HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY-I

UNIT-I

1.1. INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN BODY

Contents:
1.1.1 Definition and Scope
 Anatomy
 Physiology
1.1.2 Levels of structural organisation
1.1.3 Body Systems
1.1.4 Basic life Procedures
1.1.5 Homeostasis
 Introduction to Homeostasis
 Homeostasis and body fluids
 Role of various body systems in homeostasis
 Feedback systems (Positive and negative)
 Homeostasis Imbalance
1.1.6 Basic anatomical terminology
 Anatomical position
 Directional terms
 Planes and sections
  Body cavities
 Abdominopelvic Regions and quadrants.

1.2. CELLULAR LEVEL OF ORGANISATION

1.2.1 Introduction
1.2.2 Structure and functions of the cell
1.2.3 Transport across the cell membrane
1.2.4 Cell division
1.2.5 Cell junctions
1.2.6 General principles of cell communication
 Intracellular signalling pathway activation by extracellular
signal molecule
1.2.7 Forms of intracellular signalling
 Contact -dependant signalling
 Paracrine signalling
 Endocrine signalling
 Autocrine signalling
1.1.1. Definition and Scope:
 Anatomy and physiology are the branches of science that form the basis
for understanding the various parts of the body and their functions.

Anatomy: (Video-1)
 Anatomy is defined as the study of the structure of an organism and the
arrangement of its parts.
 Study of human anatomy originated with observing the deep injuries
occurring in soldiers during wars.
 Later, the science advanced as the physicians were allowed to dissect
the cadavers (dead human bodies) in order to study the internal organs.
 A number of imaging techniques are being employed nowadays in order
to observe anatomical structures in living people without cutting apart.

Human anatomy is divided into 3 types:

1. Macroscopic Anatomy: (Video-2)

 It is defined as study of large body structures.
 It is also called Gross anatomy.
Examples: Heart, lungs, kidneys etc.
Gross anatomy is further divided into 3 types     
a) Surface Anatomy: 
 Macroscopic anatomy is the study of external anatomical features
without dissection.
 Surface anatomy is also called superficial anatomy.
b) Regional anatomy: Study of all structures in one particular region.
c) Systemic Anatomy: 
  It is defined as system by system study of the human body.
 Each system contains numerous organs that work together to
accomplish a specific task for the organism.

    2. Microscopic Anatomy: (Video-3)

 Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures that can be observed
only with the use of a microscope or other magnification devices.
 With the help of advanced microscopes, anatomists could observe small
structures of the body, from slices of large structures like the liver.
 The human body consists of organs that consist of tissues, and tissue in
turn is made up of cells and connective tissue. 
 Microscopic anatomy includes cytology, the study of cells and histology,
the study of tissues.
a) Cell biology: 
 It is the study of cellular structure and functions. 
 Cells vary in structure and function depending on the type of tissue and
the organism
b) Histology: 
 It is the study of body tissues and their microscopic structures.
 It is useful to understand the relationship between structure and
function. 
 This is useful in study of progression of disease and extent of damage of
internal structures due to disease.

3. Developmental Anatomy: (Video-4)

It is defined as structural changes in the body throughout the lifespan. 
a) Embryology:
  Embryology is the study of development from the fertilized egg through
the eighth week, until the foetal stage.
b) Developmental biology:
 It is useful to study the mechanisms of development, differentiation, and
growth in animals and plants at the molecular, cellular, genetic and
evolutionary levels.
4. Imaging Anatomy: (Video-5)
 Internal body structures can be studied through imaging techniques
without actually dissecting the organ or collecting a tissue sample.
 It is a non-invasive procedure for diagnosis of number of conditions like
malignancies/ malformations in the internal organs
5. Pathological anatomy: (Video-6)
 Studying the morphological changes of the organs, tissues and cells
induced by pathological processes and diseases is pathological anatomy.
 It serves as a basic knowledge for the further development of the
essential diagnostic and treatment skills.

 Physiology: (Video-7) 
  Physiology is the science that treats the functions of the living
organisms and its parts.
 It is divided into subclasses. They are: 
 Fig -01 Branches of Physiology

1. Molecular Physiology: 
 Molecular physiology is the study of Functions of individual molecules
such as proteins and DNA.
2. Neurophysiology:
 Neurophysiology is the study of Functional properties of nerve cells.
 The neuron is an electrochemical machine, the electrical events and the
biochemical and molecular processes operate together in a neuron to
propagate nerve impulse.
3. Endocrinology:
 Endocrinology is the study of the endocrine system in the human body.
 This is a system of glands which secrete hormones. 
 Hormones are chemicals which affect the actions of different organ
systems in the body.
4. Cardiovascular physiology: 
   Cardiovascular system is also called a circulatory system which deals
with the study of the heart and the blood vessels.
5. Immunology:
 Immunology is the study of the immune system and is a very important
branch of the medical and biological sciences.
 The immune system protects us from infection through various lines of
defence.
6. Respiratory physiology:
 Respiratory physiology is the study of functions of the air passageways
and lungs.
7. Renal physiology:
 Renal physiology is the study of the functioning of kidneys. 
8. Exercise physiology:
 Exercise physiology is the study of changes in cell and organ functions
due to muscular activity. 
 Detailed knowledge of this information is of specific importance to
athletes and sportspersons to maintain body fitness.
 It also helps to prevent an abnormal cardiac-event during exercise.
9. Pathophysiology:
 Pathophysiology is the study of functional changes associated with
disease and aging.
 These changes are either the causes, consequences, or concomitants
(parallel processes) of disease processes.
 Pathophysiology aims at identifying mechanisms and predicting and
explaining disease processes in terms of etiology and pathogenesis.  
  1.1.2 Levels of Structural organization: (Video-8)

