calorimeter.
26. .Enthalpy of Hydration : Enthalpy of hydration of a given anhydrous or partially hydrated salt is the
enthalpy change when it combines with the requisite amount of water to form a new hydrated stable
salt. For example, the hydration of anhydrous cupric sulphate is represented by
CuSO4(s) + 5H2O ( )  CuSO4 . 5H2O(s) Hro = - 78 kJ mol-1
27. Enthalpy of Neutralization :
 Enthalpy of neutralization is defined as the enthalpy change when one mole of H+ in dilute solution
combines with one mole of OH- to give rise to undissociated water, i.e.
H+ (aq) + OH-(aq)  H2O( )  H = 57.1 kJ/mole = -13.7 kcal/mol
Remember :
 For Strong Acid+ Strong base, heat of neutralisation is always equal to -13.7 kcal/mole of -57.1
kJ/mole.
 For any other combination of acid and base this heat is less than -13.7 kcal/mole or -57.1 kJ/mole.
28. Enthalpy of Transition :
Enthalpy of transition is the enthalpy change when one mole of one allotropic form changes to
another. For example : C(graphite)  C(diamond) Htrs0  1.90kJ mol1
29. Standard enthalpy of fusion: Enthalpy of fusion is defined as the enthalpy change when one mole of
a solid substance in standard state melts and changes to liquid.
ΔfusHo.e.g. H2O(s)→H2O(l);ΔfusH0 =6.00 kJ mol−1
30. Standard enthalpy of vaporization : Enthalpy of vaporization is defined as the enthalpy change when
one mole of a liquid in standard state vaporizes and changes to gas. ΔvapH0
e.g. H2O(l)→H2O(g);ΔvapH0 =40.79 kJ mol−1
31. Standard enthalpy of sublimation, ΔsubH0 is the change in enthalpy when one mole of a solid
substance sublimes at a constant temperature and under standard pressure (1bar).
6
Sublimation is direct conversion of a solid into its vapour. Solid CO2 (dry ice) sublimes at 195K with
ΔsubH 0=25.2 kJ mol–1; naphthalene sublimes slowly and for this ΔsubH 0=73.0 kJ mol-1
32. Enthalpy of atomization (symbol: ΔaH0): It is the enthalpy change on breaking one mole of bonds
completely to obtain atoms in the gas phase. In case of diatomic molecules, like dihydrogen the
enthalpy of atomization is also the bond dissociation enthalpy. In some cases, the enthalpy of
atomization is same as the enthalpy of sublimation.
33. Enthalpy of Solution (symbol : ΔsolH0 ): Enthalpy of solution of a substance is the enthalpy change
when one mole of it dissolves in a specified amount of solvent. The enthalpy of solution at infinite
dilution is the enthalpy change observed on dissolving the substance in an infinite amount of solvent
when the interactions between the ions (or solute molecules) are negligible.
34. Bond Enthalpies :

The bond enthalpy is the average of enthalpies required to dissociate the said bond present in
different gaseous compounds into free atoms or radical in the gaseous state. While bond
dissociation enthalpy is the enthalpy required to dissociate a given bond of some specific compound
for example the enthalpy of dissociation of the O-H bond depends on the nature of molecular species
from which the H atom is being separated. For example, in the water molecule.
-1
H2O(g)  H(g) + OH(g) H0f = 501.87 kJ mol
However, to break the O-H bond in the hydroxyl radical required a different quantity of heat :
-1
OH(g)  O(g) + H(g) H0f = 423.38 kJ mol
The bond enthalpy, OH , is defined as the average of these two values, that is :
501.87mol1  423.38kJmol1
OH   462.625 kJ mol-1
2
In the case of diatomic molecules, such as H2, the bond enthalpy and bond dissociation enthalpy are
identical because each refers to the reaction.
-1
H2(g)  2H(g) H H  H0f = 435.93 kJ mol
Thus, the bond enthalpy given for any particular pair of atoms is the average value of the dissociation
enthalpies of the bond for a number of molecules in which the pair of atoms appears.
35. Bond Enthalpy (symbol: ΔbondH0): ΔrH=∑bondenthapiesreactants- ∑ bondenthapiesproducts
 Enthalpy required to   Enthalpy released to 
   
H   break reac tan ts int o    form products from the 
 gaseous atoms   gaseous atoms 
   
36. Lattice Enthalpy The lattice enthalpy of an ionic compound is the enthalpy change which occurs
when one mole of an ionic compound dissociates into its ions in gaseous state.
37. Spontaneous Process : A process which occurs by its ones i.e. Without the intervention of an outside
agency.
38. Non Spontaneous Process : A process which can neither take place by itself nor by initiation is called
a non spontaneous process.
39. Driving Force : The force which is responsible for spontaneity of a process is called the driving force.
40. Entropy(S) : Entropy is a measure of randomness or disorder of the system.
41. Entropy change (∆S) : It is defined as the amount of heat (q) observed isothermally and reversibly
divided by the absolute temp(T) at which the heat is absorbed.
q
∆S =
T
H fusion
42. Entropy of fusion : ∆S fusion =
Tm
Where, ∆H fusion = Entropy of fusion per mole
Tm = Melting point
7
 VAP
 SVAP 
Tb
∆HVAP = Entropy of vapourisation per mole
Tb =Boiling point
43. Second Law Of Thermodynamics
The entropy of universe is continuously increasing due to spontaneous process taking place in it.
∆S system + ∆S surrounding > 0
i.e. ∆S total > 0
44. Gibbs Free Energy (G) : It is defined as maxm amount of energy available to a system during the
process that can be converted into useful work. It is a measure of capacity to do useful work.
G = H – TS This equation is also known as Gibb’s Helmholtz equation

G is a state function.  G is change in free energy.
G    TS
45. Criteria of spontaneity :

(i)If Gsystem is (-ve) < 0  process is spontaneous
(ii) If Gsystem is (+ve)> 0  process is non spontaneous
(iii) If Gsystem =0  system is at equilibrium

Gsystem Ssystem Gsystem  Hsystem  TSsystem
+ Ve - Ve +
- Ve + Ve -
+ Ve + Ve - Ve at high temperature
- Ve - Ve + Ve at high temperature
46. Standard Free Energy Change (∆G0) : It is defined as free energy change measured at 298 K and 1
atm Pressure.
47. Standard Free energy of formation:( f G ) It is free energy change when 1 mole of compound is
formed from its constituting elements in their standard state.
 r G    p  f G  (products)   R  f G  (reac tan ts)
48. Gibbs Energy Change and Work
In case of galvanic cell, Gibbs energy change  r G ,is related to the electrical work done by the cell.
Thus  r G = -nFEcell
If reactants and products are in their standard states
 r G  = -nFE  cell ,Here E  cell is the standard cell potential.
49. Gibbs Energy Change and Equilibrium Constant
r G  RT ln K
r G   2.303RT log K
50. Third Law of Thermodynamics:
The entropy of perfect crystals of all pure elements & compounds is zero at the absolute zero of
temperature. Thus absolute value of entropy (unlike the absolute value of enthalpy) for any pure substance
can be calculated at any given temperature. In standard state (298 K, 1 atm), it is standard absolute entropy
Sº. These values are tabulated : S0   Sproducts
0 0
  Sreac tan ts .
8
Some Important Formulas(Thermodynamics)
 ∆U=q+w
 ΔH = ΔU + pΔV
 ΔH = ΔU + ΔngRT
 Cp -CV=R
 ΔrH=∑ai HProducts- ∑bi HReactants
 ΔrH=∑bondenthapiesreactants- ∑ bondenthapiesproducts
 .rH0 =rH1+rH2 + rH3
H fusion
 ∆S fusion =
Tm
 G    TS
  r G    p  f G  (products)   R  f G  (reac tan ts)
  r G = -nFEcell
 ΔrG = -2.303RT log K
Unit-6 : THERMODYAMICS
1.Questions based on system, different types of system surroundings, First law of thermodynamics,
internal energy
1. Define the term system and surroundings. Explain the different types of system.
2. Explain the terms: state variables, adiabatic process, work, heat & internal energy.
3. Define First law of thermodynamics. Give its mathematical expression.
4. (a) In a process, 701 J of heat is absorbed by a system and 394 J of work is done by the system. What is
the change in internal energy for the process? (b) Calculate the internal energy change when the
system absorbs 5 KJ of heat and 1KJ of work
5. Express the change in internal energy of a system when(i) No heat is absorbed by the system from the
surroundings, but work (w) is done on the system. What type of wall does the system have?(ii) No work
is done on the system, but q amount of heat is taken out from the system and given to the surroundings.
What type of wall does the system have?(iii) w amount of work is done by the system and q amount of
heat is Supplied to the system. What type of system would it be?
2.Questions based on system Enthalpy & its types.
6. Explain the term Enthalpy. Give its mathematical expression.
7. If water vapour is assumed to be a perfect gas, molar enthalpy change for vapourisation of 1 mol of
water at 1bar and 100°C is 41kJ mol–1. Calculate the internal energy change, when (i) 1 mol of water is
aporized at 1 bar pressure and 100°C. (ii) 1 mol of water is converted into ice.
8. The reaction of cyanamide, NH2CN (s), with Dioxygen was carried out in a bomb calorimeter, and U
was found to be -742.7 KJ/mol at 298K. Calculate Enthalpy change for the reaction at 298K
NH2 CN (s)+ 3 /2 O2 (g)  N2 (g) +CO 2(g) +H2O(l)
9. Enthalpies of formation of CO (g), CO2 (g), N 2O (g) and N2O4 (g) are -110, -393, 81 and 9.7 KJ/mol
respectively. Find the value of rH for the reaction; N2O4 (g) + 3 CO (g)  N2O (g) + 3CO2 (g)
10. Given: N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)  2NH3 (g);rH0 = -92.4 KJ/mol. Calculatef H0NH3 (g).
11. The enthalpy of combustion of methane, graphite and dihydrogen at 298 K are, –890.3 kJ mol–1 –393.5 kJ
mol–1, and –285.8 kJ mol–1 respectively. Calculate the Enthalpy of formation of CH4 (g).
9
12. For the process to occur under adiabatic conditions, the correct condition is i) ΔT = 0 (ii) Δp = 0 (iii) q = 0
(iv) w = 0
13. What is the enthalpies of all elements in their standard states.
14. Enthalpy of combustion of carbon to CO2 is –393.5 kJ mol–1. Calculate the heat released upon formation
of 35.2 g of CO2 from carbon and dioxygen gas.
15. The combustion of 1 mol of benzene takes place at 298K .After combustion CO2 and H2O are formed and
3267KJ/mol of heat is liberated .calculate f H0 (C6H6) Given: f H0 = -286 KJ/mol , f H0 = -393 KJ/mol
16. Calculate the standard enthalpy of formation of CH3OH (l) from the following data:
CH3OH (l) + 3/2 O2 (g)  CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l); rH0 = -726 KJ/mol
C (g) + O2 (g)  CO2 (g) ; C H0 = -393 KJ/mol
H2 (g) + ½ O2 (g)  H2O (l); f H0 = -286 KJ/mol
17. Calculate the enthalpy change for the process :
CCl4 (g)  C (g) + 4Cl (g) and calculate the bond enthalpy of C-Cl in CCl4 ( g) vap H0 (CCl4 ) = 30.5 KJ/mol, f
H0 (CCl4 ) = -135.5 KJ/mol
a H0 (C ) = 715 KJ/mol a H0 (Cl2 ) = 242 KJ/mol
18. Define the Extensive, intensive properties & Heat capacity.
19. (a) Give the relationship between Cp and Cv.
(b)Write a note on Bomb Calorimeter.
20. Explain the following terms with suitable examples: (a) Standard enthalpy of reaction (b)standard
enthalpy of formation (c) enthalpy of fusion (d) enthalpy of vaporization (e) enthalpy of Sublimation (f)
enthalpy of Combustion (g) )enthalpy of Hydration (h) ) enthalpy of Atomization (i)Bond enthalpy
3. Questions based on Hess’s law of constant heat summation, Born Haber cycle, Entropy. Gibbs Energy
21. Explain Hess’s law of constant heat summation with an example.
22. Explain Born Haber cycle & lattice enthalpy.
23. Define Entropy. Give mathematical expressions related to it.
24. Predict in which of the following, entropy increases/decreases :
i. A liquid crystallizes into a solid.
ii. Temperature of a crystalline solid is raised from 0 K to 115 K.
iii. 2NaHCO3 (s) →Na2CO3( s)+CO2 (g) + H2O( g)
iv. H2 (g) →2H(g)
25. Define Gibbs Energy. Give its mathematical expression. What is Gibbs energy criteria of Spontaneity.
26. For the reaction at 298K, 2A + B  C ,H = 400 KJ/mol and S = 0.2 KJ/mol K At what temperature
will the reaction become spontaneous?
27. For the reaction, 2Cl (g)  Cl2 (g), What are the signs of H and S?
28. For the reaction: 2A (g) + B (g)  2D (g), U0 = -10.5 KJ and S0 = - 44.1J/K
29. Calculate G0 for the reaction, and predict whether the reaction will occur spontaneously.
30. The equilibrium constant for a reaction is 10.Caculate G0, T =300K, R = 8.314 J/K mol
31. Calculate the value of G0 for the conversion of Oxygen to Ozone,
3/2 O2 (g)  O3 (g) at 298 K , if Kp for this conversion is 2.47 × 10-29
32. Find out the value of equilibrium constant for the following reaction at 298 K.
2NH3(g) + CO2 (g) NH2CONH2(aq ) + H2O(l ) Standard Gibbs energy change, ΔrG0 at\ the given
temperature is –13.6 kJ mol–1.
33. Calculate the entropy change in surroundings when 1.00 mol of H2O(l) is formed under standard
conditions. Δf H0 = –286 kJ mol–1.
10
Unit:7.Equilibrium
1. Equilibrium represents the state of a process in which the properties like temperature, pressure etc do not
show any change with the passage of time
2. Chemical equilibrium: When the rates of the forward and reverse reactions become equal, the
concentrations of the reactants and the products remain constant. This is the stage of chemical equilibrium.
This equilibrium is dynamic in nature as it consists of a forward reaction in which the reactants give
product(s) and reverse reaction in which product(s) gives the original reactants. Equilibrium is possible only
in a closed system at a given temperature. A mixture of reactants and products in the equilibrium state is
called an equilibrium mixture.
3. In a Homogeneous system, all the reactants and products are in the same phase. For example, in the
gaseous reaction, N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g), reactants and products are in the homogeneous phase.
4. Equilibrium in a system having more than one phase is called heterogeneous equilibrium. The equilibrium
between water vapour and liquid water in a closed container is an example of heterogeneous equilibrium.
H2O(l) H2O(g)
5. Henry Law:-It states that the mass of a gas dissolved in a given mass of a solvent at any temperature is
proportional to the pressure of the gas above the solvent
6. Law of Chemical Equilibrium: It may be stated as, at a given temperature the ratio of product of
equilibrium concentration of the products to that of the reactants with each concentration terms raised to
power equal to the respective stoichiometric coefficient in the balanced chemical reaction has a constant
value.This constant value is known as Equilibrium constant.For a general reaction of the type
aA + bB  cC + dD
Kc = [C]c[D]d /[A]a [B]b This expression is known as Law Of Chemical Equilibrium
7. Equilibrium constant (K) : For a general reaction aA + bB cC + dD.
Forward reaction rate rf = kf [A]a [B]b, Backward reaction rate rb = kb [C]c[D]d
At equilibrium, rf = rb
The concentrations of reactants & products at equilibrium are related by
Kf [C]c [D]d
 Kc 
Kb [A]a [B]b
 Kc is a constant and is called the equilibrium constant in terms of concentration.
where all the concentrations are at equilibrium and are expressed in moles/litre.
[PCl3] [Cl2]
e.g. PCl5 (g) PCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g)  Kc =
[PCl5]
[NH3]2
e.g. N2 + 3H2 2NH3  Kc =
[N2] [H2]3
1 1 [HI]
e.g. H2 (g) + I2 (g) HI (g)  Kc = 1/2
2 2 [H2 ] [I2 ]1 / 2
 Kp  Equilibrium constant in terms of partial pressure. It is defined for the equilibrium reaction
which contains at least one gaseous component.
e.g. aA (g) + bB (g)  cC (g) + dD (g)
[PC ]c [PD]d
Kp =
[PA ]a [PB ]b
where various pressures are the partial pressures of various gaseous substances.
8. Relationship between Kp and Kc:
PV = nRT or P = n RT
V
n
P = CRT where C = = (moles per litre)
v
Kalra sir, 9462305605 ,kalra1977@gmail.com 1|Page

