Engineering Geology 161 (2013) 65–80

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Engineering Geology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enggeo

Small strain stiffness of carbonate Kenya Sand

V. Fioravante a, D. Giretti a,⁎, M. Jamiolkowski b
a
Engineering Department, The University of Ferrara, via Saragat 1, 44122 Ferrara, Italy
b
Emeritus Professor, Technical University of Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi, 24, 10129 Torino, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this paper results of a series of tests performed in a large calibration chamber (CC), consisting in the prop-
Received 9 December 2012 agation of seismic shear and compression waves in dry carbonate oolitic sand from Kenya, are presented and
Received in revised form 15 April 2013 analysed. The tests were aimed at assessing how the state parameters affect the small strain shear and
Accepted 17 April 2013
constrained moduli.
Available online 25 April 2013
The tested sand was characterised by the determination of the index properties, its mineralogy and grain
Keywords:
crushing, the latter investigated by oedometer tests.
Carbonate sand The calibration chamber houses a cylindrical specimen 1.2 m diameter and 1.5 m high. Within the speci-
Calibration chamber mens, reconstituted by dry pluviation at relative densities of 30% and 85%, were embedded arrays of three
Small strain stiffness miniaturised geophones, used alternatively as source and receiver of seismic body waves. Shear and
Cross-anisotropy compression waves were propagated along the vertical, horizontal and inclined planes. By assuming a
cross-anisotropic medium with a vertical axis of symmetry, the seismic tests allowed the assessment of the
elastic parameters.
The effects of the fabric, of the stress induced anisotropy as well as the stress history on the velocity of propagated
seismic body waves are quantified and described in details.
Semi-empirical correlations are calibrated; they can be used in engineering practice to analyse body wave ve-
locity profiles measured in situ and to evaluate the state parameters and anisotropy properties of carbonate
sand deposits.
© 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The elastic moduli of a homogeneous soil can be evaluated by mea-

suring the velocity of compression and shear waves, according to the
1.1. On the small strain stiffness of sand theory of propagation of waves in an elastic medium:

The stress strain response of a granular soil at a very small level of 2

M0 ¼ ρVP ð1Þ
strain (i.e., b10 −5) is well approximated by that of an elastic cross-
anisotropic medium with a vertical axis of symmetry (Stokoe et al.,
1985, 1991; Bellotti et al., 1996; Fioravante, 2000). G0 ¼ ρVS
2
ð2Þ
The cross-anisotropic response in stiffness may be due to several
reasons such as structural anisotropy (due to the particle shape and
depositional environment, Arthur and Menzies, 1972; Miura and where:
Toki, 1984) or stress-induced anisotropy (i.e. induced by anisotropic
state of stress). ρ mass density of the medium;
The shear and constrained stiffness moduli G0 and M0, within the VP compression wave velocity;
small strain elastic region, depend on the soil state, expressed by a VS shear wave velocity.
combination of the current void ratio, e and effective stresses, σ′,
and the soil structure, reflecting the depositional environment and In an isotropic homogeneous elastic medium the stiffness is inde-
the post-depositional structure-forming processes, such as ageing, pendent on the direction of stressing and the mechanical behaviour is
early diagenesis and cementation. fully defined by two independent constants (e.g., M0 and G0). In a
cross-anisotropic elastic medium, both the constrained and the shear
moduli vary with the direction of loading and five independent con-
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 0532974908.
stants are required to fully characterise the stiffness of the medium
E-mail addresses: vincenzo.fioravante@unife.it (V. Fioravante), (Love, 1959). The measurement of seismic body wave velocities propa-
daniela.giretti@unife.it (D. Giretti), michele.jamiolkowski@polito.it (M. Jamiolkowski). gated and polarised in different planes allows for the determination of

0013-7952/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2013.04.006
66 V. Fioravante et al. / Engineering Geology 161 (2013) 65–80

Table 1
Kenya Sand: calibration chamber test programme.

Test DR a DR b Kc Shh Svh Shv Ph Pv S45,−45 P45 Δσ1' '

σ1,max '
σv,max '
σh,max
[%] [%] [kPa] [kPa] [kPa] [kPa]

460 30 41 1 x x x x x x x 50 600 600 600

461 31 41 0.5 x x x x x x x 50 600 600 300
469 27 45 2 x x x x x x x 50 400 199 400
462 86 92 1 x x x x x x x 50 600 600 600
463 89 93 0.5 x x x x x x x 50 600 600 300
466 85 91 2 x x x x x x x 50 600 300 600
464 86 90 1–0.26 x x x x x – – 30 380 380 100
465 87 90 1–3.3 x x x x x – – 30 330 100 330
a
After deposition.
b
At maximum value of σ1'.

all the five independent elastic constants (Lee, 1985; Lee and Stokoe, σa' principal effective stress along the direction of wave
1986; Lee, 1993; Bellotti et al., 1996; Fioravante, 2000). propagation;
In geologically young soils, the velocity of body waves can be σb' principal effective stress in the direction of particle motion;
expressed as function of void ratio and individual stress component σc' out of plane effective principal stress perpendicular to the
(Roesler, 1979; Stokoe et al., 1985, 1991; Hoque et al., 1994; Kohata plane on which σa' and σb' act;
et al., 1994; Lo Presti et al., 1995; Bellotti et al., 1996). According to pa atmospheric pressure expressed consistently with the unit
Fioravante (2000) generalised expressions can be written as: system adopted (the value utilised here is 100 kPa).

