Journal of Occupational Science

ISSN: 1442-7591 (Print) 2158-1576 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rocc20

An Integrative Review of Occupational Science and

Theoretical Literature Exploring Transition

Carly Crider MOT, C. Ruth Calder MOT, Katie Lee Bunting MScOT & Susan
Forwell PhD, OT (C), FCAOT

To cite this article: Carly Crider MOT, C. Ruth Calder MOT, Katie Lee Bunting MScOT &
Susan Forwell PhD, OT (C), FCAOT (2015) An Integrative Review of Occupational Science and
Theoretical Literature Exploring Transition, Journal of Occupational Science, 22:3, 304-319, DOI:
10.1080/14427591.2014.922913

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2014.922913

Published online: 13 Jun 2014.

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Carly Crider,
C. Ruth Calder,
Katie Lee Bunting
& Susan Forwell
Downloaded by [Gazi University] at 13:27 13 February 2016
& Carly Crider, MOT,
University of British Columbia,
Canada
& C. Ruth Calder, MOT,
University of British Columbia,
Canada
& Katie Lee Bunting, MScOT,
Clinical Faculty, Department
of Occupational Science and
Occupational Therapy,
University of British Columbia,
Canada
& Susan Forwell, PhD, OT
(C), FCAOT, Associate
Professor, Department of
Occupational Science and
Occupational Therapy,
University of British Columbia,
Canada
& Correspondence to:
sforwell@mail.ubc.ca
© 2014 The Journal of
Occupational Science
Incorporated
Journal of Occupational Science,
2015
Vol. 22, No. 3, 304–319,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/
14427591.2014.922913
304 J O U R N A L O F O C C U PAT I O N A L S C I E N C E , Vo l . 2 2 , N o . 3 , 2 0 1 5
An Integrative Review of Occupational
Science and Theoretical Literature
Exploring Transition
An occupational perspective of the experience of transition has been
developed in the peer reviewed occupational science literature. While that
literature describes the elements of transition, a theory of transition has not
been posited. This integrative review aims to evaluate 1) how the literature
that has taken an occupational perspective captures the phenomenon of
transition in healthy populations, 2) what theoretical literature beyond
occupational science describes transition in healthy populations, and 3) the
areas of overlap, unique contributions, and omissions that emerge from
reviewing these bodies of literature. Journals in OTDBase were searched for
an occupational perspective on transition for non-disabled populations. The
data from this literature were organized into seven strands, with supporting
elements. Then the CINAHL, EconLit, PsycINFO, and Social Science Citation
Index databases were searched for theories of transition. Five theories met
the inclusion criteria. Overlapping areas between these two bodies of
literature included defining transition, addressing transition at the individual
level, and strategies to improve the outcomes of transition. Omissions in both
sets of literature included transitions at community and population levels, the
influence of the physical environment, and a lack of recognition of the deeply
rooted Westernized modes of understanding about transitions. This integrat-
ive review suggests there is a reasonable body of literature from which to
develop a theory of transition that takes an occupational perspective.
Keywords: Transition, Transition theory, Occupation, Occupational science
It has been said that the only increased interest, a theory of trans-
certainty in life is change. It is not ition grounded in an occupational
surprising, then, that much schol- perspective is yet to be developed. In
arly effort has been invested in the other disciplines, particularly the
development of theory relating to social sciences, a variety of cohesive
transition. Within the disciplines of models of transition for non-disabled
occupational science and occupa- populations have been developed.
tional therapy, an occupational per- This leads to the question: Is there a
spective of transition has emerged as need for, and sufficient evidence
a phenomenon of interest and the to support, a theory that describes
focus of a significant body of research life transition from an occupation-
over the past 15 years. Even with this al perspective? To gain an in-depth
 C A R LY C R I D E R , C . R U T H C A L D E R , K AT I E L E E B U N T I N G & S U S A N F O RW E L L
understanding of both the work on transition that
has emerged from an occupational perspective,
herein referred to as the occupation literature, as
well as literature articulating concepts related to
transition developed in disciplines and traditions
other than occupational science, herein referred
to as the theoretical literature, there is a need
for a systematic exploration. To approach these
overarching issues, three research questions were
posed: 1) How does the literature from an occupa-
tional perspective inform understandings of transi-
tions in healthy populations? 2) What theoretical
literature, from disciplines outside of occupational
science and occupational therapy, informs under-
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standings of transitions in healthy populations?
3) When considering both the occupational literat-
ure and theoretical literature, what are the areas
of overlap, unique contributions, features, and
omissions that emerge?
To answer the first and second research ques-
tions, it was necessary to review both the occu-
pation literature and theoretical literature using a
similar process. The third research question was
addressed by comparing the two bodies of literat-
ure. As much of the theoretical literature described
individuals without disabilities, only the occupa-
tion literature that addressed transition in non-
disabled populations was selected for analysis.
Methodology
To address the first and second research questions,
the same methodology was used: the integrative
review. Whittemore and Knafl (2005) described
the integrative review as a “review method that
summarizes past empirical or theoretical literature
to provide a more comprehensive understand-
ing of a particular phenomenon” (p. 546). They
propose that an integrative review consists of
five stages: 1) problem identification, 2) literature
search, 3) data evaluation, 4) data analysis, and
5) presentation. In the problem identification stage,
the purpose, problem(s) to be addressed and
variables of interest (i.e. research questions),
and sampling method(s) are identified. In the sec-
ond stage, strategies for searching the literature are
made explicit, documented, and justified. During
J O U R N A L O F O C C U PAT I O N A L S C I E N C E , Vo l . 2 2 , N o . 3 , 2 0 1 5
the data evaluation stage, the quality and rigor of
sources that contribute to the review are systemat-
ically evaluated. The fourth stage, data analysis,
consists of: 1) data reduction (to simplify and
organize extracted data into a framework); 2)
displaying the data in charts and visual networks;
3) comparing the data sets to identify themes and
patterns using techniques such as clustering,
counting, comparing and contrasting, and judging
the plausibility of findings; and 4) drawing conclu-
sions that incorporate as much data as possible. In
the fifth and final stage, the conclusions of the
review are presented in a table or a diagram that
concisely illustrates the review process. Using this
framework, the review of the occupation and
theoretical literature describing transition was
undertaken.
Occupation Literature
Stage 1: Problem identification
How does literature from an occupational per-
spective inform understandings of transitions in
healthy populations?
Stage 2: Literature search
Literature describing transitions from an occu-
pational perspective was identified by search-
ing OTDBase using the keyword “transition*”.
OTDBase was used as it is the only database that
exclusively captures occupational science literat-
ure, is a consolidated source for evidence based
and peer reviewed literature related to occupa-
tion, and does not include ‘grey’ literature. Grey
literature was excluded as it is not peer reviewed
and cannot be verified beyond opinion. The
search resulted in 174 articles that were reviewed
and selected for inclusion if articles met the
following criteria: 1) published in English, 2)
described a life transition or a change process in a
non-disabled population, and 3) were available
through the University of British Columbia
(UBC) library databases or print holdings. Of
the 174 abstracts reviewed, 34 abstracts were
included based on these criteria.
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Stage 3: Data evaluation for the number of participants, articulated their