 To study the different structures and functions of the human body, it is

helpful to consider its basic architecture; that is, how its smallest parts
are assembled into larger structures.   
 Every single structure is organised in a very specific manner that it gives
rise to a perfect next level of structure, finally resulting in the formation
of the most evolved organism of the world, the human being.
 The levels of organization of a language—letters, words, sentences,
paragraphs, and so on—can be compared to the levels of organization of
the human body. 
 The human body have 6 main levels of structural organizations:

Fig -02 Levels of Structural organization

I. Chemical level:
 It is the simplest level within the structural hierarchy. 
  The chemical level includes the tiniest building blocks of matter, atoms,
which combine to form molecules, two or more atoms joined together.
II. Cellular level:
 Molecules combine to form cells, the basic structural and functional
units of an organism.
 Cells are made up of unique organisation of chemicals.
 In humans and in all living organisms all basic functions of life are
initiated in the cells.
III. Tissue level:
 The tissue level of organization consists of a group of cells that work
together to accomplish one or more specific functions.
IV. Organ level:
 At the organ level different types of tissues bind together to form an
organ
 All different organs perform different functions. 
 Each organ is a specialized functional center responsible for a specific
function of the body.
V. Organ System level:
 The organ system level of organization is when two or more organs work
together for a specific function. 
 At the organ system level, complex functions become possible because
of the specialized activities of various organs working together.
 Various organ systems of the body are those are the Circulatory system,
nervous system, digestive system, respiratory system, endocrine system,
urinary system, reproductive system, skeletal system, muscular system,
integumentary system.
 VI. Organisms level:
 An organism, any living individual, can be compared to a book in our
analogy.  
 All the parts of the human body together constitute the total organism.
 Proper functioning of all these organ systems is important for the
existence of the organism.
 Dysfunction or improper functioning of one or more systems, or a part
of a system, lead to a condition called as disease in common
terminology.
 

1.1.3 BODY SYSTEMS: (Video-9)

There are eleven systems of the human body:
1. Skeletal system
2. Muscular system
3. Nervous System
4. Endocrine System
5. Cardiovascular System
6. Lymphatic and Immunity System
7. Respiratory system
8. Digestive system
9. Urinary system
10.Reproductive system
11.Integumentary System 

1. Skeletal system:
 The skeletal system provides the frame to the body, on which the entire
muscle tissue is built up.
 It provides the cage in which the various body parts are arranged in
various anatomical positions.

Fig -03 Skeletal System

 Apart from forming the supporting skeleton, it also does various

important functions like production of blood cells etc.
2. Muscular system:
 The muscular system is responsible for the movements of the body.
 Locomotion of the entire body is based on the presence of bones to
which muscles are attached, these movements are affected by muscles.
  Apart from contraction and relaxation, muscular tissue has a function of
storing, moving substances and generating heat within the body.

  Fig -04 Muscular System

3. Nervous system:
 The main objective of the nervous system is to keep the controlled
conditions within limits that maintain life.
 Fig - 05 Nervous System

 Nervous system controls important body functions such as regulation of

muscle tone, planning and programming of the movements and
coordination for movements and expressions.
4. Endocrine system:
 The endocrine system regulates the metabolism, growth, development,
emotions, reproduction and tissue functions.
 The endocrine system consists of a number of glands that release
hormones.
 Fig - 06 Endocrine System

 It also provides slower and more precise control of body functions

through hormones.
5. Cardiovascular system:
 The cardiovascular system is a network of arteries, veins, capillaries that
supply blood which aids in delivering oxygen and nutrients to various
tissues and organs of the body.
 Fig -07 Cardiovascular System

6. Lymphatic system:
 Since this system carries fluid throughout the body it is referred to as a
part of the circulatory system.
 Fig -08 Lymphatic System

 It is also referred to a part of the immune system since it produces T-

lymphocytes.
 It helps in transport lipids and lipid soluble vitamins from the
gastrointestinal tract to blood.

7. Respiratory system:
 The main function of the respiratory system is to deliver oxygen to tissue
and remove carbon dioxide from the body.
 Fig -09 Respiratory System

 Apart from gaseous exchange, it contains receptors for the sense of

smell.
 It also has a role in producing vocal sounds. 

8. Digestive system:
 The major function of this system is digestion and absorption.
 Fig -10 Digestive System

 Digestion is the breakdown of food into small molecules, which are then
absorbed into the body. 

9. Urinary system:
 The term urinary and excretory emphasize the elimination function of
the system. 
 Fig -11 Urinary System

 The purpose of the urinary system is to eliminate waste from the body.
 It also plays a crucial role in water haemostasis, electrolyte, acid base
balance and also helps in the red blood cell production.