[C]c (RT)c [D]d (RT)d [C]c [D]d
PC = [C] RT ; PD = [D] RT ; PA = [A] RT PB = [B] RT  KP = =
[A]a (RT)a [B]b (RT)b [A]a [B]b
 Kp = Kc(RT)  ng
where n = (c + d) – (a + b), calculation of n involves only gaseous components.
 n = sum of the number of moles of gaseous products – sum of the number of moles of gaseous
reactants.  ng can be positive, negative, zero or even fraction.
9. Units of Equilibrium Constant:The value of equilibrium constant Kc can be calculated by substituting the
concentration terms in mol/L and for Kp partial pressure is substituted in Pa, kPa, bar or atm. This results in
units of equilibrium constant based on molarity or pressure, unless the exponents of both the numerator
and denominator are same. For the reactions (i)H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI, Kc and Kp have no unit.(ii)N2O4(g)
 2NO2 (g), Kc has unit mol/L and Kp has unit bar
10. For pure solids and pure liquids, although they have their own active masses but they remain constant
during a chemical change (reaction). Therefore, these are taken to be unity for the sake of convenience.
11. Characteristics Of Equilibrium Constant
 Equilibrium constant is applicable only when concentrations of the reactants and products have
attained their equilibrium state.
 The value of equilibrium constant is independent of initial concentrations of the reactants and products.
 Equilibrium constant is temperature dependent having one unique value for aparticular reaction
represented by a balanced equation at a given temperature.
 The equilibrium constant for the reverse reaction is equal to the inverse of the equilibrium constant for
the forward reaction.
 The equilibrium constant K for a reaction is related to the equilibrium constant of the corresponding
reaction, whose equation is obtained by multiplying or dividing the equation for the original reaction by
a small integer.
12. Applications of equilibrium constant :
a) Predict the extent of a reaction on the basis of its magnitude.
b) Predict the direction of the reaction, and

 It helps predicting the direction of a reaction.
 If Q > Kc reaction will proceed in backward direction until equilibrium is reached.
 If Q < Kc reaction will proceed in forward direction until equilibrium is established.
 If Q = Kc reaction is at equilibrium
c) Calculate equilibrium concentrations. :The concentration of various reactants and products can be
calculated using the equilibrium constant and the initial concentrations.
13. K depends on the stoichiometry of the reaction.
 If two chemical reactions at equilibrium constants K1 and K2 are added then the resulting
equation has equilibrium constant K = K1 . K2
Equation constant
A (g) B (g) K1
B (g) C (g) K2
On adding A (g) C (g) K = K1 . K 2
 If the reaction having eq. constant K1 is reversed then resulting equation has eq. constant 1
K1
A (g) + B (g) C (g) + D (g)
1
On reversing, C (g) + D (g) A (g) + B (g) K =
K1
 If a chemical reaction having equilibrium constant K1 is multiplied by a factor n then the
resulting equation has equilibrium constant K = (K1)n, n can be fraction.

e.g. D2 (g) 2A (g) K1
1 1
Multiplying by  , D2 (g) A (g) K = (K1)1/2 = K1
2 2
13. Le Chatelier’s Principle:
 It states that if a system in equilibrium is subjected to a change of concentration,temperature or
pressure,the equilibrium shifts in a direction that tends to undo the effect of the change imposed.
 If a change is applied to the system at equilibrium, then equilibrium will be shifted in that direction
in which it can minimize the effect of change and the equilibrium is established again under new
conditions.
(a) Effect of concentration : If the concentration of a component is increased, reaction shifts in a direction
which tends to decrease its concentration.
 If concentration of reactant is increased at equilibrium then reaction shift in the forward direction.
 If concentration of product is increased then reaction shift in the backward direction.
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)
(reactant)  Forward shift
(Product)  Backward shift
Note : The addition of any solid component does not affect the equilibrium.
(b) Effect of Volume :
 If volume is increased, pressure decreases hence reaction will shift in the direction in which pressure
increases that is in the direction in which number of moles of gases increases and vice versa.
 If volume is increased then, for
n > 0 reaction will shift in the forward direction
n < 0 reaction will shift in the backward direction
n = 0 reaction will not shift e.g. H2 (g) + I2 (g) 2HI (g)(No effect)
(c) Effect of Pressure :
On increasing pressure, equilibrium will shift in the direction in which pressure decreases i.e. no. of moles in
the reaction decreases and vice versa.
P  no. of moles
(i) For n > 0  No. effects
(ii) For n > 0, PCl5 (g) + Cl2 (g)
(XPCl P).(XCl P)
QP = 3 2
 QP  P [( ) = mole fraction]
(XPCl5 .P)
P  = QP  = Forward
P  = QP  = Backward
(iii) For n < 0, e.g. N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)
2
(XNH ).P 
 3  1
QP = 3
 QP 
(XN ).P  (XH ).P  P2
 2  2 
P  = QP  = Forward ; P  = QP  = Backward
 Consider the reaction, CO (g) + 3H2 (g)  CH4 (g) + H2O (g) Here, 4 mol of gaseous reactants (CO + 3H2)
become 2 mol of gaseous products (CH4 (g) + H2O). so by Le Chatelier’s principle. The increase in pressure
will shift the the equilibrium in the forward direction, a direction in which the number of moles of the gas
or pressure decreases.
(d) Effect of change of Temperature:
 Exothermic reaction : The reaction in which heat is evolved
A (g) + B (g) C (g) + D (g) + Heat H = - ve
e.g. N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g) + Q
T   K’ will decrease (from vant’ hoff of equation)
 Thus, Q > K’  Backward shift
T   Forward shift

 Endothermic reaction : Energy consumed.
A (g) + B (g) C (g) + D (g) – Heat  H = + ve
T   K   Forward ; T   K   Backward.
 When a change in temperature occurs, the value of equilibrium constant changes. In general, the
temperature dependence of the equilibrium constant depends on the sign of ΔH for the reaction.The
equilibrium constant for an exothermic reaction (-ve ΔH) decreases as the temperature increases.The
equilibrium constant for an endothermic reaction (+ve ΔH) increases as the temperature increases. When
the Temperature is increased the equilibrium shifts in the direction in of endothermic reaction.
 Consider a reaction N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g) ΔH = -92.38Kj/mol
According to Le Chatelier’s principle, raising the temperature shifts the equilibrium to left (backward
direction i.e direction of endothermic reaction) and decreases the equilibrium concentration of ammonia.
(e) Effect of Inert gas addition :
(I) At constant volume :
Inert gas addition has no effect at constant volume.
(II) At constant pressure :
If inert gas is added then to maintain the pressure constant, volume is increased. Hence equilibrium
will shift in the direction in which larger no. of moles of gas is formed.
(i) n > 0, reaction will shift in the forward direction
(ii) n < 0, reaction will shift in the backward direction
(iii) n = 0, no effect.
 (f) Effect of a Catalyst:A catalyst increases the rate of the chemical reaction by making available a new low
energy pathway for the conversion of reactants to products. It increases the rate of forward and reverse
reactions that pass through the same transition state and does not affect equilibrium. Catalyst lowers the
activation energy for the forward and reverse reactions by exactly the same amount. Catalyst does not
affect the equilibrium composition of a reaction mixture. It does not appear in the balanced chemical
equation or in the equilibrium constant expression.
Summary of Le Chatelier’s Principle
Type of Effect or Change Direction of Equilibrium
Addition of more reactants Forward direction
Addition of more products Backward direction
Increase in temperature Towards endothermic reaction

Decrease in temperature Towards exothermic reaction
Addition of Catalyst No effect
Increase in Pressure where the no. of gaseous moles are less
Decrease in Pressure where the no. of gaseous moles are more

Addition of Inert gas at const.Volume No effect
Addition of Inert gas at const.pressure where the no. of gaseous moles are more
Question based on law of chemical equilibrium, Equilibrium constant, Applications of Equilibrium Constants,
Relation Between Kp & Kc.
1. What do mean by law of chemical equilibrium? Explain with an example.
2. Find out the value of Kc for each of the following equilibria from the value of Kp:

3. Write the expression for the equilibrium constant, Kc for each of the following reactions:
4. Write the balanced chemical equation corresponding to this equilibrium constant expression:
5. What is Kc for the following equilibrium when the equilibrium concentration of each substance is: [SO2]=
0.60M, [O2] = 0.82M and [SO3] = 1.90M 2SO2(g) + O2(g)  2SO3(g)
6. The following concentrations were obtained for the formation of NH3 from N2 and H2 at equilibrium at
500K. [N2] = 1.5 × 10–2M. [H2] = 3.0 ×10–2 M and [NH3] = 1.2 ×10–2M. Calculate equilibrium constant.
7. At equilibrium, the concentrations ofN2=3.0 × 10–3M, O2 = 4.2 × 10–3M and NO= 2.8 × 10–3M in a sealed
vessel at800K. What will be Kc for the reaction:N2(g) + O2(g)  2NO(g)
8. PCl5, PCl3 and Cl2 are at equilibrium at 500 K and having concentration 1.59M PCl3, 1.59M Cl2 and 1.41 M
PCl5.Calculate Kc for the reaction,PCl5  PCl3 + Cl2
9. For the equilibrium,2NOCl(g)  2NO(g) + Cl2(g) the value of the equilibrium constant, Kc is 3.75 × 10–6 at
1069 K. Calculate the Kp for the reaction at this temperature?
Question based on Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations, Le Chatelierís principleEffect of Pressure Change,
Concentration Change, Temperature Change, Inert Gas Addition & Catalyst
10. The value of Kc = 4.24 at 800K for the reaction, CO (g) + H2O (g)  CO2 (g) + H2 (g) Calculate
equilibrium concentrations of CO2, H2, CO and H2O at 800 K, if only CO and H2O are present initially at
concentrations of 0.10M each.The value of Kp for the reaction,CO2 (g) + C (s)  2CO (g) is 3.0 at 1000 K. If
initially p CO2= 0.48 bar and p CO = 0 bar and puregraphite is present, calculate theequilibrium partial
pressures of CO and CO2.
11. A sample of pure PCl5 was introduced into an evacuated vessel at 473 K. After equilibrium was attained,
concentration of PCl5 was found to be0.5 × 10–1 mol L–1. If value of Kc is 8.3 × 10–3, what are the
concentrations of PCl3 and Cl2 at equilibrium?PCl5 (g)  PCl3 (g) + Cl2(g)
12. What do you mean by Lechatelier’s principle? Explain with an example?
13. Does the number of moles of reaction products increase, decrease or remain same when each of the
following equilibria is subjected to a decrease in pressure by increasing the volume?
14. Describe the effect of: - a) Addition of H2 b) Addition of CH3OH c) Removal of CO d) Removal of CH3OH
On the equilibrium of the reaction: 2 H2[g] + CO[g] CH3OH [g]
15. Dihydrogen gas is obtained from natural gas by partial oxidation with steam as per following
endothermic reaction: CH4[g] + H2O [g] CO [g] + 3H2[g]
a) Write as expression for K p for the above reaction.
b) How will the values of Kp and the composition of equilibrium mixture be affected by
i) Increasing the pressure
ii) Increasing the temperature
iii) Using a catalyst

16. Which of the following reactions will get affected by increasing the pressure? Also, mention whether
change will cause the reaction to go into forward or backward direction.
17. At 473 K, equilibrium constant Kc for decomposition of phosphorus pentachloride, PCl5 is 8.3 ×10-3. If
decomposition is depicted as, PCl5 (g) PCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g) ΔrH0 = 124.0 kJ mol–1
a) write an expression for Kc for the reaction.
b) what is the value of Kc for the reverse reaction at the same temperature.
c) what would be the effect on Kc if (i) more PCl5 is added (ii) pressure is increased(iii) the temperature
is increased ?
Question based on Relationship Between Equilibrium Constant K, And Gibbs Energy G
18. The value of ΔG0 for the phosphorylation of glucose in glycolysis is 13.8 kJ / mol. Find the value of K c at
298 K
19. Hydrolysis of sucrose gives, Sucrose + H2O Glucose + Fructose
Equilibrium constant Kc for the reaction is 2 X 1013 at 300K. Calculate ΔG0 at 300K.
20. Calculate a) ΔG0 and b) the equilibrium constant for the formation of NO2 from NO and O2 at 298K NO
(g) + ½ O2 (g) NO2 (g) where ΔfG0 (NO2) = 52.0 kJ/mol ΔfG0 (NO) = 87.0 kJ/mol ΔfG0 (O2) = 0 kJ/mol.
IONIC EQUILIBRIUM
1. Substances conduct electricity in their aqueous solutions and are called electrolytes.
2. Substances that do not conduct electricity in their aqueous solutions and are called non electrolytes.
3. Strong electrolytes on dissolution in water are ionized almost completely, while the weak electrolytes
are only partially dissociated. For example, an aqueous solution of sodium chloride is comprised entirely
of sodium ions and chloride ions, while that of acetic acid mainly contains unionized acetic acid
molecules and only some acetate ions and protons. This is because there is almost 100% ionization in
case of sodium chloride as compared to less than 5% ionization of acetic acid which is a weak
electrolyte.
4. In weak electrolytes, equilibrium is established between ions and the unionized molecules. This type of
equilibrium involving ions in aqueous solution is called Ionic equilibrium.
5. Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases
 Arrhenius Acid : substance which gives H+ ion on dissolving in water (H+ donor) Example. HNO3, HClO4, HCl,
Hl, HBr, H2SO4, H3PO4 etc.
 H+ ion in water is extremely hydrated (in form of H3O+ , H5O2+, H7O3+) and high charge density.
 Arrhenius base : Any substance which releases OH- (hydroxyl) ion in water (OH- ion donor). Example
NaOH,Mg(OH)2,NH4OH etc.
 Limitation: Arrhenius concept of acid and base, however, suffers from the limitation of being applicable
only to aqueous solutions and also, does not account for the basicity of substances like, ammonia which do
not possess a hydroxyl group.
6. The Bronsted-Lowry Concept of Acids and Bases
 Bronsted-Lowery concept : (Conjugate acid – base concept) (Protonic concept)
 Acid : Substances which donate H+ are Bronsted Lowery acids (H+ donor)
 Base : Substances which accept H+ are Bronsted Lowery bases (H+ acceptor)
 Conjugate acid – base pairs
ln a typical acid base reaction