The 34 articles published in the 15-year period
between 1996 and 2011 were read numerous
times, and descriptive information was systemat-
ically gleaned to support rigour. From this evalu-
ation it was found that the majority of articles
(n=28) presented original research from an
experimental population, while the remainder
(n=6) was non-experimental (See Table 1). The
experimental data set included qualitative (cumu-
lative n across studies = 315), quantitative (cumu-
lative n=650) and mixed methods studies (n=50).
Across the experimental papers there were
1015 research participants who ranged from
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methodologies clearly, explored transitions from
an occupational perspective, and relied on first
hand information from study participants, while
others did not. Also, several studies included
similar authorship and research populations,
which may have led to the over-representation
of certain groups in the analysis of the data.
Stage 4: Data analysis
To extract data for analysis, each of the 34 articles
was read and summarized in evidence tables.
Information gleaned from each article was: 1)

5 to 88 years of age. Overall, this collated data
set represents a significant number of contacts
with non-disabled populations who have experi-
enced a variety of transitions. This offers a degree
of confidence that the subject of transition has
been examined creating a robust body of literat-
ure to be synthesized. While there were relatively
few quantitative and mixed methods studies
included, the participants in these studies repre-
sented a significant portion of this experimental
data set. For example, four quantitative studies
and the mixed method study comprised 69% of
the total research participants.
Further, the quality of studies represented by this
review varied widely: some provided justification
objective, study design, number and description
of subjects, and methodology, 2) results, 3) a
summary related to occupational transition, 4)
limitations, and 5) a summary of the article’s
usefulness for and plausibility in understanding
transitions. Data were analyzed and sorted into
groups. Visual strategies (i.e. mind mapping)
were used to organize the data.
Next, with the whole research team, groupings of
data were shared, discussed and merged. This
resulted in the development of seven strands, or
groups of condensed and closely related data.
Each strand was accompanied by supporting
elements. Outliers were reviewed and incorpo-
rated into the strands when possible.

Table 1: Summary of Occupational Literature

Methodology Number of Studies Number of Participants Range of n across Studies

1. Non-Experimental 6 - -
2. Experimental 28 - -
a) Qualitative 24 315 1 – 40
i) Phenomenological 7 - -
ii) Grounded Theory 3 - -
iii) Ethnographic 1 - -
iv) Single Case Study Design 1 - -
v) Constant Comparative Approach 4 - -
vi) Narrative Analysis 3 - -
vii) Other 3 - -
viii) Not Stated 2 - -
b) Quantitative 3 650 23 – 332
c) Mixed Methods 1 50 50
Cumulative Total 34 1015 -