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi  0 na  0 nb  0 nc With reference to the vertical and horizontal directions, Eqs. (3)
d
VP ¼ M0 =ρ ¼ CP ⋅e ⋅ σ a =pa ⋅ σ b =pa ⋅ σ c =pa ð3Þ
and (4) can be written as:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi  0 na  0 nb  0 nc  0 nv  0 nh
d d
VS ¼ G0 =ρ ¼ CS ⋅e ⋅ σ a =pa ⋅ σ b =pa ⋅ σ c =pa ð4Þ VP ¼ CP ⋅e ⋅ σ v =pa ⋅ σ h =pa ð5Þ

 0 nv  0 nh
d
where: VS ¼ CS ⋅e ⋅ σ v =pa ⋅ σ h =pa ð6Þ

CP and CS [LT−1] experimentally determined material constants which where:

represent the shear and the compression wave velocity, respectively, at
the “reference conditions” (i.e., at ed = 1 and (σa'/pa)na ⋅ (σb'/pa)nb ⋅ σv' vertical effective stress;
(σc'/pa)nc = 1); σh' horizontal effective stress,

z (vertical direction)
direction of propagation
horizontal polarisation
vertical polarisation
Szy Szx 45° polarisation
-45° polarisation
Pz
S45,-45

45°
Sxy

Syx P45 Px x (horizontal

direction)
45°
Py
Sxz
Syz

y (horizontal
direction) COMPRESSION WAVES P
• Pv wave propagating in the vertical direction, along the z-axis (Pz)
• Ph wave propagating in the horizontal direction, along the x-axis (Px) or the y-axis (Py)
• P45 wave propagating at an inclination of 45° with respect the the z-axis
SHEAR WAVES S
• Svh wave propagating in the vertical direction along the z-axis, with the particles vibrating in
the horizontal direction along the x-axis or the y-axis, i.e. Szx and Szy waves
• Shv wave propagating in the horizontal direction along the x-axis or y-axis, with the particles
vibrating in a vertical direction along the z-axis, i.e. Sxz and Syz waves
• Shh wave propagating in the horizontal direction along the x-axis or y-axis, with the particles
vibrating along the y-axis or x-axis respectively, i.e. Sxy and Syx waves
• S45,v wave propagating along a line inclined at 45° with respect to the z-axis, with particle
motion direction lying in the vertical plane

Fig. 1. Group of seismic waves (P and S) propagated during CC tests.

 V. Fioravante et al. / Engineering Geology 161 (2013) 65–80 67

Vertical Table 2
LVDT Kenya Sand: void ratio change during tests.

Direction of sand Void ratio, e

spreader motion Test After deposition End of loading End of unloading

460 1.64 1.57 1.58

461 1.63 1.57 1.58
Horizontal 462 1.35 1.32 1.33
LVDTs 463 1.34 1.31 1.32
464 1.35 1.33 1.33
465 1.35 1.33 –
466 1.35 1.32 1.33
469 1.64 1.54 1.55