10. Reproductive system:

 The ability to reproduce is one of the properties distinguishing living
from non-living matter. 
 Fig -12 Reproductive System

 The more primitive the animal, the simpler the process of reproduction.
 Human beings are highly evolved species, they have specialised organs
responsible for reproductive functions and sexual differentiation.
 The process of reproduction and the organs responsible is studied under
the reproductive system.
11. Integumentary system:
1. The integumentary system is about the skin which forms the outer cover
of the body and gives a definite shape and texture to the body. 
 Fig -13 Integumentary System

2. Skin helps to protect the internal structures of the body from rigours of
the external environment and also does some of the vital body functions
like
o Synthesis of vitamin-D
o Regulation of temperature through secretion of sweat

1.1.4 Basic life process: (Video-10)

 Certain processes distinguish living organisms, or living things, from non-

living things, which are termed as basic life processes. 
 A living thing is characterised by the presence of these processes or
activities.   
 Following are the six most important life processes of the human body.
They are:
I. Metabolism: 
 The chemical processes that are responsible for energy production and
utilisation that occur in the body continuously is known as metabolism. 
 They are known as catabolic reactions and anabolic reactions.
 II. Responsiveness:
 Responsiveness is concerned with detecting changes in the internal or
external environments and reacting to that change. 
 This is required to protect the body from predators or other potential
threats.
 III.  Movement:
 There are many types of movement within the body which are vital for
the survival of a living organism.
 Molecules move from one place to another and participate in reactions.
 Blood moves from one part of the body to another to maintain life
 The diaphragm moves with every breath.
  IV. Growth:
 Growth refers to an increase in size either through an increase in the
number of cells or through an increase in the size of each individual cell. 
 In order for growth to occur, anabolic processes must occur at a faster
rate than catabolic processes.
 V. Differentiation: 
 Differentiation is a developmental process by which unspecialized cells
change into specialized cells with distinctive structural and functional
characteristics.
 Through differentiation, cells develop into tissues and organs.
VI. Reproduction:
 Reproduction means to reproduce. 
 It is a biological process by which an organism reproduces an offspring
which is biologically similar to the organism. 
 Reproduction enables and ensures the continuity of species through
generations. 
 It is the main feature of life on earth. 

Importance of life processes:

 When any one of the life processes ceases to occur properly, it may
result in dysfunction or death of cells and tissues, which may lead to
death of the organism. 
 Clinically, loss of the heartbeat, absence of spontaneous breathing, and
loss of brain functions are the conditions that indicate death in the body.

1.1.5 HOMEOSTASIS

Introduction to Homeostasis: (Video-11)

 The composition of the internal environment is tightly controlled, and
this fairly constant state is called homeostasis.
 Homeostasis is the dynamic condition of equilibrium (balance) in the
body’s internal environment due to the constant interaction with the
regulatory processes of the human body.
 In response to changing conditions, the body’s equilibrium can shift
among points in a narrow range that is compatible in maintaining life
and normal health. 
 Blood glucose  120-140 mg / dL

Creatine  0.6 to 1.2 mg / dL

Blood urea 15-40 mg / dL

Serum in uric acid 4-7 mg/dL

Serum calcium 8.6-10.3 mg/d

Table 1: Normal Ranges of physiological parameters

 
 Each structure, from the cellular level to the system level, contributes in
some way for maintaining the internal environment of the body within
normal limits.
 Homeostasis within the body is continuously monitored by three basic
components working to control all the parameters in desired range
a) Receptor: 
 A receptor is a body structure that monitors changes in a controlled
condition and sends input to a control center. 
 This pathway is called an afferent pathway since the information flows
toward the control center. 
 The input is in the form of nerve impulses or chemical signals.
b) Control centre:
 A control centre in the body, for example, the brain, sets the range of
values within which a controlled condition should be maintained (set
point).
  The brain evaluates the input it receives from receptors, and generates
output commands when they are needed.
 Output from the control centre typically occurs as nerve impulses, or
hormones or other chemical signals. 
 This pathway is called an efferent pathway since the information flows
away from the control centre. 
c) Effector:
 An effector is a body structure that receives output from the control
centre and produces a response or effect that changes the controlled
condition. 
 Nearly every organ or tissue in the body can behave as an effector.

Homeostasis and body fluids: (Video-12)

 An important aspect of homeostasis is maintaining the volume and
composition of body fluids, dilute, watery solutions containing dissolved
chemicals that are found inside cells as well as surrounding them.