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 C A R LY C R I D E R , C . R U T H C A L D E R , K AT I E L E E B U N T I N G & S U S A N F O RW E L L
Stage 5: Presentation
When taken together, these seven strands weave a
coherent description of how healthy populations
experience transition from an occupational per-
spective. The seven strands from the occupation
literature are: 1) qualities of transition, 2) the
experience of transition, 3) roles and transition,
4) environment and transition, 5) occupation and
transition, 6) factors that facilitate transition and
7) factors that make transitions difficult. These
strands and supporting elements are presented
with description and sources in Tables 2 to 8.
Qualities of transition
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The qualities of transition emerged as a strand
within the occupation literature. Cumulatively,
transitions were described as having 10 unique
features or qualities (Table 2). Data within this
strand are diverse and qualities tended to emerge
within individual articles. Qualities supported
across the literature included transition as linked
to life stages (Jarus, Anaby, Orit, Engel-Yeger, &
Law, 2010; Pettican & Prior, 2011) and transitions
as complex (Jonsson, 2011; Jonsson, Josephsson, &
Kielhofner, 2001; Jonsson et al., 1997).
Experience of transition
The emergence of the individual experience of
transition as a strand may be explained by the
sizable representation of phenomenological research
studies, a methodology aimed at understanding
Table 2: Strand 1. Qualities of Transition Described in 11 of 34 Articles
Supporting Elements
Life stage, as described by developmental theory, and
transitions are linked
Certain transitions typically occur at particular life-stages
Transitions often occur in stages
Transitions occur at task, social, and environmental levels
and may be observed as changes in behaviour
A transition is not just an internal or intellectual change
Transitions are complex
Transitions may be challenging
Transitions involve adaptation
Transitions may be unpredictable
Transitions involve diverse experiences
J O U R N A L O F O C C U PAT I O N A L S C I E N C E , Vo l . 2 2 , N o . 3 , 2 0 1 5
the individual experience (Carpenter & Suto,
2008). Within this strand, data are reasonably
comprehensive and remarkably consistent and
are represented in six supporting elements: trans-
ition experience, emotional response, identity,
personal factors, disruption and locus of control
(See Table 3). While the elements in this strand
were consistent across studies, they highlighted
significant diversity in the experience of trans-
ition and showed transition to be an individua-
lized process.
Roles and transition
Roles, and how transitions impact people’s roles,
emerged as a strand indicating that transitions
might lead to losses, changes in, or the uptake of
new roles, and that roles may provide continuity
in periods of change (Table 4). Hamilton and De
Jonge’s (2010) study, which explored the father
role and how it impacted other roles, contributed
richly to this strand by highlighting data related
to pre-transition roles and new roles, and was in
agreement with other studies that discussed the
impact of transition on roles.
Environment and transition
The environment in which a transition takes
place affects that transition. The articles in this
strand emphasized the influence of social, soci-
etal, and system contexts on both the transition
process and the subjective experience of this
References
Jarus et al., 2010
Pettican & Prior, 2011
Liddle et al., 2008; Pettican & Prior, 2011
Liddle et al., 2008; Wiseman & Whiteford, 2009
Heuchemer & Josephsson, 2006
Jonsson, 2011; Jonsson et al., 2001; Jonsson et al., 1997
Morley, 2006
Wiseman & Whiteford, 2009
Jonsson et al., 2001
Jonsson, 2011
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Table 3: Strand 2. The Experience of Transition Described in 12 of 34 Articles

Supporting Elements References

An individual’s experience of a particular transition may vary

The transition experience varies for each individual: a positive Jonsson, 2011; Jonsson et al., 2001
transition for one individual may be negative for another
One individual may perceive the outcomes of a transition to be Jonsson, 2011
positive, while another may perceive a similar outcome to
be negative
Transitions may be experienced as a crisis Birkholtz & Blair, 1999; McNulty et al., 2009
Emotional responses to transitions are variable
Emotions associated with the transition may include frustration, Chaffey & Fossey, 2004; Jonsson et al., 2001;
shock, apprehensiveness, confusion, surprise, fear, anxiety, Magill-Evans, Wiart, Darrah, & Kratochvil, 2005;
and grief Pettican & Prior, 2011; Seah et al., 2011
Transitions involve losses and coming to terms with losses Chaffey & Fossey, 2004; Liddle et al., 2008
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The experience of transition influences identity

Changes in occupational patterns may impact sense of self, Vrkljan & Polgar, 2007
identity, and emotions
Emotional responses to transition may impact an individual’s Vrkljan & Polgar, 2007
identity
Transitions impact self-esteem, and one’s self-esteem impacts Blair, 2000
experience of transitions
Accepting a new identity following transition may be difficult Seah et al., 2011
Personal factors influence the experience of transition
Aspects of the person that influence transition include: Blair, 2000; Sutton & Griffin, 2000; Vrkljan &
personality, self-esteem, identify, and personal expectations Polgar, 2007
The experience of transition as disruptive
Transitions may be experienced as an interruption in an Blair, 2000
individual’s life that creates discontinuity, and requires the
establishment of a new equilibrium
Locus of control influences the experience of transition
An internal locus of control is associated with a positive Jonsson, 2011; Jonsson, Kielhofner, & Borell,
transition experience while an external locus of control is 1997; Liddle et al., 2008
associated with a negative experience

Table 4: Strand 3. Roles and Transitions Described in 7 of 34 Articles

Supporting Elements References

Transitions involve changes to pre-transition roles Blair, 2000; Hamilton & De Jonge, 2010;
Jonsson, 2011
Transitions involve taking on new roles Cole & Macdonald, 2011; Hamilton & De Jonge,
2010; Pettican & Prior, 2011; Wiseman, 2009
Maintaining roles during transition may provide a sense of Cole & Macdonald, 2011
continuity
Engaging in occupations associated with a new role results in Hamilton & De Jonge, 2010
feelings that one has successfully adopted this new role
A transition in one individual’s life may cause changes in the Magill-Evans & Kratochvil, 2005
roles of those who are close to them