Example:

The acid-base pair that differs only by one proton is called a conjugate Acid-base pair.
Examples Acid Conjugate base Base Conjugate acid
-
HCl Cl NH3 NH4+
-
H2SO4 HSO4 H2O H3O+
HSO4- SO42- RNH2 RNH3+
7. Lewis concept (electronic concept):
 An acid is a molecule/ion which can accept an electron pair with the formation of a coordinate bond.
Acid  e- pair acceptor
e.g. Electron deficient molecules : BF3, AlCl3
Cations : H+, Fe2+, Na+
Molecules with vacant orbitals : SF4, PF3
 A base is any molecule/ion which has a lone pair of electrons which can be donated.
Base  (One electron pair donate)
e.g. Molecules with lone pairs : NH3, PH3, H2O, CH3OH
Questions related to Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases, The Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases, & Lewis
Acids and Bases
1. What will be the conjugate bases for the Brönsted acids: HF, H2SO4 and HCO3–?
2. Write the conjugate acids for the following Brönsted bases: NH2–, NH3 and HCOO–.
3. The species: H2O, HCO3–, HSO4– and NH3 can act both as Brönsted acids and bases. For each case give the
corresponding conjugate acid and base.
4. What is meant by the conjugate acid-base pair? Find the conjugate acid/base for the following
species:HNO2, CN–, HClO4, F –, OH–, CO3 2–, and S2–
5. Which of the followings are Lewis acids? H2O, BF3, H+, and NH4+
6. Classify the following species into Lewis acids and Lewis bases and show how these act as Lewis
acid/base: (a) OH– (b) F– (c) H+ (d) BCl3.
8. The Ionization Constant of Water and its Ionic Product
The dissociation constant is represented by, K = [H3O+] [OH–] / [H2O] The concentration of water is omitted
from the denominator as water is a pure liquid and its concentration remains constant. [H2O] is incorporated
within the equilibrium constant to give a new constant, Kw, which is called the ionic product of water. Kw =
[H+][OH–] The concentration of H+ has been found out experimentally as 1.0 × 10–7 M at 298 K. And, as
dissociation of water produces equal number of H+ and OH– ions, the concentration of hydroxyl ions, [OH–] =
[H+] = 1.0 × 10–7 M. Thus, the value of Kw at 298K, Kw = [H3O+][OH–] = (1 × 10–7)2 = 1 × 10–14 M2 .The value of Kw
is temperature dependent as it is an equilibrium constant. The density of pure water is 1000 g / L and its molar
mass is 18.0 g /mol. From this the molarity of pure water can be given as, [H2O] = (1000 g /L)(1 mol/18.0 g) =
55.55 M. Therefore, the ratio of dissociated water to that of undissociated water can be given as: 10 –7 / (55.55)
= 1.8 × 10–9 or ~ 2 in 10–9 (thus, equilibrium lies mainly towards undissociated water)We can distinguish acidic,

neutral and basic aqueous solutions by the relative values of the H3O+ and OH conc.: Acidic: [H3O+] > [OH– ]
Neutral: [H3O+] = [OH– ] Basic : [H3O+] < [OH–]
9. The pH Scale :Hydronium ion concentration in molarity is more conveniently expressed on a logarithmic
scale known as the pH scale. The pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm to base 10 of the
activity a H+ of hydrogen ion. From the definition of pH, the following can be written,
pH = – log aH+ = – log {[H+] / mol L–1} At 25 °C, pure water has a
concentration of hydrogen ions, [H ] = 10 M. Hence, the pH of pure water is given as: pH = –log(10–7) =
+ –7
7 Acidic solutions possess a concentration of hydrogen ions, [H+] > 10–7 M, while Basic solutions possess
a concentration of hydrogen ions, [H+] < 10–7 M. thus, we can summarise that
Acidic solution has pH < 7 Basic solution has pH > 7 Neutral solution has pH = 7
Kw = [H3O+] [OH–] = 10–14
Taking negative logarithm on both sides of equation, we obtain
–log Kw = – log {[H3O+] [OH–]}
= – log [H3O+] – log [OH–]
= – log 10–14
pKw = pH + pOH = 14
10. Ionization Constants of Weak Acids Consider a weak acid HX that is partially ionized in the aqueous
solution. The equilibrium can be expressed by:
HX(aq) + H2O(l)  H3O+(aq) + X–(aq)
Initial concentration (M) c 0 0
Let α be the extent of ionization
Equilibrium concentration c-cα cα cα
2 2 2
Ka = c α / c(1-α) = cα / 1-α Ka is called the dissociation or ionization constant of acid HX. At a given
temperature T, Ka is a measure of the strength of the acid HX i.e., larger the value of Ka, the stronger is the
acid.
11. Ionization of Weak Bases: Kb = [M+][OH–] / [MOH]
12. Relation between Ka and Kb : Ka × Kb = Kw
Questions related to pH
1. The concentration of hydrogen ion in a sample of soft drink is 3.8 × 10–3 M. what is its pH?
2. The pH of a sample of vinegar is 3.76. Calculate the concentration of hydrogen ion in it.
3. Assuming complete dissociation, calculate the pH of the following solutions:(a) 0.003 M HCl (b) 0.005 M
NaOH (c) 0.002 M HBr (d) 0.002 M KOH
4. Calculate the pH of the following solutions: (i)2 g of TlOH dissolved in water to give 2 litre of solution.
(ii)0.3 g of Ca(OH)2 dissolved in water to give 500 mL of solution. (iii)0.3 g of NaOH dissolved in water to
give 200 mL of solution. (iv)1mL of 13.6 M HCl is diluted with water to give 1 litre of solution
5. Calculate the hydrogen ion concentration in the following biological fluids whose pH are given below: (a)
Human muscle-fluid, 6.83 (b) Human stomach fluid, 1.2 (c) Human blood, 7.38 (d) Human saliva, 6.4
6. The pH of milk, black coffee, tomato juice, lemon juice and egg white are 6.8, 5.0, 4.2, 2.2 and 7.8
respectively. Calculate corresponding hydrogen ion concentration in each.
7. The ionization constant of acetic acid is 1.74 × 10–5. Calculate the degree of dissociation of acetic acid in
its 0.05 M solution. Calculate the concentration of acetate ion in the solution and its pH.
8. If 0.561 g of KOH is dissolved in water to give 200 mL of solution at 298 K. Calculate the concentrations
of potassium, hydrogen and hydroxyl ions. What is its pH?
9. The solubility of Sr(OH)2 at 298 K is 19.23 g/L of solution. Calculate the concentrations of strontium and
hydroxyl ions and the pH of the solution.
10. Calculate the pH of the resultant mixtures: a) 10 mL of 0.2M Ca(OH)2 + 25 mL of 0.1M HCl b) 10 mL of
0.01M H2SO4 + 10 mL of 0.01M Ca(OH)2 c) 10 mL of 0.1M H2SO4 + 10 mL of 0.1M KOH
Example
1. The ionization constant of HF is 3.2 × 10–4. Calculate the degree of dissociation of HF in its 0.02 M solution.
Calculate the concentration of all species present (H3O+, F– and HF) in the solution and its pH.

Answer: HF + H2O  H3O+ + F–
Initial concentration (M) 0.02 0 0
Equilibrium concentration 0.02 – 0.02 α 0.02 α 0.02α
Ka = (0.02α) / (0.02 – 0.02α) = 0.02 α / (1 –α) = 3.2 × 10–4
2 2
α = 0.12
This means that the degree of ionization, α = 0.12, then equilibrium concentrations
of other species viz., HF, F – and H3O+ are given by:
[H3O+] = [F –] = cα = 0.02 × 0.12 = 2.4 × 10–3 M
[HF] = c(1 – α) = 0.02 (1 – 0.12) = 17.6 × 10-3 M
pH = – log[H+] = –log(2.4 × 10–3) = 2.62
13. Solubility Product Constant:
BaSO4 Ba2+ + SO42–
K = {[Ba2+][SO42–]} / [BaSO4] For a pure solid substance the concentration remains constant and we can write
Ksp = K[BaSO4] = [Ba2+][SO4 2–]
We call Ksp the solubility product constant Or simply solubility product.
Al(OH)3 Al3+ + 3OH- Ksp = [Al3+][ OH-]3
For example, consider a salt like zirconium phosphate of molecular formula
(Zr4+)3(PO43–)4. It dissociates into 3 zirconium cations of charge +4 and 4 phosphate anions of charge –3. If the
molar solubility of zirconium phosphate is S, then it can be seen from the stoichiometry of the compound that
[Zr4+] = 3S and [PO43–] = 4S
and Ksp = (3S)3 (4S)4 = 6912 (S)7 or S = (Ksp / 6912)1/7
Solubility product of an electrolyte at a specified temperature is defined as the product of the molar
concentrations of its ions in a saturated solution ,each concentration raised to its power equal to the number
of ions produced on dissociation of one molecule of the electrolyte.
14. Buffer Solutions: The solutions which resist change in pH on dilution or with the addition of small
amounts of acid or alkali are called Buffer Solutions.
 Buffer solutions of known pH can be prepared from the knowledge of pKa of the acid or pKb of base and
by controlling the ratio of the salt and acid or salt and base.
 Example: A mixture of acetic acid and sodium acetate acts as buffer solution around pH 4.75 and a
mixture of ammonium chloride and ammonium hydroxide acts as a buffer around pH 9.25.
15. Common Ion Effect: If to an ionic equilibrium AB A+ + B- a salt containing a common ion (e.g .AC or
BD) is added ,the equilibrium shifts in the backward direction .This is called Common Ion effect.
 Example: Acetic acid ,being a weak acid ionizes to a small extent as follows: CH3COOH CH3COO- +
+
H .............................(i)
 To this solution, suppose the salt of this weak acid with a strong base is added .It ionizes almost
completely in the solution as follows and provides the common acetate ions. CH3COONa  CH3COO-
+ Na+ ......................(ii)
Common ion
The concentration of CH3COO- increases and by Le-Chatelier’s principle the dissociation equilibrium (i) shifts
backwards.i.e. Dissociation of Acetic acid is suppressed
Definition of Common Ion Effect:If to the solution of weak electrolyte ,which ionizes to a small extent ,a
strong electrolyte having a common ion is added which ionizes almost completely ,the ionization of the
weak electrolyte is further suppressed .similarly if to the solution of a sparingly soluble salt (Like AgCl),if a
common ion is added (like NaCl),the solubilty of the sparingly soluble salt further decreases.
16. Hydrolysis of Salts and the pH of their Solutions Salts formed by the reactions between acids and bases
in definite proportions, undergo ionization in water. The cations/anions formed on ionization of salts

either exist as hydrated ions in aqueous solutions or interact with water to reform corresponding
acids/bases depending upon the nature of salts. The later process of interaction between water and
cations/anions or both of salts is called hydrolysis. The pH of the solution gets affected by this
interaction. consider the hydrolysis of the salts of the following types :
 Salts of weak acid and strong base e.g., CH3COONa.
 Acetic acid being a weak acid (Ka = 1.8 × 10–5) remains mainly unionised in solution. This results in
increase of OH– ion concentration in solution making it alkaline. The pH of such a solution is more than
7.
 Salts of strong acid and weak base e.g., NH4Cl
 Ammonium hydroxide is a weak base (Kb = 1.77 × 10–5) and therefore remains almost unionised in
solution. This results in increased of H+ ion concentration in solution making the solution acidic. Thus,
the pH of NH4Cl solution in water is less than 7.
 Salts of weak acid and weak base, e.g., CH3COONH4 pH = 7 + ½ (pKa – pKb) The pH of solution can be
greater than 7, if the difference is positive and it will be less than 7, if the difference is negative.
Questions related to Solubility Product Constant, Common Ion Effect, Buffer solutions
1. Define Buffer solution and its types with suitable examples.
2. Define Solubility Product. Calculate the solubility of A2 X3 i, assuming that neither kind of ion reacts with
water. The solubility product of A2 X3 ,K sp = 1.1 X10 -23.
3. The values of K sp of two sparingly soluble salts Ni (OH)2 and AgCN are 2.0 X 10-15 and 6 X 10-17 respectively.
Which salt is more soluble? Explain.
4. Determine the solubilities of silverchromate, barium chromate, ferric hydroxide,lead chloride and
mercurous iodide at 298K. Ag2CrO4=1.1 X10-12 , BaCrO4=1.2 X10-10 Fe(OH)3 =1.0 X10-38 PbCl2 =1.6 X10-5 Hg2I2=4.5
X10 29Determine the molarities of individual ions.
5.Write a note on common Ion effect.give an example.
6.The pKa of acetic acid and pKb of ammonium hydroxide are 4.76 and 4.75 respectively. Calculate the pH of
ammonium acetate solution.
Kalra sir, 9462305605 ,kalra1977@gmail.com 10 | P a g e