Role of various systems of body in Homeostasis: (Video-13)

 All systems of the human body participate in maintenance of
homeostasis.
 The physiological wellbeing of the human body is maintained by the
harmonious functional interaction between various systems.
a) Nervous system:
 The nervous system detects and responds to adaptations within the
body’s internal and external environments.
  Central nervous system regulates many activities like body temperature,
vision, planning and programming of movements, co- ordination for
movements, expression of emotions, learning, memory, speech. etc
 Also the autonomic nervous system composed of sympathetic and
parasympathetic systems are important in maintaining homeostasis.
b) Cardiovascular system:
 Single-celled organisms don’t need blood or a circulatory system to
maintain homeostasis because they get nutrients from and excrete
wastes directly into their environment. 
 Human circulatory system serves to perform this task of carrying the
basic requirements of cells, and removing the waste materials produced
by the living cells. 
c) Respiratory system: 
 Gaseous exchange in the lungs is one obvious way that the respiratory
system helps maintain homeostasis.
 However, the respiratory system has several other strategies that keep
the body in equilibrium.
d) Digestive system:
 It controls the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, vitamins and nutrients into the body along the gastrointestinal
tract.
e) Special senses:
 Vision, hearing, taste and smell also participate in homeostasis.
 Example: vision and hearing aids in motor and sensory response to a
stimulus while smell and taste promotes food and water intake.
g) Skeletal and muscular system:
  The skeletal and muscular system is responsible for the movements of
the human body.
 The locomotion of the entire body is based on the presence of bones to
which muscles are attached.
 Locomotion aids in movement of individuals to meet the need of food
which provides nutrition to the human body and aids in homeostasis.
 h) kidney 
  Kidneys maintain fluid balance. 
 There is no fixed normal composition of the urine. 
 The kidney conserves/excretes a particular substance from the body as
required, based on the concentration of the substance in the body.
 The ability of the kidney to vary volume and composition of urine as per
requirement in response to alterations in the diet is crucial in
maintaining homeostasis.
 They also produce a hormone called erythropoietin which stimulates red
blood pressure and calcitriol which promotes the renal reabsorption of
calcium.
j) Endocrine system: 
 It regulates metabolism, growth, development, sleep, emotions, mood,
sexual function, reproduction, stress response, tissue functions among
many other important body functions via feedback mechanisms.
 Most of the mechanisms of the endocrine system are controlled by
negative feedback.
 For example: adrenocorticotropic releasing hormone and thyrotropin
releasing hormone are controlled by negative feedback mechanisms.
k) Reproductive system:
  Reproductive system have little role in homeostasis of the organism but
it is related to the maintenance of the species. 
 Sex hormones do have an effect on other body systems, and an
imbalance in sex hormones can lead to various disorders.
 For example, a woman whose ovaries are removed early in life is at a
higher risk of developing osteoporosis, a disorder in which bones are of
less density and break easily, since the hormone estrogen produced by
the ovaries is important for bone growth.
 

Homeostasis - Feedback mechanisms:

 A group of receptors and effectors communicating with their control center
forms a feedback system that can regulate a controlled condition in the
body’s internal environment. 
 In a feedback system, the response of the system “feeds back” information 
to change the controlled condition in some way, either negating it (negative
feedback) or enhancing it (positive feedback).
 
Negative feedback mechanism: (video-14)
 A negative feedback system reverses a change in a controlled condition.
Consider the regulation of blood pressure. 
 The sequence of events involved quickly returns the controlled condition
—blood pressure—to normal, and homeostasis is restored. 
 Notice that the activity of the effector causes BP to drop, a result that
negates the original stimulus (an increase in BP). 
 This is why it is called a negative feedback system. 
 
 Fig -14 Negative feedback mechanisms

b) Positive feedback mechanisms:(video-15)

 a positive feedback system tends to strengthen or reinforce a change in
one of the body’s-controlled conditions.
 Fig -15 Positive feedback mechanisms

 In a positive feedback system, control center provides commands to an

effector, but this time the effector produces a physiological response
that affects the controlled condition and reinforces the initial change.
 
Homeostasis imbalance: (Video(2D)-16)
 Homeostasis is so important that most diseases are regarded as a result
of its disturbance, a condition called homeostatic imbalance.
  Diseases that result from a homeostatic imbalance include diabetes,
dehydration, hypoglycemia, hyperglycemia and any disease caused by a
toxin present in the bloodstream.
 In these cases, medical intervention is necessary to restore the balance,
or permanent damage to the organs may result.

Basic anatomical terminology:

 Descriptions of any region or part of the human body assume that it is in
a standard position of reference called the anatomical position/standard
anatomical position.
 Scientists and health-care professionals use a common language of
special terms when referring to body structures and their functions.

Standard Anatomical position: (Video-17)

 Descriptions of any region or part of the human body assume that it is in
a standard position of reference called the anatomical position/
standard anatomical position

Directional terms: (Video-18)

 To locate various body structures, anatomists use specific directional
terms, words that describe the position of one body part relative to
another. 
 Several directional terms are grouped in pairs that have opposite
meanings, such as anterior (front) and posterior (back).
  Most of the directional terms used to describe the relationship of one
part of the body to another can be grouped into pairs that have opposite
meanings. 
 For example, superior means toward the upper part of the body, and
inferior means toward the lower part of the body.
 It is important to understand that directional terms have relative
meanings; they make sense only when used to describe the position of
one structure relative to another. 

Body cavities: (Video-19)

 Body cavities are the spaces that enclose the internal organs of the
body.
 They help in protecting, separating, and supporting the internal organs.
 The body organs are contained and protected within four cavities.
 They are cranial, thoracic, abdominal and pelvic.