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Table 5: Strand 4. Environment and Transitions Described in 7 of 34 Articles
Supporting Elements
The environment influences transitions
Transitions occur in and are influenced by the social context
Societal beliefs influence individual experiences of transition
Societal context (eg. economic, governmental, health care,
education) and the way individuals interact with these
systems, influence transition process (objective) and
individual experiences of transition (subjective)
process (Table 5). The attention to the environ-
ment and its influence on transition added an
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important dimension to the breadth and scope of
life transitions in the occupation literature.
Occupation and transition
It is apparent that transition resulted in changes
to the meaning of occupations and patterns of
occupational participation for those experiencing
it (Table 6). Interestingly, although all articles
were retrieved from the occupation literature,
only about one third of the articles explicitly
described the impact of transition on occupa-
tions, or how occupational participation influ-
enced the transition process. Collectively these
studies anchored the essence and meaning of
occupation as a critical factor that impacted and
was impacted by the life transition.
Factors facilitating transition
Data describing the factors that ease transition
were evident in the largest proportion of articles
and included: preparation; taking steps to alter
patterns of thoughts and behaviors; occupational
participation before, during and after transitions;
social supports; and the continuity between of
experiences and occupations over the course of a
transition (Table 7). These factors are grounded
in the engagement in occupations and activities
from temporally, contextually, and culturally
ascribed perspectives as related to transition.
Factors that make transition difficult
This strand, supported by only four of 34 arti-
cles, is closely related to the elements that facilit-
ate transition. Elements that impede successful
J O U R N A L O F O C C U PAT I O N A L S C I E N C E , Vo l . 2 2 , N o . 3 , 2 0 1 5
References
Jonsson et al., 1997
Heuchemer & Josephsson, 2006; Liddle et al., 2008
Birkholtz & Blair, 1999
Heuchemer & Josephsson, 2006; Hon, Sun, Suto, &
Forwell, 2011; Paul-Ward, 2009; Yau, 1997
transition are presented in Table 8 and collec-
tively demonstrate that isolated or numerous
barriers impeding transition require attention
and must not be overlooked or undermined.
Theoretical Literature
Stage 1: Problem identification
What theoretical literature, from disciplines out-
side of occupational science and occupational
therapy, informs understandings of transitions in
healthy populations?
Stage 2: Literature search
Theoretical literature describing transitions were
located through a search of the UBC library
catalogue, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses,
CINAHL, Academic Search Complete, EconLit,
PsycINFO, and Social Science Citation Index.
The keywords searched were: “transition*,” “life
change event*,” “theor*,” “model*,” “psycho-
log*,” “anthropolog*,” “sociolog*,” and “eco-
nomic.” The search yielded six theories and
models that describe the transition process. The
Bridges’ model of transition was excluded
because it was not available through the library
catalogue. Though other existing theories may
contribute to this review of the theoretical liter-
ature describing transition, they were not cap-
tured using these search terms, and were,
therefore, not included in this study.
The criteria used to select sources for this re-
view were intentionally broad to ensure that di-
verse theoretical perspectives were represented.
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Table 6: Strand 5. Occupation and Transitions Described in 13 of 34 Articles
Supporting Elements
Changes in meaning of occupations
Transitions change the meanings of occupations
Changes in occupational patterns
Occupational losses and gains may occur during or as a result of
a transition
Transitions may involve changes in the way former occupations
are carried out
It is important to establish/re-establish meaningful occupational
engagement following a transition
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Transition occurs through ‘Action/doing’ (** can infer “through
occupation”)
An individual’s emotional response to a transition influences
their participation in occupations
Transitions may disrupt participation in occupations
The transition experience involves trying to establish
balance, through occupational choices, after
experiencing imbalance
After a transition, a new occupational balance must be achieved.
This balance between engagement and deprivation is linked
to a positive experience of transition
As one transitions through the normative developmental stages
there are changes in occupational participation
Anticipating further transition can alter occupational patterns
Meeting basic needs dictates occupational choices during a
crisis. After these needs are met, other occupations can be
reintroduced
To ensure quality and rigor of sources, each theor-
etical text met the following criteria: 1) presents a
significant discussion of transitions or the transition
process, 2) its theoretical base is clearly articulated,
3) the purpose of the theory is explicit, 4) the
theoretical text is coherent, and 5) is available
through UBC library electronic databases or print
holdings. Five of the six theories satisfied these
inclusion criteria and were: Moos and Schaefer’s
(1989) model of life transitions and crisis, Double
ABCX Model of Family Behaviour (McCubbin &
Patterson, 1983), the Life Course Perspective
(Hutchinson, 2003), Gilligan’s Model of Turning
Points and Enduring Change (Gilligan, 2009), and
Nicholson’s Transition Cycle (Nicholson, 1990).
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References
Aguilar, Boerema, & Harrison, 2010; Birkholtz &
Blair, 1999; Jonsson, 2011
Birkholtz & Blair, 1999; Chaffey & Fossey, 2004;
Heward & Molineux, 2006; Jonsson, 2011;
Pettican & Prior, 2011
Haltiwanger & Underwood, 2011; Heward,
Molineux, & Gough, 2006; Spencer, Davidson, &
White, 1996
Jonsson, 2011
Heuchemer & Josephsson, 2006
Vrkljan & Polgar, 2007
Vrkljan & Polgar, 2007; Yau, 1997; Spencer
et al., 1996
Pettican & Prior, 2011
Jonsson, 2011
Jarus et al., 2010
Jonsson, 2011
McNulty et al., 2009
Stage 3: Data evaluation
The five theoretical texts were read and indepen-
dently summarized by the primary authors, glean-
ing the fundamental tenets. To ensure a rigourous
evaluation of these texts the following informa-
tion was summarized in a table: a description
and a critique of the text’s attractive features
(aspects of the text that resonated with an oc-
cupational perspective), limitations, similarities
and unique characteristics, and how these texts
might inform transition from an occupational
perspective.
Through combining and refining the summaries,
a collated summary of each theoretical text was
 C A R LY C R I D E R , C . R U T H C A L D E R , K AT I E L E E B U N T I N G & S U S A N F O RW E L L