CHEMI
STRYSIMPLYTHEBEST…ENJOYCHEMI
STRY
Uni
t10:THEs-
- BLOCKELEMENTS
1.
QuestionbasedonGr oupIEl ement s( Alkal imet als)
1.Gi vet heel ect roni cconf igur ationofal lgr oup1el ement s.
Atomi c Nameof Sy mb El ect ronic
number elememt ol conf i
guration
3 Lithium Li [He]2s 1
11 Sodi um Na [Ne]3s1
19 Pot assi um K [Ar]4s1
37 Rubi di um Rb [Kr]5s1
55 Caesi um Cs [Xe]6s1
87 Franci um Fr [Rn]7s1
1
2.Gi vet hegener al out erel ect roni cconf i
gur ati
onofgr oup1el ement s.Ans: ns
3.Whyar eal kali met alsnotf oundi nFr eeSt atei nnat ure?Ans: Alkali met alsincl udel i
thium,
sodium, pot assi um, r ubi dium, cesi um, andf ranci um.Thesemet al
shav eonl yoneel ectroni n
theirval enceshel l
, whi cht heyl oseeasi ly, owi ngt ot hei rlowi onizat i
onener gies.Ther efore,
alkalimet alsar ehi ghl yr eact iveandar enotf oundi nnat urei nt heirel ement al st ate.
+ +2
4.Accountf or .(a)Al kal imet alsf ormM i onnotM i ons. (
b)I onizati
onent halpiesoft heal kali
met alsar el owanddecr easedownt hegr oup. (c)Thehy drat i
onent hal piesofal kalimet al sions
+ + + + + +
areLi>Na>K. >Rb>Cs.Ans: (a)Al kal i met al sf or mM i onbecauset heyr eadi l
yloseel ect r
on
+ + +2
togi veM i ons.TheM i onshav est abl eel ect roni cconf i
gur ati
onsoM i onsar enot
formed. (b)Thei oni zat i
onent hal piesoft heal kal i met al sar econsi der abl ylowanddecr ease
downt hegr oupf rom Li toCs.Thi si sbecauset heef fectofi ncreasi ngsi zeout wei ghst he
i
ncr easi ngnucl earchar ge, andt heout ermostel ect roni sv erywel l scr eenedf rom t henucl ear
char ge.(c)Thehy drat ionent hal piesofal kalimet al i
onsdecr easewi t
hi ncreasei ni onic
+
sizes.ar eLi >Na+>K+. >Rb+>Cs+.
5.Whatar et hecommonphy sical andchemi cal feat ur esofal kalimet als?
AnsPhy si calpr oper tiesofal kal imet al sar easf ol lows.
(a)The yar equi tesof tandcanbecuteasi ly.Sodi um met al canbeeasi lycutusi ngakni fe.
(b)The yar elightcol our edandar emost l
ysi lver ywhi t einappear ance.
(c)The yhav el owdensi tybecauseoft hel argeat omi csi zes.Thedensi tyincr easesdownt he
groupf rom Li toCs.Theonl yexcept iontot hi sisK, whi chhasl owerdensi tyt hanNa.
(d)Theme talli
cbondi ngpr esenti nal kal imet alsi squi teweak.Ther ef ore,theyhav elow
mel tingandboi lingpoi nts.
(e)Al kal imet alsandt hei rsal tsi mpar tachar act eristiccol ourt of l
ames.Thi si sbecauset he
heatf rom t hef lameexci test heel ect ronpr esenti nt heout ermostor bit
al toahi ghener gy
l
ev el.Whent hi sexci tedel ect ronr ev ertsbackt ot hegr oundst at e, itemi tsexcessener gy
asr adi at i
ont hatf al l
si nt hev isibler egi on.
(f) The yal sodi spl ayphot oel ectricef fect .Whenmet alssuchasCsandKar ei rradiatedwi th
l
ight ,theyl oseel ect rons.
Chemi cal pr oper tiesofal kal i met als
(a)Al kal imet alsar ehi ghl yr eact iveduet ot hei rl owi oni zat i
onent hal py .Aswemov edownt he
group, ther eact iv i
tyi ncr eases.
(b)The yr eactwi thwat ert of or mr espect iveoxi desorhy dr oxides.Aswemov edownt he
group, ther eact ionbecomesmor eandmor espont aneous.
(c)The yr eactwi thwat ert of or mt hei rr espect ivehy dr oxidesanddi hy dr ogens.Thegener al
r
eact
ionf
ort
hesamei
sgi
venas
d)The
( yr
eactwi
thdi
hydr
ogent
ofor
m met
alhy
dri
des.Thesehy
dri
desar
eioni
csol
i
dsand
kal
ra1977@gmai
l
.com 9462305605
havehi
ghmelti
ngpoints.
e)Al
( mostal
lal
kal
imetals,exceptLi
,reactdi
rect
lywi
thhal
ogenst
ofor
mioni
chal
i
des.
+
(
f) Si
nceLi i
oni sverysmal l
insize,i
tcaneasil
ydistorttheelect
roncloudar oundthe
negati
vehalidei on.Ther efore,l
it
hium hal
idesarecovalentinnature.
g)The
( yarest r
ongr educingagent s.Thereducingpowerofal kal
imet al
sincreasesonmov i
ng
downt hegroup.Howev er,li
thi
um isanexception.I
tist hestr
ongestreducingagent
amongt heal kalimetals.Itisbecauseofi tshi
ghhydrat i
onenergy.
h) The
( ydissol
v einl i
quidammoni atof or
m deepbluecol ouredsolut
ions.Thesesol ut
ions
areconduct
inginnat
ure.
(
i) Thea mmoniatedel
ect
ronscausethebluecol
ouroft
hesol
uti
on.Thesesol
uti
onsare
paramagnet
icandifal
lowedtostandforsometi
me,thent
heyli
ber
atehydr
ogen.Thi
s
r
esul
tsi
nthef
ormat
ionofami
des.
(
j)I
nahi
ghl
yconcent
rat
edsol
uti
on,
thebl
uecol
ourchangest
obr
onzeandt
hesol
uti
on
becomesdi amagnet i
c.
6.Findoutt heoxi dati
onst ateofsodi um inNa2O2?Ans: Lettheoxi dati
onst ateofNabex.The
oxidationst ateofoxy gen, i
ncaseofper oxi
des, is–1. Therefore,2x+2( -
1)=0 2x- 2=0 2x=2
x=+1Ther efore, t
heoxidat i
onsat eofsodi um i s+1.
7.Explainwhyi ssodi um lessr eactivet hanpot assium ?Ans:Al kal
i metals,onmov i
ngdownt he
group, theat omi csizeincreasesandt heeffect i
v enuclearchar gedecr eases.Becauseof
thesef actors,theout ermostel ectroninpot assium canbel osteasi l
yascompar edtosodium.
Hence, potassium ismor ereact i
vet hansodi um.
8.Inwhatway slithi
um showssi milarit
iestomagnesi um initschemi calbehav iorsAns:
Simi l
ariti
esbet weenl it
hium andmagnesi um ar easf ollows.
(a)Bot hLi andMgr eactsl owl ywi t
hcoldwat er
(b). Theoxi desofbot hLi andMgar emuchl esssol ubl
ei nwat erandt heirhydroxi
des
decomposeathi
ght
emper
atur
e.
c)Bot
( hLiandMgr eactwi
thN2t ofor
m nit
ri
des.
d) Ne
( i
therLinorMgform peroxi
desorsuper
oxides.
e)Thec
( ar
bonatesofbot
har ecoval
enti
nnature.Also,
thesedecomposeonheat
ing.
(
f)LiandMgdonotform sol
i
dbi car
bonates.
g)Bot
( hLi
ClandMgCl2ar
esolubleinethanolowingtothei
rcovalentnature.
h)Bot
( hLi
ClandMgCl2ar
edeliquescenti
nnat ur
e.Theycryst
all
i
zef rom aqueous
sol
uti
onsashy dr
ates,
9.Explainwhycanal kal
iandalkal
ineeart
hmet alsnotbeobt ai
nedbychemi calr
eduction
met hods? Ans:Intheprocessofchemi calreduction,oxidesofmet alsarer
educedusinga
strongerreduci
ngagent.Alkal
imetalsandal kali
neear thmet alsareamongthestrongest
reducingagentsandthereducingagentst hatarest r
ongert hanthem arenotavai
lable.
Ther ef
ore,t
heycannotbeobt ai
nedbychemi calreductionoft hei
roxides.
kal
ra1977@gmai
l
.com 9462305605
10.Whyar epotassium andcesi um,ratherthanl i
thi
um usedi nphotoel ect
ri
ccells?Ans:All the
three,li
thi
um, potassium,andcesi um, arealkalimetals.Sti
ll
,KandCsar eusedinthe
phot oel
ectri
ccel landnotLi.Thi
sisbecauseascompar edt oCsandK, Li i
ssmal l
erinsizeand
therefore,
requireshighener gytoloseanel ectron.Whi l
eont heotherhand, KandCshav elow
i
oni zati
onener gy.Hence,theycaneasi lyloseelectrons.ThispropertyofKandCsi suti
lizedin
phot oel
ectri
ccel l
s.
11.Whenanal kalimet aldi
ssolvesinliqui
dammoni athesolutioncanacquirediffer
entcolors.
Expl ai
nthereasonsf orthi
st ypeofcol orchange?
Ans:Whenanal kalimetali
sdi ssol
vedi nl
iquidammoni a, i
tresul
tsintheformationofadeepbl ue
col
our edsolution. Theammoni at
edelect
ronsabsor
b
energycorrespondi ngtoredregionofvisi
bleli
ght.Theref
ore,t
het r
ansmitt
edli
ghtisbluein
col
our .Atahi gherconcentrat
ion(3M),cluster
sofmet alionsareformed.Thi
scausest he
sol
utiontoat tainacopper –br
onzecolourandachar acteri
sti
cmet al
li
clust
re.
12.Discussthev ari
ousreacti
onsthatoccurintheSolvayprocess.
Ans:Thev ariousr eact
ionsthatoccuri
nt heSolvayprocess:
13.
Pot assi
um car bonatecannotbepr eparedbySol v
ayprocess.Why ?Ans:Solvayprocess
cannotbeusedt oprepar
epot assium carbonat e.Thisisbecauseunl i
kesodium bicarbonate,
potassium bicarbonateisfair
lysolubleinwat eranddoesnotpr ecipi
tateout.
14.
Whyi sLi2CO3decomposedatal owert emper aturewher easNa2CO3athi ghertemperature?
Ans:Aswemov edownt healkalimet algroup,theelectroposit
ivecharacteri
ncreases.This
causesani ncreaseinthestabil
it
yofal kal
i carbonates.Howev er,l
it
hium carbonateisnotso
stabletoheat .Thisisbecauselit
hium carbonat eiscov alent
.Lit
hium ion,bei
ngv erysmal l
in
size,polari
zesal argecarbonateion,leadi
ngt ot heformat i
onofmor est abl
elit
hium oxide.
Ther ef
ore,l
i
t hi
um carbonatedecomposesatal owtemperaturewhi
le
astabl esodi
um carbonatedecomposesatahi ght emperat
ure
15.Start
ingwi t
hsodium chlori
dehowwoul dy ouproceedtoprepar
e( 1)Sodi
um metals(i
i
)
Sodium Hy droxi
de(i
ii
)Sodium peroxide( i
v)Sodium car
bonate?
Ans:(a)Sodi um canbeextractedfrom sodium chl
or i
debyDownspr ocess.
:Thi
sprocessinv
olv
es
theelectroly
sisoffusedNaCl (
40%)andCaCl 2(60%)atat emperatur
eof1123Ki nDownscel l
.
Steeli
sthecathodeandablockofgraphit
eact
sastheanode.Metall
i
cNaandCaar
efor
medat
cathode.Mol
tensodium i
stakenoutofthecel
landcol
l
ect
edov erker
osene.
kal
ra1977@gmai
l
.com 9462305605
(i
i)Sodium hydroxi
decanbepr eparedbytheelect
rolysi
sofsodium chl
or i
de.Thi
siscal
led
Castner–Kell
nerprocess.I
nt hi
sprocess,t
hebrinesoluti
onisel
ectrol
ysedusingacarbonanodeand
amer curycathode.Thesodium met al
,whi
chisdischargedatcathode,combineswit
hmer cur
yto
form anamalgam.
(i
ii
)Sodium per
oxide:
Fir
st,
NaCli
select
roly
sedtoresul
tint
hefor
mati
onofNamet al(
Downs
process)
.Thissodium met
ali
sthenheatedonal
umi ni
um t
ray
sinai
r(f
reeofCO2)t
oformit
s
peroxi
de. (
iv)Sodi
um car
bonatei
sprepar
edbySol
vaypr
ocess.Sodium
hydrogencar
bonat
eispr
eci
pit
atedinareact
ionofsodi
um chl
ori
deandammoni
um hydrogen
carbonat
e.
Thesesodi
um hy
drogencar
bonat
ecr
yst
alsar
eheat
edt
o
gi
vesodi
um car
bonat
e.
16.Descr ibet woi mpor tantusesofeachoft hef ollowing( 1)Caust i