Planes and sections: (Video-20)

 A Plane is an imaginary flat surface, there are three body planes which
lie at right angles to each other.
 These anatomical terms describe the directions within the body as well
as the body reference positions, planes of sections.
1. Sagittal plane:
 The anatomical term sagittal was coined by Gerard of Cremona
 Sagittal is derived from the Latin word sagitta, meaning arrow.
  Sagittal suture, which is midline to the skull divides it into left and right
sides. 
 A Sagittal plane is also known as a lateral plane or medial plane.
 Examples of sagittal plane actions are arm action in ten pin bowling,
kicking action of the leg.
2. Frontal plane:
 It divides the body into front and back positions.
 Some examples of frontal plane exercises are lateral lunges, lateral
shoulder raises, and lateral shuffles.
 In short, anything involving side-to-side movement.
3. Transverse plane:
 This horizontal plane is parallel to the ground and divides the body into
up (toward the head) and down (toward the down).
 A transverse plane is also known as a cross-sectional plane or trans axial
plane. The prefix trans means (across).
 It is perpendicular to the coronal plane and sagittal plane.
 Some examples of transverse planes actions are any twisting type of
action such as body movement.
4. Oblique plane:
 A plane through any organ at obliques or odd angles.

ABDOMINOPELVIC REGIONS AND QUADRANTS

Abdominopelvic cavity: (Video-21)
 The abdominopelvic cavity is a body cavity which consists of the
abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity.
 It extends from the diaphragm to the groin.
  To describe the location of organs more easily the abdominopelvic cavity
is divided into nine regions.

Abdominopelvic quadrants: (Video-22)

The abdomino-pelvic cavity is divided into four quadrants:

 1. Right upper quadrant(RUQ)

 2. Left upper quadrant(LUQ)
 3. Right lower quadrant(RLQ)
 4. Left lower quadrant(LLQ)
1.2. CELLULAR LEVEL OF ORGANISATION
1.2.1 Introduction:
 All living organisms are made up of cells.
 It is the basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
 The word cell is derived from the Latin word “Cella” which means
compartment.
 Cytology is the branch of biology which deals with the study of cells.
 Cells were first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665.
 A single cell is capable of performing multiple functions in unicellular
organisms, whereas in multicellular organisms, all the functions are
divided and performed by specific cell organelles and also by
protoplasm.
 The cells together constitute tissues.

1.2.2 Cell Structure: (Video-1)

 Fig -16 Structure of a Cell

 The human body is composed of trillions of cells.

 All the cells are not similar in terms of size and shape because of their
different functions.
 However, there are certain structural characteristic features which are
similar in all the cells of living organisms. 
 Each cell can be broadly divided into three main parts:
a) Cell membrane
b) Cytoplasm and its organelles
c) Nucleus

a. Plasma membrane: (Video-2)

  F
Fig -17 Plasma Membrane

 The plasma membrane also known as the cell membrane or cytoplasmic

membrane is a biological membrane that separates the interior of a cell
from its outside environment.
 The Plasma membrane is a flexible yet sturdy barrier that surrounds and
contains the cytoplasm of a cell.
 The fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane was proposed by Singer
and GL Nicolson.

Functions of membrane:

 The plasma membrane provides shape to the cell and helps in

maintaining structural integrity.
 It gives protection to the cell as it forms a physical barrier between the
intracellular component and extracellular compartment.
 It is a selectively permeable membrane as it allows entry and exit of
selected substances.
 It receives stimuli from outside.
 It helps in cell recognition.
 It is also involved in metabolic processes, as the proteins in the cell
membrane act as enzymes and catalyse reactions.

b.  Cytoplasm and its Organelles: 

 The cytoplasm is the fluid content inside the plasma membrane.

 It contains many specialized cell organelles.
 Each of these organelles performs a specific function for the cell.
 These cell organelles are enclosed by membranes.
 They include:
 Nucleus
 Mitochondria
 Ribosomes
 Endoplasmic reticulum
 Golgi apparatus
 Lysosomes
 Microfilaments and microtubules 

I. Nucleus: (Video-3)

Fig -18 Nucleus

 The nucleus is spherical in shape and is present in the centre of the cell.
 The nucleus is responsible for the synthesis of mRNA, which carries the
genetic information and regulates protein synthesis.
 It is responsible for the development of chromosomal thread from the
chromatin network initiating cell division.
 Thus, it plays an important role in cell reproduction and multiplication.

II. Mitochondria: (video 4)

Fig -19. Mitochondria

 These are called “Power houses of the Cell” as they generate energy in
the form of ATP.
 It aids in cell replication and plays a vital role in apoptosis (cell death).

III. Ribosomes or Claude’s Particles: (video 5)  

Fig -20. Ribosomes

 Ribosomes are called “Protein factories” as they synthesize proteins.
 They are so rich in RNA, which contains about 60% of total RNA of the
cell.

IV. Endoplasmic reticulum (Ergastoplasm) (video 6)

 The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes found

throughout theFig -21.
cell andEndoplasmic
connected Reticulum
to the nucleus.
 It functions as a manufacturing and packaging system.
 Both rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum have the same types of
membranes, but they have different shapes and functions.
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes proteins.
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes lipids and steroids, and it
acts as a storage organelle.
 Endoplasmic reticulum is mainly responsible for the transportation of
proteins and other carbohydrates to another organelle, which includes
lysosomes, Golgi apparatus, plasma membrane, etc.
V. Golgi apparatus (Golgi complex) (video 7)
 Fig -22. Golgi Apparatus
 It was first discovered in 1898 by Camillo Golgi.
 It is considered as the distribution and shipping centre of the cell.
 It modifies proteins and lipids that have been built in the endoplasmic
reticulum and prepares them for export outside of the cell or for
transport to other locations in the cell.