Table 7: Strand 6. Factors Facilitating Transition Described in 16 of 34 Articles

Supporting Elements References

Preparation
Preparing for a transition can facilitate the transition process Cole & Macdonald, 2011; Jonsson, 2011
Individuals can prepare for transitions by anticipating change, Cole & Macdonald, 2011; Josson et al., 1996
considering options, and reflecting on the meaning of the
transition
Drawing on previous life experience may help increase Seah et al., 2011
readiness for an expected transition
Changes in thought and behaviour
Acceptance and coping must take place for a transition to be Liddle et al., 2008
successful. Coping may involve adaptation of occupational
behaviours
Transitions may be facilitated by employing coping and adaptive McNulty et al., 2009
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strategies
Successful transition requires emotional and cognitive Seah et al., 2011
adjustments
Knowledge may facilitate effective transitions to new roles Hamilton & De Jonge, 2010
To restore equilibrium after a transition, adaptation and an Birkholtz & Blair, 1999
active process of organizing occupations to make a positive
change, must occur
Occupational participation
Participating in occupations can serve as a protective factor Blair, 2000; Paul-Ward, 2009
during transition
A good occupational fit following a transition, produces Seah et al., 2011
satisfaction, and the feeling that the transition was
successful
Social support
Social supports facilitate the transition process Haltiwanger & Underwood, 2011; Morley, 2006
Institutional supports and resources make transitions easier Haltiwanger & Underwood, 2011; Liddle et al.,
2008; Morley, 2006
Personal supports and resources make transitions easier Haltiwanger & Underwood, 2011; Liddle et al.,
2008; Morley, 2006
Continuity
It is important to be able to link the past to the future, when Boerema, Russell, & Aguilar, 2010; Wiseman &
experiencing a transition Whiteford, 2009
The past, present, and future have implications for the Heuchemer & Josephsson, 2006; Spencer
experience of transition et al., 1996
Continuity of occupation may help to buffer the hardships Boerema et al., 2010; Jonsson et al., 2001
associated with transition

Table 8: Strand 7. Factors that Make Transition Difficult Described in 4 of 34 Articles

Supporting Elements References

The following personal factors are barriers to transition: Lack of skills, Hamilton & De Jonge, 2010; Toal-
education and social support, cultural differences, and language barriers Sullivan, 2006; Yau, 1997
Multiple simultaneous transitions can make transition difficult Morley, 2006