csoda( 2)Sodi um Car bonat e
Ans:( 1)Usesofcaust icsoda: (
i)Itisusedi nsoapi ndust ry.(i
i)I
tisusedasar eagenti nlabor atory.
(2)Usesofsodi um car bonat e(a)I tisgener all
yusedi ngl assandsoapi ndust ry .
(b)I ti susedasa
wat ersof tener .
17.Whyi sLi Fal mosti nsol ubl einwat erwher easLi CIsol ublenotonl yinwat erbutal soinacet one?
Ans: LiFi
si nsol ubleinwat er .Ont hecont rary,LiCl i
ssol ubl enotonl yinwat er, butal soi nacet one.
Thisi smai nlybecauseoft hegr eat eri onicchar act erofLi Fascompar edt oLi Cl.Thesol ubilityof
acompoundi nwat erdependsont hebal ancebet weenl at ti
ceener gyandhy drat ionener gy .Si nce
fl
uor ideioni smuchsmal l
eri nsizet hanchl oridei on,thel atti
ceener gyofLi Fi sgr eat erthant hat
ofLi Cl.Also, therei snotmuchdi ffer encebet weent hehy drationener giesoff l
uor i
dei onand
chlor i
deion.Thus, thenetener gychangedur ingt hedi ssol utionofLi Cl i
nwat eri smor e
exot hermi ct hant hatdur ingt hedissol uti
onofLi Fi nwat er .Hence, lowl atti
ceener gyandgr eat er
coval entchar acteraret hef actorsmaki ngLi Cl solublenotonl yi
nwat er,butal soi nacet one.
18.Expl aint hesi gnifi
canceofsodi um, potassium, i
nbi ological fl
uids.
Ans:I mpor tanceofsodi um, potassi um, magnesi um, andcal cium inbi ological fluids:( i
)Sodi um
(Na) :Sodium i onsar ef oundpr i
mar il
yi nthebl oodpl asma.Theyar eal sof oundi nt hei nterstiti
al
fl
uidssur r
oundi ngt hecel ls.Sodi um i onshel pint het r
ansmi ssionofner v
esi gnal s.Theyhel pi n
regul ati
ngt hef lowofwat eracr osst hecel lmembr anes.Theyal sohel pi nt ranspor ti
ngsugar sand
ami noaci dsi ntothecel ls.(ii)Potassi um ( K):
Pot assium i onsar efoundi nthehi ghestquant ity
withint hecel lf
luids.(a)Ki onshel pi nact i
vati
ngmanyenzy mes.( b)Theyal sopar ti
cipat ein
kal
ra1977@gmai
l
.com 9462305605
oxidi
singglucosetoproduceATP.( c)Theyalsohel pint r
ansmitt
ingnervesi
gnals
19.Whathappenswhen( 1)sodium metali
sdroppedi nwat er(
2)Sodium metal
isheat
edinf
ree
supplyofair(
3)Sodium peroxi
dedissol
vesi nwat er?
Ans: (
i)WhenNamet ali
sdroppedinwat er
,itreactsviolentl
ytoform sodi
um hydr
oxi
deand
hydrogengas.Thechemi calequati
oninvol
vedi nther eacti
onis:
(i
i)Onbei
ngheatedinair
,sodi
um r
eact
sv i
gor
ousl
ywi
thoxy
gent
ofor
m sodi
um per
oxi
de.The
chemical
equat
ioninvol
vedint
hereact
ioni
s:
(i
ii
)Whensodi
um per
oxi
deisdissolv
edinwater
,itisreadi
l
yhy dr
oly
sedt
ofor
m sodi
um hy
droxi
de
andwater
.Thechemi
calequat
ioninvol
vedi
nther eacti
onis:
20.Stateastowhya)Asol ut
ionofNa2CO3i salkal
i
neB)Al kal
imet al
sareprepar
edbyelect
rol
ysi
s
ofthefusedchl
ori
desC)Sodi um i
sfoundt obemor eusefulthanpotassium?
Ans: (
a)Whensodium carbonateisaddedtowat er,
ithydrol
ysestogivesodium bi
car
bonat
eand
sodium hydrox
ide(
astrongbase).Asar esult
,thesolut
ionbecomesal kal
ine.
(b)I ti
snotpossi bletopr epareal kalimet alsbyt hechemi cal r
educt i
onoft heiroxi desasthey
themsel vesar everyst rongr educi ngagent s.Theycannotbepr eparedbydi splacementr eacti
ons
either(wher einoneel ementi sdisplacedbyanot her).Thi sisbecauset heseel ement sarehighly
elect r
opositive.Neithercanel ect r
olysi sofaqueoussol uti
onsbeusedt oext r
actt heseelement s.
Thi sisbecauset hel i
ber atedmet alsr eactwi t
hwat er.Hence, t
oov ercomet hesedi ffi
cul
ti
es,alkal
i
met alsar eusual lyprepar edbyt heel ect rolysi
soft heirfusedchl or
ides.
(c)Bl oodpl asmaandt hei nterst
itialfluidssur roundingt hecellsar ether egionswher esodium
i
onsar epr i
mar i
l
yf ound.Pot assium i onsar el
ocat edwi thinthecel lfl
uids.Sodi um i onsare
i
nv olvedi nthet ransmi ssionofner v
esi gnal s,
inr egulat i
ngt hef lowofwat eracr osst hecell
membr anes, andint r
anspor t i
ngsugar sandami noaci dsi nt
ot hecel l
s.Hence, sodi um i
sfoundt o
bemor eusef ulthanpot assi
um.
21. Wr i
tebal ancedequat i
onsf orreact ionsbet ween
a)Na2O2andwat erb) KO2andWat erc) Na2OandCO2.
Ans: (
a)Thebal ancedchemi cal equat ionf orther eactionbet weenNa2O2andwat eris:
(
b)Thebal
ancedchemi
cal
equat
ionf
ort
her
eact
ionbet
weenKO2andwat
eri
s:
(
c)Thebal
ancedchemi
cal
equat
ionf
ort
her
eact
ionbet
weenNa2OandCO2i
s:
22.Whichoft heal kalimet alishav ingleastmel t i

ngpoi nt?a)Na( b)K c)Rb( d)Cs
Ans:At omicsizeincreasesaswemov edownt heal kaligroup.Asar esult,
thebi ndingenergiesof
thei
ratomsi nt hecr y
stal lat
ticedecr ease.Al so, t
hest r
engt hofmet al
li
cbondsdecr easeson
mov i
ngdownagr oupi nt heper iodictable.Thiscausesadecr easei nt hemeltingpoi nt.Among
thegivenmet als,Csi sthel argestandhast heleastmel t
ingpoint
23.Whichoneoft hef oll
owi ngal kalimet alsgiveshy dratedsalts?a)Li( b)Nac) K( d)Cs
Ans:Smal lerthesizeofani on, t
hemor ehighlyisithy drat
ed.Amongt hegi venalkali metal
s,Liisthe
smal l
esti
nsi ze.Also,ithast hehi ghestchar gedensi t
yandhi ghestpolarisingpower .Hence,it
at
tractswat ermolecul esmor est r
ongl ythant heot heralkalimetals.Asar esult
,itfor mshy dr
ated
kalra1977@gmai l
.com 9462305605
sal
tssuchas
Li
Cl.2H2O.Theot
heral
kal
imetal
sarel
argert
hanLi
andhav
eweakerchar
gedensi
ti
es.Hence,
they
usuall
ydonotfor
m hydr
atedsal
ts.
Quest
ionbasedonGr oupI
IElements(Alkalineear t
hmet als)
24.
Givetheelectronicconf
igurati
onofal
l group2el ements.
Ans:
Atomic Nameof Symb El ectr onic
number elememt ol conf igur at
ion
4 Berylli
um Be [He]2s 2
12 Magnesi um Mg [Ne]3s2
20 Calcium Ca [Ar]4s2
38 Strontium Sr [Kr]5s2
56 Barium Ba [Xe]6s2
88 Radium Ra [Rn]7s
2
25.Giv et hegener al out erel ectroni cconf i

gur ationofgr oup2el ement s.
2
Ans: ns
26.Discusst hegener al char acter isticsandgr adat i
oni npr operti
esofal kal ineear thmet als
Ans: Gener al charact er i
sticsofal kal i
neear thmet alsar easf oll
ows.
(a)Thege ner alelectroni cconf i
gur ationofal kalineear thmet alsis[nobl egas]ns2.
(b)The semet alsloset woel ectronst oacqui r
et henear estnoblegasconf igur at i
on.Ther efore,
theiroxi dationst at ei s+2
(c).Thesemet alshav eat omi candi oni cradi ismal lerthant hatofal kal imet als.Al so,whenmov ed
downt hegr oup, theef fect iv
enucl earchar gedecr easesandt hiscausesani ncreasei nt heir
atomi cr adiiandi oni cr adi i
.
(d)Sincet heal kalineear thmet alshav elargesi ze,theirionizati
onent halpi esar ef oundt obef airl
y
low.Howev er, t
hei rf ir
sti onizat ionent halpiesar ehighert hant hecor r
espondi nggr oup1
met al s.
(e)The semet alsar el ust rousandsi l
verywhi teinappear ance.Theyar er elat i
vel ylesssof tas
compar edt oal kali met als.
(f)Atomsofal kal i
neear thmet alsar esmal l
ert hant hatofal kalimet als.Al so, theyhav et wo
valenceel ectronsf or mi ngst rongermet alli
cbonds.Theset wof act orscauseal kalineear t
h
met al st ohav ehi ghmel tingandboi l
ingpoi ntsascompar edt oal kalimet als.
(g)The yar ehighl yelect r
oposi ti
v ei nnat ur e.Thi sisduet otheirlowi oni zat ionent halpies.Al so,
theel ect r
oposi ti
vechar acteri ncr easesonmov ingdownt hegr oupf rom Bet oBa.
(h)Ca ,Sr ,andBai mpar tchar act erist i
ccol our st oflames.Ca–Br i
ckr ed, Sr–Cr imsonr ed, Ba–
Appl egr een, I
nBeandMg, t
heel ectronsar et oost r
ongl yboundt obeexci t
ed.Hence, t
hesedo
noti mpar tanycol ourt ot hef lame.
Chemi cal proper tiesofal kalineear thmet al
sar easf ollows
(a)Thea l
kal i
neear thmet alsar el essr eact ivethanal kalimetalsandt hei rr eact ivit
yincr easeson
mov ingdownt hegr oup. .
(b)Re act ionwi thai randwat er:BeandMgar eal mosti nerttoairandwat erbecauseoft he
format ionofoxi del ayeront hei rsur face.
(c)Powde redBebur nsi nai rtof or m BeOandBe3N2.
(d)Mg, bei ngmor eel ect r
oposi ti
v e, burnsi nai rwi thadazzl i
ngspar klet of orm MgOandMg3N2.
(e)Ca ,Sr ,andBar eactr eadi l
ywi thai rtof ormr espect i
v eoxidesandni tr
ides.
(f) Ca ,Ba, andSrr eactv igor ousl yev enwi thcol dwat er.
(g)Al kalineear thmet alsr eactwi thhal ogensathi ght emper aturestof orm hal ides.
kal
ra1977@gmai
l
.com 9462305605
h)Al
( l
thealkal
i
neeart
hmetal
s,exceptBe,r
eactwi
thhydr
ogentoform hy
dri
des.
(
i) Theyreactr
eadi
l
ywithaci
dstoform sal
tsandl
i
berat
ehydrogengas.
(
j) Theyar
est
rongr
educi
ngagent
s.Howev
er,
thei
rreduci
ngpoweri
slesst
hant
hatofal
kal
i
met
als.Aswemov
edownt
hegr
oup,
ther
educi
ngpoweri
ncr
eases.
k)Si
( mil
art
oal
kal
imet
als,
theal
kal
i
neear
thmet
alsal
sodi
ssol
vei
nli
qui
dammoni
atogi
vedeep
bl
uecolour
edsolut
ions.
27.Comparetheal
kali
met al
sandalkal
ineeart
hmet al
swi
thr
espectt
o(i
)ioni
sat
ionent
hal
py(
ii
)
basi
cit
yofoxi
desand( i
ii
)sol
ubi
l
ityofhydr
oxides
Ans:

Al
kal
imet
als Al
kal
ineear
thmet
als
Ionizati
onent halpy:
Thesehav elowest (
i) Ionizat i
onent hal
py :Alkali
neear thmet alshave
i
oni zati
onent halpi
esinr espect
ive smal lerat omi csizeandhi ghereffectiv
enucl ear
periods.Thi si
sbecauseoft heirl
arge char geascompar edt oalkalimet al
s.Thiscauses
atomi csizes.Also,theylosetheironl
y theirf i
rstioni zat
ionent halpiestobehi gherthan
valenceel ectr
oneasi l
yast heyattai
n thatofal kalimet als.Howev er
,theirsecond
stablenobl egasconf igurat
ionafter i
oni zationent hal
pyi slesst hanthecor responding
l
osi ngit. alkali met als.Thisisbecauseal kalimetals,aft
er
l
osi ngoneel ectr
on, acquiresnobl egas
conf iguration, whichisv erystable.
Basici
tyofoxi des:Theoxi desofal kal
i (
ii
) Basi
cit
yofoxi
des:Theoxidesofal
kali
neearth
met al
sarev erybasicinnat ure.This metal
sarequi
tebasicbutnotasbasicasthoseof
happensduet othehighlyel ect
roposit
ive al
kali
metal
s.Thi
sisbecausealkal
ineearthmetal
s
natureofalkalimetals,whi chmakes ar
elessel
ectr
oposit
ivet
hanalkal
imet al
s.
theseoxideshi ghl
yionic.Hence, they
readil
ydissociatei
nwat ertogive
hydroxideions.
Solubil
i
tyofhydr
oxi
des:
Thehydr
oxides (
ii
i) Solubil
it
yofhy dr
oxides:Thehy dr
oxidesofalkal
ine
ofalkal
imetal
saremoresol
ubl
ethan earthmet al
sarelesssolublet hanthoseofalkal
i
thoseofalkal
i
neeart
hmetal
s. met al
s.Thisisduetot hehighl at
ti
ceenergiesof
alkali
neearthmetals.Thei
rhi gherchargedensiti
es
(ascompar edtoalkalimetals)accountforhigher
l
at t
iceenergi
es.
28.Bery
ll
ium andmagnesium donotgi vecolortofl
amewhereasot
hersal
kali
neearthmetal
sdo
so.Why?
Ans:Ca,Sr,andBaimpartcharacter
ist
iccolourstofl
ames.Ca–Brickr
edSr–Cr imsonredBa–
Applegreen.InBeandMg, t
heel ect
ronsaret oostr
ongl
yboundtobeexci
ted.Hence,t
hesedo
notimpartanycolourt
otheflame.
kal
ra1977@gmai
l
.com 9462305605
29.Compar et heSol ubil
ityandt hermalst abili
tyoft hefollowing:MgCO3 CaCO3 Sr CO3 BaCO3
Ans:Thermal stabil
ityincreaseswi ththeincreasei nt hesizeoft hecat i
onpr esenti
nt he
car
bonat e.Thei ncreasingor deroft hecationicsizeoft hegivenal kali
neear thmetalsisMg<Ca<
Sr<BaHence, theincreasingor derofthet hermal stabil
it
yoft hegi venalkalineear
thmet al
car
bonat esisMgCO3<CaCO3<Sr CO3<BaCO3
30.Whydoest hesol ubil
it
yofal kali
neear t
hmet alhy dr
oxidesi nwat erincreasedownt hegroup?
Ans:
31.Whydoest hesol ubil
ityofalkalineearthmet al carbonatesandsul phatesi nwat
erdecrease
downt hegr oup?
32.Whathappenswhen( 1)magnesi um isbur ntinair
(2)Quicklimei sheat edwi thsil
ica(3)Chl ori
ner eactswi t
hsl akedl i
me( 4)Calci
um nitr
ateis
heated
Ans:
(i)Magnesi
um bur
nsi
nai
rwi
thadazzl
i
ngl
i
ghtt
ofor
m MgOandMg3N2.
(
ii
)Qui
ckl
i
me(
CaO)combi
neswi
thsi
l
ica(
SiO2)t
ofor
m sl
ag.
(
ii
i)Whenchl
ori
dei
saddedt
osl
akedl
i
me,
itgi
vesbl
eachi
ngpowder
.
(
iv)Cal
cium ni
tr
ate,
onheat
ing,
decomposest
ogi
vecal
cium oxi
de.
33.Descri
betwoi mport
antusesofQui ckli
me
Ans:Usesofqui ckli
me(a)Iti
susedasast arti
ngmater
ialf
orobtai
ningsl
akedli
me.(b)I
tisused
i
nthemanuf actureofgl
assandcement .
34.Drawthestructur
eof(1)BeCl2(Vapour)(2)BeCl
2(Soli
d)
Ans:(a)Str
uctureofBeCl
2(soli
d):BeCl2exi
stsasapolymerincondensed(sol
i
d)phase.
I
nthev
apourst
ate,
BeCl
2exi
stsasamonomerwi
thal
i
nearst
ruct
ure.
kal
ra1977@gmai
l
.com 9462305605
35. TheHy dr oxi
desandCar bonat esofsodi um andpot assium ar eeasi lysol ublei nwat erwhi lethe
correspondi ngsal tsofmagnesi um andcal cium ar espar i
nglysol ubl einwat er.Expl ai
n?
Ans; Theat omi csi zeofsodi um andpot assium i sl ar gert hant hatofmagnesi um andcal cium.
Thus, t
hel atticeener giesofcar bonat esandhy dr ox idesf or medbycal cium andmagnesi um ar e
muchmor et hant hoseofsodi um andpot assium.Hence, carbonat esandhy dr oxidesofsodi um
andpot assi um di ssolv ereadi l
yi nwat erwher east hoseofcal ci
um andmagnesi um ar eonl y
spar i
ngl ysol uble.
36. Explaint hesi gnificanceofmagnesi um andcal cium i nbi ological fl
uids.
Ans:Magnesi um ( Mg)andcal cium (Ca) :Magnesi um andcal cium ar er eferredt oasmacr o-
mi nerals.Thi ster mi ndi catest heirhigherabundancei nt hehumanbodysy stem. (a)Mghel psi n
relaxingner vesandmuscl es.( b)Mghel psinbui l
di ngandst rengtheni ngbones.( c)Mgmai ntains
nor mal bloodci rculationi nthehumanbodysy st em.( d)Cahel psi nt hecoagul ationofbl ood( e)
Caal sohel psi nmai ntaininghomeost asi s.
37. Howwoul dyouexpl ai
nt hef ollowingobser v ations? (i
)BeOi sal mosti nsolubl ebutBeSO4i n
solublei nwat er,(i
i)BaOi ssol ublebutBaSO4i sinsol ubl einwat er,
Ans:( i)BeOi sal mosti nsolubl einwat erandBeSO4i ssol ubleinwat er.Be2+i sasmal lcat i
onwi th
2– 2+ 2–
ahi ghpol ar i
singpowerandO i sasmal lanion.Thesi zecompat ibil
ityofBe andO i shi gh.
Ther efore,thel at ti
ceener gyr eleaseddur i
ngthei rf or mat ionisal sov er yhigh.WhenBeOi s
dissolv edinwat er ,t
hehy drat i
onener gyofi t
si onsi snotsuf f
icientt oov ercomet hehighl atti
ce
ener
gy.Ther
efor
e,BeOi
sinsol
ubl
einwat
er.Ont
heot
herhand, i
oni
sal
argeani
on.Hence,
Be2+caneasilypolari
se ions, makingBeSO4unst able.Thus,t
helat
ti
ceenergyofBeSO4i snot
veryhighandsoi tissolubleinwat er
.
(i
i)BaOi ssol
ubleinwat er,butBaSO4i snot.Ba2+isalargecationandO2– i
sasmal l
anion.The
2+ 2–
sizecompat i
bil
i
tyofBa andO i snothigh.Asar esult
,BaOi sunst
abl
e.Thelatt
iceenergy
releasedduri
ngitsformat i
onisal sonotveryl
arge.Itcaneasilybeover
comebyt hehydrati
on
energyoft heions.Ther ef
ore,BaOi ssolubleinwat er .InBaSO4, Ba2+and arebothlarge-
sized.
Thel att
iceener gyr eleasedi shigh.Hence,itisnotsol ubleinwat er.
38.Descr ibethei mpor tanceoft hefoll
owing: (i)li
mest one(ii)cement( iii
)plasterofparis
Ans: .(i
)Chemi call
y ,
limest oneisCaCO3.I mpor tanceofl i
mest one( a)Itisusedi nthe
preparationofl imeandcement .(b)Iti
susedasaf luxdur i
ngt hesmel t
ingofi ronores.(ii
)
Chemi cally,cementi sami xtureofcalcium sil
icateandcal cium al uminate.I
mpor tanceofcement
(a)Itisusedi npl asteringandi nconstructi
onofbr idges.( b)I tisusedinconcr et
e.( i
ii
)
Chemi cally,plasterofPar isis2CaSO4.H2O.I mpor tanceofpl ast erofPar i
s( a)Itisusedin
surgicalbandages.( b)I ti
salsousedf ormaki ngcast sandmoul ds.
kal
ra1977@gmai
l
.com 9462305605
Chemistry Simply the best……….ENJOY CHEMISTRY
Unit-11 p -BLOCK ELEMENTS
Question based on Group 13 Elements
1. Give the electronic configuration of all group 13 elements.
Symbol Atomic Electronic
number configuration
B 5 [He]2s22p1
Al 13 [Ne] 3s23p1
Ga 31 [Ar]3d104s24p1
In 49 [Kr]4d105s25p1
Tl 81 [Xe]4f145d106s26p1
2. Give the general outer electronic configuration of group 13 elements. Answer: ns2np1
3. Why the atomic radius of Ga is slightly smaller than that of Al. Answer: The presence of additional 10
d-electrons offer only poor screening effect for the outer electrons from the increased nuclear charge in
gallium. Consequently, the atomic radius of gallium (135 pm) is less than that of aluminium (143 pm).
4. Why the ionization enthalpy of Ga is slightly higher than that of Al. Answer: Due to low screening
effect of d-electrons
5. Define inert pair effect. Answer In boron, carbon and nitrogen families the group oxidation state is the
most stable state for the lighter elements in the group. However, the oxidation state two unit less than
the group oxidation state becomes progressively more stable for the heavier elements in each group.
The occurrences of oxidation states two unit less than the group oxidation states are attributed to the
‘inert pair effect’
 The pair of electron in the valence shell does not take part in bond formation it is called inert pair
effect
6. Discuss the pattern of variation of oxidation state from B to Tl in Boron family.
Answer: B to Tl. The common oxidation states are +1 and +3. The stability of +3 oxidation state
decreases from B to Tl.+ 1 oxidation state increases from B to Tl due to inert pair effect.
7. Why the electronegativity first decreases from B to Al and then increases marginally.
Answer:This is because of the discrepancies in atomic size of the elements.
8. How can you explain higher stability of BCl3 as compared to TlCl3 ?Answer In case of boron (B) atom,
the inert pair effect is negligible. This means that all the three valence electrons (2s 22pxl) are
available for bonding with chlorine atoms. Therefore, BCl3 is quite stable.However, in case of
thallium (Tl), the valence s-electron (6s 2 ) are experiencing maximum inert pair effect. Thus, it
means that only valence p-electron (6p5) is available for bonding. Under this circumstance T1C1 is
very much stable while TlC13 is comparatively little stable.
9. Why Boron forms electron deficient compounds. Answer BF3 behaves as Lewis acid because central
boron atom has only six electrons after sharing with the electrons of the F atoms. It is an electron
deficient compound and therefore, behaves as a Lewis acid.
10. Boron predominantly forms covalent bonds in its compounds. Answer Due to small size of boron, the
sum of its first three ionization enthalpies is very high. This prevents it to form +3 ions and forces it to
form only covalent compounds
11. Aluminium shows amphoteric character .Justify with chemical reactions. Answer Aluminiium can react
both acids and bases. It is therefore, amphoteric in nature. For example.
(i)Al2 O3 + 6HCl  2AlCl3 + 3H2 O (ii)Al 2O 3 + 2NaOH  2NaAlO 2 + H2 O
12. Aluminium forms [AlF6]3- but boron does not form [BF6]3-.Explain. Answer Due to availability of d
orbitals, Aluminium is able to expand its octet.therefore Aluminium forms [AlF6]3- Wheras . Due to
unavailability of d orbitals, Boron is unable to expand its octet.therefore boron does not form [BF6]3-.
13. Why is Boric acid considered as a weak acid? Answer: Because it is not able to release H+ ions on its
own. It receives OH– ions from water molecule to complete its octet and in turn releases H+ ions.
14. Describe the structure of Boric acid. Answer: Do yourself
kalra1977@gmail.com 9462305605
15. Describe the structure of Diborane. Answer:The structure of diborane Fig.11.2(a).(NCERT ) :The four
terminal hydrogen atoms and the two boron atoms lie in one plane. Above and below this plane, there
are two bridging hydrogen atoms. The four terminal B-H bonds are regular two centre-two electron
bonds while the two bridge (B-H-B) bonds are different and can be described in terms of three centre–
two electron bonds. Each B atom uses sp3 hybrids for bonding. Out of the four sp3 hybrids on each B
atom, one is without an electron shown in broken lines. The terminal B-H bonds are normal 2-centre-2-
electron bonds but the two bridge bonds are 3-centre-2-electron bonds. The 3-centre-2-electron bridge
bonds are also referred to as banana bonds.
16. BF3 & AlCl3 acts as a Lewis acid. Why Answer: BF3 & AlCl3 are electron deficient compounds
17. Are BCl3 & SiCl4 electron deficient species. Explain.Answer:The compound whose octet are
incomplete are known as electron deficient compound. BCl 3 is electron deficient species as it has
only 6 electron in its octet. SiCl4 is also an electron deficient species because it has vacant 4 d
orbitals.
18. If B-Cl bond has a dipole moment, explain BCl3 molecule has zero dipole moment. Answer: B-Cl bond
has dipole moment because of polarity.In BCl3 since the molecule is symmetrical thus the polarities
cancel out
19. Suggest reasons why the B-F bond lengths in BF3 molecule (130 pm) and BF4-(143pm) differ. Answer:
BF 3 is planar molecule in which B is sp 2 hybridise & has an empty 2p orbital, and F atom has 3
lone pair of electron in 2p orbital. Due to same size pπ- pπ back bonding occurs which results in
partial double character In BF4-, B is sp 3 hybridised . It does not have an empty orbital. So pπ- pπ
back bonding is not possible.
The B-F bond lengths in BF3 molecule has partial double character due to back bonding whereas B-F
bond lengths in BF4- is purely single. thus B-F bond lengths in BF3 molecule is 130 pm and BF4- is 143pm
20. Boron is unable to form BF6-.Explain Answer: Due to non-availability of d orbitals, boron is unable to
expand its octet. Therefore, the maximum covalence of boron cannot exceed 4.
21. Draw the structure of AlCl3. Answer: AlCl3 achieves stability by forming a dimer
22. White fumes appear around the bottle of anhydrous aluminium chloride. Give reason.
Answer Anhydrous aluminium chloride is partially hydrolysed with atmospheric moisture to liberate HCl
gas. Moist HCl appears white in colour
23. How is orthoboric acid prepared? Write balanced reaction.
Answer Na2B4O7 + 2HCl +5H2O2NaCl + 4B(OH) 3
24. What happens Boric acid is added in water.
Answer : Boric acid is a weak monobasic acid. It is not a protonic acid but acts as a Lewis acid by accepting
electrons from a hydroxyl ion: B(OH)3 + 2HOH [B(OH)4]– + H3O+
25. What happens Boric acid is heated.
Answer :On heating, orthoboric acid above 370K forms metaboric acid, HBO2 which on further heating
 
yields boric oxide, B2O3. H3BO3   HBO2   B2O3
26. How is Diborane prepared? Write three methods only with reactions.
Answer: (a) 4 BF3 +3 LiAlH4   2B2H6 + 3LiF + 3AlF3
b) 2BF3 + 6NaH   B2H6 +6NaF
450 K
c) 2NaBH4 +I2   B2H6 +2NaI +H2

27. What happens when: (i) Diborane burns in oxygen. (ii) Diborane reacts with Water (iii) Diborane
reacts with ammonia (iv) Diborane reacts with CO (v) Diborane reacts with NMe3. (vi) Diborane reacts
with metal hydrides
Answers: (i) B2H6 + 3O2   B2O3 + 3H2O (ii) B2H6(g) + 6H2O(l)   2B(OH)3(aq) + 6H2(g)
(iii) 3B2H6 + 6NH3   2B3N3H6 (inorganic benzene”)+12H2
(iv) B2H6 + 2CO   2BH3.CO (v) B2H6 + 2NMe3   2BH3.NMe3 (vi) 2MH + B2H6   2 M [BH4]
+ –
28. Complete the following reactions: DO YOURSELF
(i) BF3 + NH3  

(ii) Na2B4O7 + H2O   (iv) H3BO3  (vi) BF3 + NaH  
(iii) B (OH)3 + H2O   (v) BF3 + LiAlH4  (vii) NaBH4 +I2  
29. Complete the following reactions: DO YOURSELF
i. B2H6 + NH3   iii. B2H6 + CO   v. B2H6 + LiH  
ii. B2H6 + NMe3   iv. B2H6 + NaH  
30. What happens when: Give Chemical reactions:
 
(a) Borax is heated strongly. Ans:H3BO3   HBO2   B2O3
(b) Boric acid is added to water. Ans:B2H6(g) + 6H2O(l)   2B(OH)3(aq) + 6H2(g)
(c) Aluminium is treated with dilute NaOH. Ans: 2Al (s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 6H2O(l)   2 Na[Al(OH)4] (aq) +
3H2(g)
(d) BF3 is reacted with ammonia. Ans:BF3 easily accepts a lone pair of electrons from ammonia to form
BF3   :NH3.
(e) Hydrated alumina is treated with aqueous NaOH solution. Ans:Al2 O 3 + 2NaOH  2NaAlO2 + H2 O
(f) CO is heated with ZnO Ans: ZnO+ CO  Zn + CO2
31. Account for the following:
i. Conc. HNO3 can be transported in aluminium container. Answer: Aluminium reacts with
conc.HNO3 to form a very thin film of aluminium oxide on its surface which protects it from
further action.
Thus, Al becomes passive and hence aluminium containers can be used to transport
cone. HNO3.
ii. A mixture of dilute NaOH and aluminium pieces is used to open clogged drain. Answer:NaOH
reacts with Al to evolve dihydrogen whose pressure can be used to ope n clogged
iii. AlCl3 acts as catalyst. Answer: AlCl3 is lewis acid.
iv. Boron forms electron deficient compounds. Answer: BF3 behaves as Lewis acid because central
boron atom has only six electrons after sharing with the electrons of the F atoms
v. Aluminium alloys are used to make aircraft body. Answer:Aluminium alloys such as duralumin
and magnalium are light, tough and resistant to corrosion and hence are used to make
aircraft body.
vi. Aluminium wires are used to make transmission cables. Answer: On weight to weight basis,
aluminium conducts twice as copper (which is a relatively
more expensive metal). Therefore, aluminium is used in transmission cables.
vii. Aluminium utensils should not be kept in water overnight. Answer: Al reacts with H 2O and
dissolved O2 to form a thin film of aluminium oxide. An infinitesimally small amount of A12O3
may dissolve to give a few ppm of A13+ ions in the solution. Since A1 3+ ions are injurious to
health, therefore, drinking water should not be kept in aluminium utensils overnight.
viii. Aluminium trifluoride is insoluble in anhydrous HF but dissolves on addition of NaF. Aluminium
trifluoride precipitates out of the resulting solution when gaseous BF3 is bubbled through. Answer:
AlF 3 does not dissolve in anhydrous HF because it is available for coordination with AlF3 due
to the presence of intermolecular hydrogen bonding. It dissolves in NaF because F - ion can
coordinate with AlF 3 and a salt is formed. The salt is decomposed by BF 3 which is Lewis acid
(electron deficient) and AlF 3 is precipitated
31. When metal X is treated with sodium hydroxide, a white precipitate (A) is obtained, which is
soluble in excess of NaOH to give soluble complex (B). Compound (A) is soluble in dilute HCl to
form compound (C). The compound (A) when heated strongly gives (D), which is used to extract
metal. Identify (X), (A), (B), (C) and (D). Write suitable equations to support their identities
Answer: As (X) reacts with NaOH to first give a white ppt. (A) which dissolves in excess of NaOH
to give a soluble complex (B), therefore, metal (X) must be Al ppt. (A) must be Al(OH)3 and
complex (B) must be sodium tetrahydroxoaluminate (III). Since (A) is amphoteric in nature, it
reacts give dil. HCl to form (C) when must be AlCl3. Since (A) on heating gives (D) which is used to
extract metal, therefore, (D) must be alumina
Question based on Group 14 Elements