VI. Lysosomes (video 8)

 Lysosomes are single membrane organelle.

 These are called “Digestive apparatus of the cell” as the basic function of
the lysosome is intracellular digestion. They digest the food particles.
 These are also called “Suicidal bags of the cell” as the lysosomal enzymes
are capable of digesting their own cellular material in case of cell
starving. 
 They play a vital role in cell necrosis or autolysis by digesting the cellular
elements of a damaged cell.
 They also have a remarkable function of phagocytosis by engulfing the
exogenous substances.

VII. Cytoskeleton (video 9)

  
 Cytoskeleton provides strength and structure to the cell.
 Microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules combine to
form the cytoskeleton of the cell.
 It supports the cell, gives it shape, organizes and tethers the organelles,
and has roles in molecule transport, cell division and cell signalling.

Fig -23. Cytoskeleton

1.2.3 Transport across the cell membrane:

 Transport of materials across the cell membrane is essential for the life
of the cell.
 Certain substances must move into the cell to support metabolic
reactions, whereas the cellular waste products need to be moved out of
the cell.
 The cell membrane is selectively permeable. It lets some substances pass
through rapidly and some substances pass through more slowly, but
prevents other substances passing through it at all.
 The substances generally move across the cellular membranes via
transport processes that can be classified as passive or active, depending
upon their requirement for cellular energy.

1. Passive Transport

 In passive transport processes, a substance moves down its

concentration gradient to cross the cell membrane using its own kinetic
energy.
 An example of passive transport is diffusion.

I. Diffusion: 

 Movement of solute molecules from the area of higher concentration to

the area of lower concentration along their concentration gradient is
known as diffusion.
 Materials move within the cell’s cytosol by diffusion, and certain
materials move through the plasma membrane by diffusion. 
 Diffusion is of two types: Simple and facilitated diffusion.
Simple diffusion: (Video-10)

Fig -24. Diffusion

 The mechanism of molecules spreading from where they are more
concentrated to where they are less concentrated is a form of passive
transport called simple diffusion.
 Nonpolar, hydrophobic molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
nitrogen gases, fatty acids, steroids, and fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E,
and K) move across the lipid bilayer through the process of simple
diffusion. 
 Even small, uncharged polar molecules such as water, urea, and small
alcohols also pass through the lipid bilayer by simple diffusion. 
Facilitated diffusion:

 Facilitated diffusion is passive transport that uses integral membrane

proteins or channels to help larger, charged, hydrophilic, and polar
molecules across a concentration gradient.
 Facilitated diffusion is of again two types:
a. Channel mediated facilitated diffusion and
b. Carrier mediated facilitated diffusion

a. Channel mediated facilitated diffusion (video-11)

Fig -25. Channel mediated facilitated diffusion

 The solute molecules move down its concentration gradient across the
lipid bilayer through a membrane channel. 
 Most of the membrane channels are ion channels. 
 Each ion can diffuse across the membrane only at specific sites.
 In a typical plasma membrane, most of the ion channels are selective for
potassium ions or chloride ions, few channels are available for sodium or
calcium ions. 
b. Carrier mediated facilitated diffusion (video-12)

Fig -26. Carrier mediated facilitated diffusion

 A carrier protein is a transport protein that is specific for an ion,

molecule, or group of substances. 
 The solute molecules move across the plasma membrane along with its
concentration gradient with the help of a carrier.
 No cellular energy is required for this type of diffusion. 
 Substances that move across the plasma membrane by carrier mediated
facilitated diffusion include glucose, fructose, galactose, and some
vitamins.
  
II. Osmosis (video-13)

Fig -27. Osmosis

 Osmosis is a form of passive transport that is similar to diffusion.

 Osmosis can occur in two ways; water can diffuse through the
phospholipid molecules of the membrane or through aquaporins (water
channels).
2. Active Transport

 The transport of solute molecules up their concentration gradient

(uphill), i.e. from a lower to a higher concentration is called active
transport.
 Carrier proteins require energy in this process to move the solute
molecules across the membrane against their concentration gradient.
 Active transport is of two types depending upon the source of energy
used i.e., primary active transport and secondary active transport.
I. Primary active transport (video-14)
 Fig -28. Primary Active Transport

 Primary active transport directly uses a source of chemical energy (e.g.,

ATP) to move molecules across a membrane against their gradient. 
 Examples of such substances that are carried across the cell membrane
by primary active transport are Na+, K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+ etc.
 These charged particles require ion pumps or ion channels to cross
membranes and distribute through the body.
 One of the most important pumps in animal cells is the sodium-
potassium pump.