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 C A R LY C R I D E R , C . R U T H C A L D E R , K AT I E L E E B U N T I N G & S U S A N F O RW E L L
generated. This summary included: an overview,
purpose, the scholarly tradition from which the
model emerged, the cohort studied that informed
the development of the model (where applic-
able), attractive features, and limitations.
Stage 4: Data analysis
The research team then met to discuss the
common themes that emerged across the models,
and whether these models related in a plausible
way to the occupation literature. This discussion
highlighted numerous issues, commonalities and
pertinent gaps not articulated in the five theoret-
ical texts that led to further distilling and re-
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organization of the data into the following
categories: definition of transition, the types of
transitions described by each model, key lan-
guage/terms used within the model, and the
aspect of the transition process or cycle described
by the model.
Stage 5: Presentation
Moos and Schaefer’s conceptual model describing
life transitions and crisis
This framework describes “the development and
outcome of normative transitions and life crises”
(Moos & Schaefer, 1989, p. 11) through the inter-
action between: person specific factors, event-
related factors, and features of the physical and
social environments that influence crisis; the
adaptive tasks that must be undertaken following
a crisis; and the relevant coping skills. No specific
cohort was used to develop this model, however
case examples are drawn from Moos and Schaefer’s
research in psychiatry, behavioural sciences, and
nursing. This model is heavily influenced by
crisis theory developed by Erich Lindenmann
and Erik Erikson (Moos & Schaefer, 1989), and
the language reflects roots in psychology and
psychiatry.
While this theory is comprehensive and ac-
counts for a broad range of factors that influence
transition, it does not provide a specific defini-
tion of transition. Instead, it treats crisis as a
type of transition, describing a single crisis and
how an individual can use psychological and
312 J O U R N A L O F O C C U PAT I O N A L S C I E N C E , Vo l . 2 2 , N o . 3 , 2 0 1 5
socio-cognitive strategies to cope. This model
is limited as it represents coping with transition
as a linear process, influenced by the individual
experiencing a transition that has a positive or
negative outcome. Further limitations include: its
tendency to examine a single transition in isola-
tion from other transition events; failure to articu-
late how the physical environment influences
crisis; limited discussion of how external sup-
ports enable a successful transition; minimal de-
scription of the action that corresponds to the
internal process; and failure to provide examples
of how this model can be applied to normative
transitions.
Double ABCX Model of Adjustment and Behavior
This model describes how family groups adapt to
and cope with a significant unanticipated dis-
ruptive event and the co-occurring normative
and non-normative transitions that follow the
crisis event. The model identifies variables that
account for the observable differences in how
families adapt to crises, and aims to “identify,
describe, and integrate the process components
of family behaviour, in response to a stressor and
to family crisis” (McCubbin & Patterson, 1983,
p. 11). Its development had two influences:
participant observation studies of families whose
husband/father was held captive or went missing
in the Vietnam war and Hill’s ABCX Family Crisis
Model (McCubbin & Patterson, 1983). This
model is rooted in the disciplines of sociology
and family social science, and the language used
echoes its roots in the social sciences.
McCubbin and Patterson (1983) did not provide
a definition of transition. Instead the term
‘stressor’ is used and defined as “a life event or
transition impacting upon the family unit which
produces, or has the potential of producing
change in the family social system” (p. 8). This
model does not isolate transitions, but acknowl-
edges that multiple transitions may be occurring
at one time, and may influence each other. It also
describes transitions as they occur over time,
representing transition as a non-linear process
that differs across individuals, and may result
in a wide variety of outcomes. Some limitations
 C A R LY C R I D E R , C . R U T H C A L D E R , K AT I E L E E B U N T I N G & S U S A N F O RW E L L
include: heavy influence of the original cohort
in which all families were composed of only
mothers and their children, limiting the general-
izability of the model; the model’s many variables
making it difficult to interpret; and a vocabulary
that, while internally consistent, differs from
other theories, which can make comparison of
this model with other frameworks complex.
Life Course Perspective
Focusing on normative transitions, this theory
describes how external factors influence the
events that occur over an individual’s life span,
and how personal, environmental, historical,
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social, and cultural factors influence an indivi-
dual’s response to these events (Hutchinson,
2003). Researchers from sociology, anthropology,
social history, demography, and psychology have
developed the large body of literature associated
with life course theory over the last 45 years.
Glen Elder, a research professor of sociology,
was instrumental in the development of this the-
ory through a longitudinal study of children
who grew up in the depression era (Hutchinson,
2003).
The Life Course Perspective defines a transition
as a gradual change in roles and statuses at a
group or individual level, which represents a
distinct change from former roles and statuses
(Hutchinson, 2003). The theory defines and
examines abrupt changes, or life events that alter
the trajectory of an individual’s life, or turning
points (Hutchinson, 2003). These life-trajectories
or long-term patterns include multiple transi-
tions. Life Course Perspective is the only theoret-
ical text examined here that adequately accounts
for the impact of historical and social change
on human behaviour, and how individual lives
are linked and constrained by context. While this
perspective is well developed, transition is a single
concept within a complex theory and, for this
reason, it may be difficult to use as a means to
study transitions. While many authors have con-
tributed to this perspective, it has yet to be
consolidated into a clearly defined theory. Fur-
ther, the definition of transition significantly dif-
fers from the definitions provided in the other
J O U R N A L O F O C C U PAT I O N A L S C I E N C E , Vo l . 2 2 , N o . 3 , 2 0 1 5
theoretical literature, which can complicate a
broader discussion of these concepts.
Gilligan’s Model of Turning Points and Enduring
Change
Gilligan’s model aims to “explore at a micro level
how change operates and is accounted for in the
individual’s life path” (Gilligan, 2009, p. 16) and
to challenge the determinism of developmental
theory by describing how individual agency
influences life trajectories. This model describes
how events, or moments of change termed ‘turn-
ing points’, drive positive change in the lives of
individuals. It posits that four sequential precon-
ditions must be met for a turning point to so-
lidify into an enduring change in an individual’s
life trajectory. This model, using Life Course
Perspective as its foundation, is based on the