32. Give the electronic configuration of all group 14 elements.
Symbol Atomic Electronic
number configuration
C 6 [He]2s22p2
Si 14 [Ne] 3s23p2
Ge 32 [Ar]3d104s24p2
Sn 50 [Kr]4d105s25p2
Pb 82 [Xe]4f145d106s26p2
33. Give the general outer electronic configuration of group 14 elements. Answer:ns2np2
34. There is a considerable increase in covalent radius from C to Si, thereafter from Si to Pb a small
increase in radius is observed .Explain. Answer: due to the presence of completely filled d and f
orbitals in heavier members
35. Explain why is there a phenomenal decrease in ionization enthalpy from carbon to silicon ?
Answer:Due to increase in atomic size and screening effect, the force of attraction of
the nucleus for the valence electrons decreases considerably in Si as compared to C.
As a result, there is a phenomenal decrease in ionization enthalpy from carbon to
silicon
36. How would you explain the lower atomic radius of Ga as compared to Al ?
Answer:Due to poor shielding of the valence electrons of Ga by the inner 3d -electrons,
the effective nuclear charge of Ga is greater in magnitude than that of Al . As a result,
the electrons in gallium experience greater force of attraction by the nucleus than in
Al and hence atomic size of Ga (135 pm)
37. Discuss the pattern of variation of oxidation state from C to Pb in Carbon family.
Answer: C to Pb The common oxidation states are +2 and +4. The stability of +4 oxidation
state decreases from C to Pb + 2 oxidation state increases from C to Pb due to inert pair
effect.
38. Account for the following:
i. Lead compounds in + 4 state are strong oxidizing agents. Answer: As Pb 4+ Changes to stable Pb 2+
easily due to inert pair effect.
ii. Tin compounds in + 2 state are strong reducing agents. Answer: As Sn 2+ can Change to Sn 4+
iii. Lead (IV) chloride is highly unstable towards heat. Answer: Due to greater stability of +2
oxidation state over +4 oxidation state due to inert pair effect. PbCl4 decomposes on
heating.
iv. Lead is not known to form an iodide,PbI4.
Answer: I2 is unable to oxidize Pb(II) salts to Pb(IV) salts. It is because energy released
due to initial Pb-I bond formation is not enough to unpair 6s 2 electrons and excite them
to 6p orbital. So due to non availability of four unpaired electrons PbI 4 does not exist.
v. SiCl4 undergoes hydrolysis CCl4 whereas does not. Answer:Due to availability of d orbitals in
Silicon.
vi. [SiF6]2- is known whereas [SiCl6]2- is not. Answer:The main reasons are : (i) six large chloride ions
cannot be accommodated around Si4+ due to limitation of its size. (ii) interaction between lone
pair of chloride ion and Si4+ is not very strong
vii. Carbon is able to show allotropic forms. Answer: Due to property of catenation and pπ– pπ bond
formation, carbon is able to show allotropic forms.
39. Which element of group 14 forms the most acidic oxide? Answer:Carbon
40. Which element of group 14 is commonly found in +2 state. Answer:Lead
41. Which element of group 14 is used as semiconductor. Answer:Silicon
42. Define Catenation. Answer: Carbon atoms have the tendency to link with one another through
covalent bonds to form chains and rings. This property is called catenation. This is because C—C
bonds are very strong.
43. Arrange C,Si,Ge,Sn & Pb in order of its decreasing Catenation property with suitable reason.
Answer: C > Si >Ge >Sn >Pb It is due to decrease in bond dissociation energy which is due to
increase in atomic size. C-C > Si-Si >Ge-Ge>Sn-Sn>Pb-Pb.
44. Define Allotropes. Answer: It is the property of the element by which an element can exists in two
forms which have same chemical properties but different physical properties due to their
structures.
45. Describe the structure of Diamond & Graphite. Answer: Structure of Diamond :In diamond each
carbon atom undergoes sp3 hybridisation and linked to four other carbon atoms by using
hybridised orbitals in tetrahedral fashion. The C–C bond length is 154 pm. The structure extends in
space and produces a rigid threedimensional network of carbon atoms. In this structure (Fig
NCERT 11.3) directional covalent bonds are present throughout the lattice. It is very difficult to
break extended covalent bonding and, therefore, diamond is a hardest substance on the earth.
Structure of Graphite:Graphite has layered structure (NCERT Fig.11.4). Layers are held by van der
Waals forces and distance between two layers is 340 pm.Each layer is composed of planar
hexagonal rings of carbon atoms. C—C bond length within the layer is 141.5 pm. Each carbon atom
in hexagonal ring undergoes sp2 hybridisation and makes three sigma bonds with three
neighbouring carbon atoms. Fourth electron forms a π bond. The electrons are delocalized over
the whole sheet.
46. How are Fullerenes prepared ? Answer:Fullerene are the allotropes of carbon.Its structure is like a
soccer ball. They are prepared by heating graphite in electric arc in presence of inert gases such as
helium or argon
47. Describe the structure of Fullerene.
Answer:It contains twenty six- membered rings and twelve five membered rings. A six membered
ring is fused with six or five membered rings but a five membered ring can only fuse with six
membered rings. All the carbon atoms are equal and they undergo sp2 hybridisation. Each carbon
atom forms three sigma bonds with other three carbon atoms. The remaining electron at each
carbon is delocalised in molecular orbitals, which in turn give aromatic character to molecule. This
ball shaped molecule has 60 vertices and each one is occupied by one carbon atom and it also
contains both single and double bonds with C–C distances of 143.5 pm and 138.3 pm respectively.
Spherical fullerenes are also called bucky balls in short.
48. What is the state of hybridization of carbon in Diamond & Graphite? Answer: sp3 hybridisation in
Diamond & sp2 hybridisation in Graphite.
49. Give reasons: (i) Diamond is used to make abrasives. (ii) Diamond is covalent, yet it has high
melting point (iii) Graphite is used as lubricant. Answer: (i) Diamond is used as an abrasive
because it is an extremely hard substance.(ii) Diamond has a three-dimensional network involving
strong C—C bonds, which are very difficult to break and, in turn has high melting point.(iii)
Graphite cleaves easily between the layers and, therefore, it is very soft and slippery.
50. Give some uses of Carbon, Boron & Aluminium. Answer: Page 319 NCERT book
51. Give one method for industrial preparation and one for laboratory preparation of CO & CO 2
each. Answer:Page 319 NCERT book
52. How is water gas (synthesis gas) & Producer gas prepared. Answer: Page 319 NCERT book
53. CO is poisonous in nature. Suggest reason. Answer: The highly poisonous nature of CO arises
because of its ability to form a complex with haemoglobin, which is about 300 times more stable
than the oxygen-haemoglobin complex. This prevents haemoglobin in the red blood corpuscles
from carrying oxygen round the body and ultimately resulting in death.
54. Write a short note on : (i)Photosynthesis (ii) Green house effect (iii)Dry ice
Answer: (i) Photosynthesis: It is the process by which green plants convert atmospheric CO2 into
 ,Chlorphyll
carbohydrates such as glucose. The overall chemical change as: 6CO2 + 12H2O h   C6H12O6
(ii) Green house effect: Increase the CO2 content of the atmosphere lead to increase in green house effect
and thus, raise the temperature of the atmosphere which might have serious consequences.
(iii) Dry ice: Carbon dioxide can be obtained as a solid in the form of dry ice by allowing the liquefied CO2
to expand rapidly. Dry ice is used as a refrigerant for ice-cream and frozen food.
55. . Describe the structure of CO & CO2.
56. Draw the structure of SiO2 & (SiO4)4-. Answer: NCERT Fig. 11.6 Three dimensional structure of SiO2
Fig. 11.7 (a) Tetrahedral structure of SiO4 4–anion; (b) Representation of SiO4 4–unit
57. What are Silicones? How are Silicones prepared. Answer:
They are a group of organosilicon polymers, which have (R2SiO) as a repeating unit.
Simple silicones consist of chains in which alkyl or phenyl groups occupy the
remaining bonding positions on each silicon. They are hydrophobic (water repellant) in nature.
Preparation Of Silicones: NCERT PAGE 321
58. If the starting material for the manufacture of Silicones is RSiCl 3 ,write the structure of the product
formed. Answer: Hydrolysis of trichlorosilanes (RSiCl3) yields cross-linked silicones
59. What are zeolites. give its uses. Answer: If aluminium atoms replace few silicon atoms in three-
dimensional network of silicon dioxide, overall structure known as aluminosilicate, acquires a
negative charge. Cations such as Na+, K+ or Ca2+ balance the negative charge.Examples are feldspar
and zeolites. Zeolites are widely used as a catalyst in petrochemical industries for cracking of
hydrocarbons and isomerisation, e.g., ZSM-5 (A type of zeolite) used to convert alcohols directly
into gasoline.
60. Write balanced equation for: DO YOURSELF
 ,CONC.SULPHURICACID
(i) HCOOH  
4731273 K
(ii) C(s) + H2O(g)  
(iii) C + O2 + N2 1273K
(iv) ZnO + CO  
(v) Fe2O3 + CO  
(vi) SiO2 + NaOH  
(vii) SiO2 + HF  
 ,Cu
(viii) CH3Cl + Si  
61. What happens when: Give Chemical reactions
(a) Silicon is heated with methyl chloride at high temperature in the presence of copper
(b) Silicon dioxide is treated with hydrogen fluoride;
62. Why is Boric acid polymeric in nature? Answer: Boric acid is polymeric due to the presence of
H-bonds.
63. Classify following as acidic, basic or amphoteric: CO, CO 2, SiO2, GeO2, SnO2, PbO2, GeO, SnO,
PbO. Answer: The dioxides — CO2, SiO2 and GeO2 are acidic, whereas SnO2 and PbO2 are
amphoteric in nature. Among monoxides, CO is neutral, GeO is distinctly acidic whereas SnO and
PbO are amphoteric
64. Thermodynamically most stable form of carbon is ______. (Diamond/Graphite)
65. A aqueous solution of borax is_____________.(neutral/acidic/basic/amphoteric.) Answer:Borax
is a salt of a strong base (NaOH) and a weak acid (H 3BO3), thus it is basic in nature.
Being ignorant is not so much a shame as being unwilling to learn to do things the right way.
Chemistry Simply the best……….ENJOY CHEMISTRY
MAHENDRA KALRA
Chapter 13.HYDROCARBONS
PREPARATION OF ALKANES
1. Hydrogenation reaction Dihydrogen gas adds to alkenes and alkynes in the presence of finely
divided catalysts like platinum, palladium or nickel to form alkanes. This process is called
hydrogenation
2. Decarboxylation: Sodium salts of carboxylic acids on heating with soda lime (mixture of sodium
hydroxide and calcium oxide) give alkanes containing one carbon atom less than the carboxylic acid.
This process of elimination of carbon dioxide from a carboxylic acid is known as decarboxylation.
3. Wurtz Reaction: Alkyl halides on treatment with sodium metal in dry ethereal (free from moisture)
solution give higher alkanes. This reaction is known as Wurtz reaction and is used for the preparation
of higher alkanes containing even number of carbon atoms.
Limitations: - use of two different alkyl holds in Wurtz Rxn always leads to a mixture of alkanes; those
are difficult to separate because of little B.pt difference. So only symmetrical alkanes can be prepared
by this method
4. Kolbe’s electrolytic method : . An aqueous solution of sodium or potassium salt of carboxylic acid
on electrolysis gives alkane containing even number of carbon atoms at the anode.
Physical properties Alkanes : (Boiling Point) There is a steady increase in boiling point with increase in
molecular mass. This is due to the fact that the intermolecular van der Waals forces increase with increase
of the molecular size or the surface area of the molecule. The boiling points of Alkanes decreases with
branching. With increase in number of branched chains, the molecule attains the shape of a sphere. This
results in smaller area of contact and therefore weak intermolecular forces between spherical molecules,
which are overcome at relatively lower temperatures.
Chemical properties Alkanes
1. Substitution reactions : One or more hydrogen atoms of alkanes can be replaced by halogens, nitro
group and sulphonic acid group. Halogenation takes place either at higher temperature (573-773 K)
or in the presence of diffused sunlight or ultraviolet light. Lower alkanes do not undergo nitration and
sulphonation reactions. These reactions in which hydrogen atoms of alkanes are substituted are
known as substitution reactions.
Halogenation proceed via free radical chain mechanism involving three steps namely initiation, propagation
and termination as given below:
 Chain initiation
 Chain termination
 Chain propagation
The above mechanism helps us to understand the reason for the formation of ethane as a byproduct
during chlorination of methane.
2. Combustion of Alkanes: Alkanes on heating in the presence of air or dioxygen are completely
oxidized to carbon dioxide and water with the evolution of large amount of heat.
3. Isomerisation: n-Alkanes on heating in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride and hydrogen
chloride gas isomerise to branched chain alkanes.
4. Aromatization: n-Alkanes having six or more carbon atoms on heating to 773K at 10-20 atmospheric
pressure in the presence of oxides of vanadium, molybdenum or chromium supported over alumina
get dehydrogenated and cyclised to benzene and its homologues. This reaction is known as
aromatization or reforming.
5. Pyrolysis :Higher alkanes on heating to higher temperature decompose into lower alkanes, alkenes
etc. Such a decomposition reaction into smaller fragments by the application of heat is called
pyrolysis or cracking.
Conformations of Alkanes
PREPARATION OF ALKENES
1. Partial reduction of alkynes: Alkynes on partial reduction with calculated amount of dihydrogen in
the presence of palladised charcoal (Lindlar’s catalyst) partially deactivated with poisons like sulphur
compounds or quinoline give alkenes. Alkenes thus obtained are having cis geometry. However,
alkynes on reduction with sodium in liquid ammonia form trans alkenes.
2. Dehydrohalogenation (removal of halogen acid HX). Or β-elimination reaction: Alkyl halides (R-X) on
heating with alcoholic potassium hydroxide gives alkenes. In this reaction hydrogen atom is
eliminated from the β carbon atom (carbon atom next to the carbon to which halogen is attached).
3. Acidic dehydration of alcohols Alcohols on heating with concentrated sulphuric acid form alkenes
with the elimination of one water molecule. This reaction is also the example of β -elimination
reaction since –OH group takes out one hydrogen atom from the β -carbon atom.
4. Dehalogenation : Vicinal dihalides on treatment with zinc metal lose a molecule of ZnX2 to form an
alkene.
Chemical properties of Alkenes : Alkenes are the rich source of loosely held pi (π) electrons, due to which
they show addition reactions in which the electrophiles add on to the carbon-carbon double bond to form
the addition products
1. Addition of dihydrogen: Alkenes add up one molecule of dihydrogen gas in the presence of finely
divided nickel, palladium or platinum to form alkanes
2. Addition of halogens : Halogens like bromine or chlorine add up to alkene to form vicinal dihalides.
The reddish orange colour of bromine solution in carbon tetrachloride is discharged when bromine
adds up to an unsaturation site. This reaction is used as a test for unsaturation.
3. Addition reaction of HBr to symmetrical alkenes.
4. Addition reaction of HBr to unsymmetrical alkenes (Markovnikov Rule)