II. Secondary active transport (video-15)

 Fig -29. Secondary Active Transport

 In secondary active transport the substance is moved against its

concentration gradient by the movement of a second substance down
its concentration gradient.
 Hence it is also called coupled transport or cotransport.
 The electrochemical gradients set up by primary active transport store
energy, which can be released as the ions move back down their
gradients.  
 Secondary active transport uses the energy stored in these gradients to
move other substances against their own gradients.
 This co-transport can be either via antiport or symport.
3. Transport in vesicles

 Some of the substances are transported in vesicles from one structure to

the other within the cells or into the extracellular fluid.
 Transport in vesicles requires energy supplied from ATP. Hence, it is an
active transport process. 
 Transport in vesicles occurs either by endocytosis or exocytosis.
I. Endocytosis

 Endocytosis is a type of active transport that moves particles, such as

large molecules, parts of cells and even whole cells into a cell, by
engulfing them with its membrane.
 The three types of endocytosis are: receptor-mediated endocytosis,
bulk-phase endocytosis and phagocytosis.

a. Receptor-mediated endocytosis (video-16)

Fig -30. Receptor Mediated Endocytosis

 Receptor-mediated endocytosis is a process by which cells absorb

metabolites, hormones, proteins and in some cases viruses by the
inward budding (invagination) of the plasma membrane.  
 This process forms vesicles containing the absorbed substances and is
strictly mediated by receptors on the surface of the cell. 
 Only the receptor-specific substances can enter the cell through this
process.
b. Bulk phase endocytosis/pinocytosis (video-17)
 Pinocytosis is the method by which a cell absorbs small particles outside
the cell and brings them inside. 
 The word pinocytosis comes from the Greek for “cell drinking”. 
 This process is usually used for taking in extracellular fluid (ECF).

Fig -31. Pinocytosis

c. Phagocytosis (video-18)

 Phagocytosis is a form of endocytosis in which the cell engulfs large solid

particles, such as worn-out cells, whole bacteria, or viruses.
 It is used for defensive purposes. 
 Only a few body cells, termed phagocytes, are able to carry out
phagocytosis. 
 Two main types of phagocytes are macrophages, located in many body
tissues, and neutrophils, a type of white blood cell. 
 Fig -32. Phagocytosis
II. Exocytosis (video-19)

 It is the process by which the intracellular substances are released into

the surrounding tissue.
 All cells carry out exocytosis, but it is especially important in two types of
cells: Secretory cells that liberate digestive enzymes, hormones, mucus,
or other secretions and nerve cells that release neurotransmitters.
 In some cases, wastes are also released by exocytosis.

Fig -33. Exocytosis

 III. Transcytosis (video-20)

 Transcytosis is the transfer of molecules across the cells from one side to
the other.
 Transcytosis occurs most often across the endothelial cells that line
blood vessels and is a means for materials to move between blood
plasma and interstitial fluid.
 Antibodies can cross epithelial layers by transcytosis.

Fig -34. Transcytosis

1.2.4 Cell Division:

 Cell division is a very important process in all living organisms. 

 It is a process in which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter
cells.        
 During cell division, DNA replication and cell growth occurs.                
 There are two types of cell division- somatic cell division and
reproductive cell division.  
1. Somatic Cell Division

Fig -35. Mitosis

 Somatic cell division is the type of cell division where the daughter cells
produced are exactly similar to the parent cell. 
 They have the same chromosomal number as the parent cell.
 Somatic cell division replaces dead or injured cells and adds new ones
during tissue growth. 
 It consists of two major periods: interphase, where a cell is not dividing,
and the mitotic (M) phase, where a cell is dividing.

I. Interphase (video-21)

 The interphase represents the phase between two successive mitotic

phases. 
 The interphase, also called the resting phase, is the time during which
the cell is preparing for division by undergoing both cell growth and DNA
replication in an orderly manner. 
 The interphase is divided into three further phases: 
 1. G Phase (Gap 1)
1

2. S Phase (synthesis of DNA)

3. G Phase (Gap 2)
2

II. Mitosis: (Video-22)

 Mitosis is a process of cell duplication, or reproduction, where a parent

cell divides and forms two genetically identical daughter cells. 
 It is the separation of nuclear chromosomes into two identical daughter
nuclei.
 The process is divided into 4 stages:
1. Prophase: (sub video 1)
2. Metaphase (sub video 2)
3. Anaphase (sub video 3)
4. Telophase (sub video 4)
 An additional phase called cytokinesis (Cytoplasmic division) occurs after
the completion of nuclear division.
III. Cytokinesis (sub video 5)

 Cytokinesis is the final stage of cell division.

 Cytokinesis is the process whereby the cytoplasm of a parent cell is
divided between two daughter cells, produced either via mitosis or
meiosis. 
   