author’s philosophical musing and reflections on
his personal and professional experiences, as a
professor of social work and social policy.
Gilligan did not provide a definition of transition,
but rather defined a turning point as a type of
transition that initiates an enduring positive shift
in the trajectory of an individual’s development.
By addressing positive changes in individuals’
lives, this model focuses on a previously over-
looked type of transition. This focus on positive
transition is also a limitation, as the model
addresses only one aspect of transition and
provides a somewhat oversimplified linear model
to describe transition. In addition, this model’s
definitions of terms differ from those in the Life
Course Perspective, which can cause confusion.
Nicholson’s Transition Cycle
This theory is a general framework that may be
used to describe positive and negative workplace
transitions, with the intent to improve transi-
tions in the workplace. Nicholson aimed to create
a descriptive model that allows “the full range
of extremely different experiences we know
people encounter in transition to be interpolated
and interpreted” (Nicholson, 1990, p. 87). This
framework describes the influence of one trans-
ition on successive transitions. It posits that
transition can be divided into four sequential
313
 C A R LY C R I D E R , C . R U T H C A L D E R , K AT I E L E E B U N T I N G & S U S A N F O RW E L L
stages of preparation, encounter, adjustment, and
stabilization, and that these stages interact in
various ways. This model is rooted in social and
applied psychology, is influenced by the study of
organizational behaviour and is based on a cohort
of workers who were experiencing job mobility
and other work transitions.
Nicholson described transition as an experience
that occurs through time that involves changes in
roles, which is similar to the definition offered in
the Life Course Perspective. This model provides
language that allows individuals experiencing
transition a means to reflect on their experiences.
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It also describes how the inability to adapt can
lead to a misfit between the individual and their
environment. A significant limitation is its nar-
row scope, targeting workplace managers and
only addressing work-related contextual factors.
Overall, Nicholson fails to provide an adequate
synthesis of his ideas in this model.
Comparing and Contrasting the
Occupational and Theoretical Literature
Having undertaken a comprehensive, summative
description of transition as captured in the occu-
pation literature and in models of transition from
the theoretical literature, we move to address the
third research question: When considering both
the occupational literature and theoretical liter-
ature, what are the areas of overlap, unique
contributions and features, and omissions that
emerge?
Occupation and theoretical literature: Areas of
overlap
First, both sets of literature made effort to
describe or define transitions. Though none of
the occupation literature reviewed in this study
provided a definition of transition, the qualities
of transition described may provide a framework
for developing a definition of transition from an
occupational perspective. Likewise, though only
the Life Course Perspective provided a definition
of transition, each theory contributed descriptions
of transition that may be useful in producing a
314 J O U R N A L O F O C C U PAT I O N A L S C I E N C E , Vo l . 2 2 , N o . 3 , 2 0 1 5
unified definition of transition. However none of
these theories provided a definition of transition
that incorporated concepts of occupation and
could be adopted as the definition of transition
from an occupational perspective.
Second, several of the theoretical texts and the
occupation literature articulated transition at the
individual level including the theories of Moos
and Schaefer (1989), Nicholson (2009), and
Gilligan (1990), while the Life Course Perspect-
ive described the way that many transitions fit
together to form an individual’s life trajectory.
The occupation literature did not formulate a
model for understanding transition, but, rather,
described how transition impacts the individual,
and how personal characteristics of an individual
influenced the transition.
Third, both the occupation literature and theories
reviewed contributed information about strat-
egies that can be used to improve the quality or
outcomes of transition. For example, Moos and
Schaefer’s model, with its focus on coping, was
developed to facilitate preventive interventions to
mitigate the influence of crises, and Nicholson’s
model was developed to improve the quality of
transitions for individuals experiencing work-
related transitions. Likewise, the occupation lit-
erature provides information regarding factors
that can facilitate smooth transitions with posit-
ive outcomes, including: occupational partici-
pation (Blair, 2000: Paul-Ward, 2009; Seah,
MacKenzie, & Gamble, 2011), preparation for
transitions (Cole & Macdonald, 2011; Jonsson,
2011; Jonsson, Kielhofner, & Borell, 1997; Seah
et al., 2011), social supports (Haltiwanger &
Underwood, 2011; Liddle, Turpin, Carlson, &
McKenna, 2008; Morley, 2006), and coping skills
(Liddle et al., 2008; McNulty, Crowe, Kroening,
VanLeit, & Good, 2009), similar to those
described by Moos and Schaefer (1989) and by
McCubbin and Patterson (1983).
Unique contributions of the theoretical literature
One aspect of transition overlooked in the occu-
pation literature, but addressed in the theo-
retical literatures, is group transition and how
 C A R LY C R I D E R , C . R U T H C A L D E R , K AT I E L E E B U N T I N G & S U S A N F O RW E L L
transitions impact or are negotiated by groups. In
the occupation literature for example, Hamilton
and De Jonge (2010) interviewed both mothers
and fathers to understand how the transition to
fatherhood impacts other life roles, but failed to
move beyond the father’s experience to capture
the impact of the transition to parenthood on the
family unit. Fogelberg and Frauwirth (2011) have
also noted this gap asserting that occupations
at the group level cannot be understood simply
by summing the individual occupational experi-
ences of the group members. In contrast, the
Double ABCX Model of Adjustment and Behavior
(McCubbin & Patterson, 1983) and the Life
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Course Perspective (Elder, Johnson, & Crosnoe,
2003) do explore transition at the group level.
The Double ABCX model, developed through
participant observation of family units, articulates
how the complex interactions between group
members, who are experiencing transitions,
impacts the experience and outcomes of transi-
tions. It illustrates that transitions do not occur in
a vacuum, but involve the interaction between
multiple transition events in the lives of inter-
connected individuals, whose choices and experi-
ences influence one-another. Similarly, the Life
Course Perspective asserts that lives are “linked
interdependently,” and, as a result, “transitions in
one person’s life often entail transitions for other
people as well” (Elder et al., 2003, p. 3). As
research into occupation moves forward in its
study of transition, exploring the interconnection
between individual and group experience will
provide a real-life view of the layers associated
with occupation and collective engagement as
well the nuances that are not captured when
focusing solely on the individual.