 Markovnikov Rule : When unsymmetrical agent adds to unsymmetrical alkenes the negative
part of the unsymmetrical agent gets attached to that double bonded carbon atom which
possesses lesser number of hydrogen atoms.
Mechanism :
 H-Br  H+ + Br-

 Anti Markovnikov addition or peroxide effect or Kharash effect In the presence of peroxide,
addition of HBr to unsymmetrical alkenes like propene takes place contrary to the
Markovnikov rule.i.e. that negative part of the addendum (HBr) gets attached to that double
bonded carbon atom which possesses more number of hydrogen atoms
Mechanism :
5. Addition of water : In the presence of a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid alkenes react with
water to form alcohols, in accordance with the Markovnikov rule.
6. Oxidation of Alkene
 on reaction with cold, dilute, aqueous solution of potassium permanganate (Baeyer’s
reagent) produce vicinal glycols. Decolorisation of KMnO4 solution is used as a test for
unsaturation.
 Acidic potassium permanganate or acidic potassium dichromate oxidises alkenes to ketones
and/or acids depending upon the nature of the alkene and the experimental conditions
7. Ozonolysis : Ozonolysis of alkenes involves the addition of ozone molecule to alkene to form ozonide,
and then cleavage of the ozonide by Zn-H2O to smaller molecules. This reaction is highly useful in
detecting the position of the double bond in alkenes or other unsaturated compounds
8. Polymerisation: Polythene is obtained by the combination of large number of ethene molecules at

high temperature, high pressure and in the presence of a catalyst. The large molecules thus obtained
are called polymers. This reaction is known as polymerization The simple compounds from which
polymers are made are called monomers.
Preparation of Alkynes:
1. From calcium carbide
2. Dehydrohalogenation of vicinal dihalides : Vicinal dihalides on treatment with alcoholic

potassium hydroxide undergo dehydrohalogenation. One molecule of hydrogen halide is
eliminated to form alkenyl halide which on treatment with sodamide gives alkyne.
Chemical properties of Alkynes:

1. Acidic character of alkyne: Sodium metal and sodamide (NaNH2) are strong bases. They react with
ethyne to form sodium acetylide with the liberation of dihydrogen gas. In ethyne, hydrogen atoms
can be liberated as protons more easily as compared to ethene and ethane. Hence, hydrogen atoms
of ethyne attached to triply bonded carbon atom are acidic in nature.
Alkanes, alkenes and alkynes follow the following trend in their acidic
behaviour :
2. Addition of dihydrogen
3. Addition of halogens
Reddish orange colour of the solution of bromine in carbon tetrachloride is decolourised. This is used as a
test for unsaturation.
4. Addition of hydrogen halides
5. Addition of water
6. Cyclic polymerization of Ethyne
 AROMATIC COMPOUNDS
 There were a large number of compounds which were obtained from natural sources, e.g. resins,
balsams, ‘aromatic’ oils, etc, which comprised a group of compounds whose structures were
arbitrarily classified as aromatic (Greek : aroma, fragrant smell) compounds.
 Aromatic Character : [The HUckel (4n + 2)  rule]
The following three rules are useful in predicting whether a particular compound is aromatic or non-
aromatic.
1. Aromatic compounds are cyclic and planar.
2. Each atom in an aromatic ring is sp2 or sp hybridized.
3. The cyclic  molecular orbital (formed by overlap of p-orbitals) must contain (4n + 2)  electrons,
i.e. 2, 6, 10, 14, …  electrons. Where n = an integer 0, 1, 2, 3, ….
 Molecular orbital theory of aromaticity
According to MOT Benzene is a regular flat hexagon. Thus each carbon atom is in a state of trigonal
hybridization. Hence, in benzene, there are six C  H bonds, six C  C bonds and six 2p, electrons (one
on each carbon atom) which are all parallel and perpendicular to the plane of the ring. These electrons
can be paired in two ways, both being equally good (b and c). Each 2p z electrons, however, overlaps its
neighbours equally, and therefore all six can be treated as forming an M.O.
In the ground state, the total energy of the three pairs of delocalized   electrons is less than that of
three pairs of localized   electrons (b) or (c), and hence the benzene molecule is stabilized by
delocalization (resonance).
 Comparison of Aromatic compounds with alkenes
Benzene is not as reactive as alkenes, which react rapidly with bromine at room temperature to give
addition products. For example, cyclohexene reacts to give trans-1, 2-dibromocyclohexane. This
reaction is exothermic by about 29 kcal/mol (121 kJ/mol.).
The analogous addition of bromine to benzene is endothermic because it requires the loss of aromatic
stability. The addition is not seen under normal circumstances. The substitution of bromine for a
hydrogen atom gives an aromatic product. The substitution is exothermic, but it requires a Lewis acid
catalyst to convert bromine to a stronger electrophile.
Examples of Aromatic Compounds

  electrons Aromatic Compound /
n Salts Examples of salts
= (4n + 2) ions
1 6
1 6
2 10
3 14
Preparation of Benzene
 Cyclic polymerisation of ethyne
 Decarboxylation of aromatic acids
 Reduction of phenol

Electrophillic Aromatic Substitution Reactions in Benzene Ring: Substitution of an electrophile (E) for a

proton (H) on the aromatic ring is known as electrophillic aromatic substitution.
Mechanism of Electrophillic Aromatic Substitution Reactions

(a) Generation of the eletrophile
In the case of nitration,
(b) Formation of carbocation intermediate
(c) Removal of proton from the carbocation intermediate
Addition reactions
Combustion
Activating Groups or Electron Releasing Groups (ERG)

All groups having one or more lone pair of electrons are activating groups because they release
electrons towards the nucleus increasing electron density and hence energy of the system. Reaction
rate is increased due to low energy of activation. Examples :
All the groups which are electron donating etc. are ortho-para directing and
facilitate electrophilic substitution in the benzene ring.
Deactivating Group or Electron Withdrawing Group (EWG) or Meta Directors
Such groups have tendency to withdraw  electrons from the benzene nucleus and thus decreasing its
electron density are known as deactivating groups.
These groups develop positive charge at ortho and para positions leaving the meta-positions as the
point of relatively high electron density and hence the electrophilic substitution occurs at m-position,
not at O— and p—positions.
Examples :
decreasing meta directing strength
CARCINOGENICITY AND TOXICITY Benzene and polynuclear hydrocarbons containing more than two
benzene rings fused together are toxic and said to possess cancer producing (carcinogenic) property.
Such polynuclear hydrocarbons are formed on incomplete combustion of organic materials like tobacco,
coal and petroleum. They enter into human body and undergo various biochemical reactions and finally
damage DNA and cause cancer.
Answer the following :

1 How do you account for the formation of ethane during chlorination of methane.
2 Why Iodination of methane is carried in out presence of HIO3?
3 What effect does branching of an alkane chain has on its boiling point?
4 Write the Isomers of alkanes corresponding to the molecular formula C4H10,C5H12 &C6H14.
5 Give reactions for the following: (i) Isomerisation of alkanes (ii) Aromatization of Alkanes (iii)Pyrolysis or
Cracking of alkane
6 Draw the sawhorse and Newmann projections for eclipsed & staggered conformations of ethane.
7 Explain the following with suitable reactions: (i) Hydrogenation of alkenes & alkynes (ii)Wurtz reaction
and its limitations (iii) Kolbes electrolytic method
8 Why is Wurtz reaction not preferred for the preparation of alkanes containing odd number of carbon
atoms? Illustrate your answer by taking one example.
9 Write the Isomers of alkenes corresponding to the molecular formula C4H8, C5H10 ‘
10 What are geometrical isomers? Write the conditions necessary for geometrical isomerism to exist
11 Which of the following compounds will show cis trans isomerism (i) (CH3)2C=CH-C2H5 (ii) CHCl=CHCl
(iii)CH3CH=CClCH3
12 Draw the cis and trans structure of hex-2-ene.which isomer will have higher Boiling point and why?
13 Define Markovnikovs rule with suitable example.Also write the mechanism of reaction.
14 Define Anti- Markovnikovs rule with suitable example.Also write the mechanism of reaction.
15 Addition of HBr to propene yields 2-bromo propane; while in presence of benzoyl peroxide the same
reaction yields 1-bromopropane. Explain and give mechanism
16 Write IUPAC names of the products obtained by addition reactions of HBr to hex-1-ene in the presence
and absence of peroxide.
17 An alkene ‘A’ on ozonolysis gives a mixture of ethanal and pentan-3-one. Write structure and IUPAC
name of ‘A’.
18 An alkene ‘A’ on ozonolysis gives a mixture of Propanal and pentan-3-one. Write structure and IUPAC
name of ‘A’
19 .An alkene ‘A’ contains three C-C,eight C-H Sigma(  ) bonds and one C-C pie(  )bond.’A’ on ozonolysis
gives two moles of an aldehyde of molar mass 44 u.Write Iupac name of ‘A’.
20 Write IUPAC names of the products obtained by the ozonolysis of the following compound: pent-2-ene
3, 4-dimethyl-hept-3-ene,2-Ethybut-1-ene 1-phenylbut-1-ene 2-Methylpropene , Propene.
21 Arrange benzene, n-hexane and ethyne in decreasing order of acidic behaviour. Also give reason for this
behaviour.
22 What are the conditions for any system to be aromatic.
23 In the light of Huckel’s rule explain in brief the conditions necessary for aromaticity.
24 Why does benzene undergo electrophilic substitution reaction easily and nucleophilic substitution with
difficulty.
25 Why is benzene extra ordinarily stable though it contains three double bonds
26 Explain the reaction and mechanism of Nitration,Chlorination Friedel craft alkylation & Friedel craft
acylation in benzene.
27 Suggest the name of a Lewis acid other than anhydrous aluminium chloride which can be used during
ethylation of benzene.
28 Explain with examples Ortho-para directing & Meta directing groups.
29 Arrange the following set of compounds in order of their decreasing relative reactivity with an
electrophile,E+(a) Chlorobenzene , 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene, p-nitrochlorobenzene (b) Toluene, p-H3C-
C6H5-NO2, p-O2N-C6H4-NO2
30 Give the chemical equations for the following reactions : i) Friedel –Craft’s acylation (ii) Friedel –Craft’s
alkylation
31 How will you bring about the following conversions?
 Propene to 1- bromo-propane.  Phenol to Benzene
 Benzene to acetophenone.  Ethyne to Benzene
 Ethyne to acetaldehyde.  Propyne to Propanone
 Ethene to formaldehyde.
 Sodium Benzoate to Benzene.
32 Combustion of carbon containing compounds with limited supply of oxygen yields
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons which are carcinogenic as well as mutagenic. Some
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons have been isolated from tobacco smoke.
Answer the following questions:
(i) Give examples of any two polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
(ii) Explain why tobacco smoking is injurious to health?
(iii) What values are associated with this (write two value).
33 Complete the following reactions :
Ni , 
a ) CH 3  CH  CH 2  H 2 
b) CH 3  CH  CH 2  HBr  
peroxide
alc. KOH , 
c) CH 3 C H  CHCl  CH 3   
I
CH 3
34 Write chemical equations for the following :

(i) Ethyne gas is allowed to pass over red hot iron tube.
(ii) Calcium carbide is treated with water.
(iii) Phenol is treated with zinc dust.
(iv) Ethyne gas is allowed to pass over red hot iron tube.
(v) Propene is treated with dilute KMnO4.
(vi) Benzene is treated with chlorine in presence of UV light.

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TERM -II

Kalra sir, 09462305605,kalra1977@gmail.com

Kalra sir, 09462305605,kalra1977@gmail.com

16. Daltons law of partial pressure :

Kalra sir, 09462305605,kalra1977@gmail.com

Kalra sir, 09462305605,kalra1977@gmail.com

Kalra sir, 09462305605,kalra1977@gmail.com

Kalra sir, 09462305605,kalra1977@gmail.com

Kalra sir, 09462305605,kalra1977@gmail.com

6. Boundary : Anything which separates system & surroundings is called boundary.

24. .Enthalpy of combustion :

34. Bond Enthalpies :

G = H – TS This equation is also known as Gibb’s Helmholtz equation

45. Criteria of spontaneity :

(iii) If Gsystem =0  system is at equilibrium

  r G    p  f G  (products)   R  f G  (reac tan ts)

 ΔrG = -2.303RT log K

Kalra sir, 9462305605 ,kalra1977@gmail.com 1|Page

b) Predict the direction of the reaction, and

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Kalra sir, 9462305605 ,kalra1977@gmail.com 3|Page

Addition of more products Backward direction

Increase in temperature Towards endothermic reaction

Decrease in Pressure where the no. of gaseous moles are more

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Kalra sir, 9462305605 ,kalra1977@gmail.com 5|Page

Kalra sir, 9462305605 ,kalra1977@gmail.com 6|Page

Kalra sir, 9462305605 ,kalra1977@gmail.com 7|Page

Kalra sir, 9462305605 ,kalra1977@gmail.com 8|Page

Kalra sir, 9462305605 ,kalra1977@gmail.com 9|Page

Kalra sir, 9462305605 ,kalra1977@gmail.com 10 | P a g e

16.Descr ibet woi mpor tantusesofeachoft hef ollowing( 1)Caust i

22.Whichoft heal kalimet alishav ingleastmel t i

25.Giv et hegener al out erel ectroni cconf i

c) 2NaBH4 +I2   B2H6 +2NaI +H2

Question based on Group 14 Elements

3. Addition reaction of HBr to symmetrical alkenes.

4. Addition reaction of HBr to unsymmetrical alkenes (Markovnikov Rule)

8. Polymerisation: Polythene is obtained by the combination of large number of ethene molecules at

2. Dehydrohalogenation of vicinal dihalides : Vicinal dihalides on treatment with alcoholic

Chemical properties of Alkynes:

Examples of Aromatic Compounds

 Decarboxylation of aromatic acids

Mechanism of Electrophillic Aromatic Substitution Reactions

In the case of nitration,

(b) Formation of carbocation intermediate

Activating Groups or Electron Releasing Groups (ERG)

decreasing meta directing strength

Answer the following :

34 Write chemical equations for the following :

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