2.   Reproductive Cell Division/ Meiosis: (video-22)

Fig -36. Meiosis

 Meiosis is a specialized form of reproductive cell division that occurs in

the organisms which reproduces sexually. 
 In reproductive cell division, the number of chromosomes in the
daughter cells is reduced by half to produce haploid gametes (meiosis).
 Gametes contain a single set of 23 chromosomes and thus are haploid.
 Fertilization restores the diploid number of chromosomes.  
 For a successful reduction in the number of chromosomes occurring in
the new haploid daughter cells, two rounds of division are necessary.
 These divisions are termed meiosis I and meiosis II.
I. Meiosis I:
 The first phase of meiosis involves duplication and then separation of
the chromosomes, followed by division into two daughter cells that each
contain half the number of chromosomes as the original cell.
II. Meiosis II:
 In the second phase, each daughter cell divides to form an additional
reproductive cell.
                                                                                            

1.2.5  Cell Junctions:

 Cells come together and interact with each other and create tissues.
 They stick to each other by several cell junctions.
 Cell junctions are the class of cellular structures occurring at the points
of cell-cell and cell-matrix providing contact or adhesion in between
them in all the tissues.
 There are three major types of intercellular cell junctions:
1. Occluding junctions
2. Anchoring junctions
3. Communicating junctions

 
                 
Fig -37. Cell Junctions

            
1. Occluding junctions: (video 23)
 Occluding junctions also known as Tight junctions or Zonulae Occludens.
 They provide strength and stability to the cell.
 Tight junctions are typically found in epithelial tissues that line internal
organs and cavities and comprise most of the skin. 
2.  Anchoring junctions:(3 sub videos)

 Anchoring junctions connect neighbouring cells in particular spots but do

not seal the two cells together
 Anchoring junctions are most abundant in tissues that are subjected to
severe mechanical stress, such as heart, muscle, and epidermis. 
 These are of three types:
a) Adherens junctions
b) Desmosomes
c) Hemidesmosomes 
       
a) Adherens junctions (sub video 6)

 The adherens junction is an adhesion complex that localizes close to the

apical membrane in epithelial cells. 
 This type of cell junction is located right below tight junctions and
provides a strong bond between the sides of adjacent epithelial cell
membranes.
b) Desmosomes: (sub video 7)

 Desmosomes are also known as Macula adherens, which provides cell-

to-cell adhesion. 
 Unlike adherens junctions, which connect to the actin cytoskeleton
network, desmosomal junctions are tethered to the intermediate
filament network.
 The cell adhesion proteins of desmosomes are the members of the
Cadherin family (desmoglein and desmocollin).
c) Hemidesmosomes: (sub video 8)

 Hemidesmosomes look like half-desmosomes and attach the epithelial

cells to the underlying basal lamina.
 The hemidesmosomes use desmopenetrin cell adhesion proteins, which
are members of the Integrin family.
3. Communicating junctions:(2 sub videos)

 Communicating junctions mediate the passage of chemical or electrical

signals from one interacting cell to its partner.
 They provide direct cell to cell communication.
 Communicating junctions are characterized by the presence of minute
tubular passageways.
 These tubular passages allow movement of ions and other small
molecules between adjacent cells.
 There are two types of communicating junctions:
a) Gap junctions
b) Chemical synapse

a) Gap junctions: (sub video 9)

 Gap junctions serve as direct connections between adjacent cells.

 They connect neighbouring cells with a protein channel that allows for
communication and also for the transfer of small molecules and ions. 
b) Chemical synapse: (sub video-10)
  It is the junction between a nerve fibre and a muscle fibre or between
two nerve fibres; and through which signals get transmitted by the
release of a chemical transmitter. 

1.2.6 General Principles of Cell Communication:

Cell communication: 

 Cells do not work in isolation but continually talk to each other by

sending and receiving chemical signals to each other.
 The ability of cells to receive or generate signals in response to their
surrounding environment is called cell signalling.
 This process allows millions of cells to communicate and work together
to perform important body processes that are necessary for survival.

Fig -38. Signal Transduction

Intracellular signalling pathway activation by extracellular
signal molecule
 Cell-cell signalling involves the transmission of a signal from a sending
cell to a receiving cell. 
 The original intercellular (between-cells) signal is converted into an
intracellular (within-cell) signal that triggers a response.
  All events that occur within the cell in response to a signal is known as
signal transduction.
 There are three stages in cell communication: reception, transduction,
and cellular response.
1. Reception (video-24)
Reception of extracellular signal by cell.
2. Transduction (video-25)
Transduction of signal from outside of cell to inside of cell.
3. Response (video-26)
Cellular response is initiated and or occurs entirely within the
receiving cell.

1.2.7 Forms of Intracellular Signalling:

Fig -39. Types of Cell Signalling

 Cells communicate via various types of signalling that allow chemicals to

travel to target sites in order to elicit a response.
  The main difference between the different categories of signalling is the
distance that the signal travels through the organism to reach the target
cell.
 There are four categories of chemical signalling:
1. Juxtacrine signalling or direct signalling (Subv-11)

 Juxtacrine signals target adjacent (touching) cells.

 In juxtacrine signalling, proteins from the inducing cell interact with
receptor proteins of adjacent responding cells.
2. Paracrine signalling (Sub video-12) 

 Signalling molecules released by a cell affect target cells only in close

proximity.
3. Autocrine signalling (Sub video-13) 

 In autocrine signalling, a cell signals to itself, releasing a ligand that binds

to receptors on its own surface.
4. Endocrine signalling or Hormonal signalling (Sub video-14) 

 Signals from distant cells are called endocrine signals, which originate
from endocrine glands.
 Endocrine signalling occurs when endocrine cells release hormones that
act on distant target cells in the body.