Unique contributions of the occupation literature
Though there are significant overlaps presented
in the theories and the occupation literature,
there is one significant element present in the
occupation literature that is absent in other
theories: occupation. The theories examined do
not address ‘doing,’ or participating in novel or
routine activities as influencing the experience
and outcome of transitions. Instead, these theor-
ies, which are heavily influenced by psychology
J O U R N A L O F O C C U PAT I O N A L S C I E N C E , Vo l . 2 2 , N o . 3 , 2 0 1 5
and the social sciences, tend to focus on how
internal strategies and interactions with others
shape transitions. The occupation literature on
transition shows, for example, the importance of
meaningful engagement, how occupations are
disrupted and impacted, the use of occupation
to regain control, and that a new occupational
balance emerges as a result of the transition.
The influence, however, of psychology is also
evident in the occupation literature as there is
an emphasis on the individual experience and
on internal strategies as a means to understand-
ing coping and transition. This emphasis on the
individual may also be due to the number of
narrative and phenomenological studies repre-
sented. As occupational scientists move forward
in studying transition, it is essential that occupa-
tion’s influence on transition be further illumi-
nated, as it is not represented in other theories of
transition.
Omissions in the occupation and theoretical
literature
This integrative review revealed several import-
ant issues that are not a part of the academic
discussion of transition in either the occupation
literature or theories from other disciplines.
There is limited discussion of transition at the
group levels, particularly at the community or
population levels. The lack of focus at the group
level may be a result of the academic traditions
from which these theories and occupation studies
have emerged. It may also be related to the need
to identify, apply and further develop existing
methodological approaches to study transition
that are robust for use with large groups. Second,
while both the occupation literature and the
theoretical literature reviewed made reference to
the social and institutional contexts, there was no
perspective offered on the influence of the phys-
ical environment as a factor that influenced
transition and how it may alter, hinder, or
facilitate transitions.
It was also noted that nearly all of the theoret-
ical and occupation literature describing trans-
ition was deeply rooted in Westernized modes
of understanding, and that the voice of diverse
315
 C A R LY C R I D E R , C . R U T H C A L D E R , K AT I E L E E B U N T I N G & S U S A N F O RW E L L
ethnic or cultural groups must be explored to
inform understandings of life transitions. Appre-
ciating non-Western ways of knowing is particu-
larly salient in Western societies, where there
is an increasingly diverse population that in-
cludes large immigrant populations who are tran-
sitioning into unaccustomed environments and
occupations.
A Theory of Transition from an
Occupational Perspective
Based on this review of the occupation literature
and with an understanding of the theories related to
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transition as described in the theoretical (non-
occupation) literature, the question persists - is
there a need for, and sufficient evidence to sup-
port, a theory that describes life transition from an
occupational perspective? There are gaps in both
the occupation literature on transition and the
theories of transition put forth by other disci-
plines. However, it is important to acknowledge
that occupational science research has generated a
significant body of knowledge regarding transition
from an occupational perspective. This knowledge
has potential to contribute to an occupation-based
theory of transition.
Having a theory of transition from an occupa-
tional science perspective would provide struc-
ture and a process to organize concepts, and
could show how constructs link or are differen-
tiated (Chinn & Kramer, 2004). It might also
serve as a springboard to critique and further
develop an area, providing an organized way to
embark on testing the concepts and relationships
that emerge in a theory.
This review has suggested seven transition
strands in the OS literature, of which numerous
components could contribute to a theory. Such a
theory could offer another consolidated perspect-
ive for scholars, students and clinicians both
within and outside the discipline of occupational
science to consider, use and evaluate. This occu-
pational perspective will contribute to the broader
transdisciplinary discourse on issues and processes
of transition that is either not well articulated or
316 J O U R N A L O F O C C U PAT I O N A L S C I E N C E , Vo l . 2 2 , N o . 3 , 2 0 1 5
absent and will stand among other theories for
consideration in this scholarly discourse.
To develop a coherent theory of transition from
an occupational perspective, several aspects must
be considered including a definition of transition,
components of transition that have been found to
contribute to an occupational perspective of
transition and a process that is temporally and
culturally relevant.
Conclusion
Research related to transition from an occupa-
tional perspective has resulted in a robust liter-
ature that, in this review, was consolidated into
seven strands including qualities of transition,
transition experience, and the roles, environ-
ment, occupations, facilitators, and difficulties
related to transition. When reviewed with five
theories from the theoretical literature several
areas of overlap, unique contributions and fea-
tures, and omissions were identified. Based on
this study, there appears to be a reasonably robust
body of knowledge that would support a ‘coming
of age’ and readiness for a theory of life transition
from an occupation perspective.
There are limitations to this study that include
confining the literature review to resources that
were available through the UBC library and
excluding ‘grey’ literature. These a priori meth-
odological decisions may have influenced the
breadth of information on the topic of transition.
It is also recognized that the quality of studies in
the occupational science literature varied widely,
as did the basis on which the theories from the
theoretical literature emerged. This current state
of research demonstrates room of growth. In addi-
tion, while every effort was made to rigorously
review the breadth of occupation literature and
the theories from other disciplines that discuss
transition, this was not a systematic review, and,
therefore, the data presented may not be exhaust-
ive. In addition, much of the theory and research
reviewed was influenced by psychology and phe-
nomenological research methodology, leading to
the bias toward the individual experience.
 C A R LY C R I D E R , C . R U T H C A L D E R , K AT I E L E E B U N T I N G & S U S A N F O RW E L L
Future research from an occupational science
perspective should be directed towards filling
the identified gaps related to: developing meth-
odological approaches that are robust for use
with groups and to undertake research using
these methods to study transition from an occu-
pation perspective at the group level, particularly
related to the community and population; addres-
sing the influence of the physical environment as
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