Sand
specimen
1.2. On carbonate sands

Carbonate soils are calcareous sediments in which calcium car-

bonate (aragonite or calcite) predominates. They may have organic
Geophones (biogenic sands, originated by the deposition of skeletal residue of
marine organisms) or chemical (oolith sands, derived from the pre-
cipitation of aragonite around a nucleation site in carbonate rich
Fig. 2. Sketch indicating the position of the instrumentation.
water) origins, as explained by Fookes (1988), and Coop and Airey
(2003). They are deposited in a wide range of geological environ-
ments and their grain size distribution may range from sands to
while in isotropic conditions Eqs. (3) and (4) become:
mud; carbonate sands are particularly widespread in shallow, warm
 0 n and continental shelf seas (tropics and sub-tropics, Fookes, 1988;
d
VP ¼ CP ⋅e ⋅ p =pa ð7Þ
Coop and Airey, 2003). The grading of carbonate sands depends on
 0 n the depositional environment; they are frequently cemented and
d
VS ¼ CS ⋅e ⋅ p =pa ð8Þ the calcium carbonate is often precipitated at or soon after deposition;
the strength of the cementation ties depends on the water temperature,
where: chemistry and depth (Coop and Airey, 2003). The in situ void ratio
depends on grading, cementing and energy of water during deposition.
p ' = (σ1' + 2σ3')/3 mean effective stress; In general it is much higher than that of silica sands. The specific gravity
σ1' = major principal effective stress; is generally higher than that of silica sands (Fookes, 1988; Coop and
σ3' = minor principal effective stress; Airey, 2003).
n= na + nb + nc = nv + nh; The interest of geotechnical engineering to the mechanical behav-
d, na, nb, nc, nv and nh nondimensional function exponents to be deter- iour of carbonate sands rose in the '80s after the problems encoun-
mined experimentally. tered with piled foundations of offshore platforms at the Australia's
North West Shelf (King and Lodge, 1988). The main difficulties en-
In order to take into account the effect of stress history, Eqs. (3) countered in the field were due to the high level of particle breakage
and (4) can be modified as follows: during pile driving, which caused high compressibility and very low
skin friction, and to the extreme heterogeneity caused by the deposi-
 0 na  0 nb  0 nc
d
V ¼ C⋅e ⋅ σ a =pa ⋅ σ b =pa ⋅ σ c =pa ⋅OCR
k
ð9Þ tional mechanisms.
Since then, many researches (Datta et al., 1980; Coop, 1990;
where: Al-Douri and Poulos, 1991; Almeida et al., 1991; Parkin, 1991; Coop
and Atkinson, 1993; Fioravante et al., 1994, 1998; Yamashita et al.,
OCR overconsolidation ratio; 2000; Qadimi and Coop, 2007) have been devoted to understanding
k nondimensional exponent to be determined experimentally. the mechanical behaviour of carbonate sands, mainly through triaxial,

a b c
σ'v [kPa] σ'v [kPa] σ'v [kPa]
test 461 & 463 380
test 460 & 462
600
test 464

300 test 466 & 469 test 465

100 100

σ'h [kPa] σ'h [kPa] σ'h [kPa]

300 600 100 100 330

Fig. 3. Stress paths.

68 V. Fioravante et al. / Engineering Geology 161 (2013) 65–80

Gravel Sand Silt

c m f c m f c m f
60 20 6 2 0.6 0.2 0.06 0.02 0.006 0.002
100
90
80

Finer by weight, %
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001

Grain size, mm
Fig. 4. Grain size distribution of Kenya Sand.

direct shear and simple shear tests. Some of the most important issues
achieved are the following:
• Biogenic carbonate sands are generally characterised by angular
particle shapes, poor grading and intra-particle voids, which cause
grain crushing susceptibility, high void ratio and loose structure.
• The crushability of particles causes high gradient of the normal
compression and critical state lines; the irreversible plastic strains
the soil undergoes through breakage result in very low gradient of
the un-loading and re-loading lines.
• Creep-like behaviour in sands is generally related to stress redistri-
bution as particles continue to break under a constant stress and
causes a reduction in the void ratio and an increase in the small
strain stiffness. In carbonate sands creep rate and associated strain
rate effects can be large.
• During shearing the behaviour of carbonate sands is similar to silica
sands and depends on the state parameters (specific volume and
mean effective pressure); a moderate increase of the mean effective
pressure causes the transition from dilatant to compressive behaviour
due to the high gradient of the critical state line. The strains required
to reach the critical state are higher than required for silica soils. Fric-
tion between grains and interlocking of angular particles cause high
values of the shearing resistance angle at critical state.
• Under undrained cyclic loading, carbonate sands usually show higher
liquefaction resistance than silica sands because of the particle angu-
lar shape, which causes most widespread intergranular contacts, and
the higher grain roughness (Hyodo et al., 1998; Morioka and
Nicholson, 2000).
• Cone penetration test in a calibration chamber in carbonate sands
evidenced very low values of the sleeve friction and friction ratio as
low as 0.1%. At equal values of relative density and confining stress,
the point resistance in carbonate sands is lower than in silica sands,
the difference being greater with increasing density. The cone pene-
tration causes a greater particle breakage than in silica sands.
The interest in carbonate sands has been renewed in recent years
since they are often used as fill material in reclaimed land, particular-
ly in Middle Eastern countries where artificial islands are used for

Fig. 5. Picture of Kenya Sand.

 V. Fioravante et al. / Engineering Geology 161 (2013) 65–80 69

Table 3 The effect of stress history on the shear stiffness was also verified
Properties of Kenya Sand. (Fioravante et al., 1994, 1998; Yamashita et al., 2000; Coop and Airey,
D50 CU CC emax emin γmina γmaxb Gsc '
ϕcv 2003).
[mm] [–] [–] [–] [–] [kN/m3] [kN/m3] [–] [°] The correlations proposed here can be directly applied to evaluate
0.13 1.86 0.82 1.776 1.282 9.85 11.98 2.785 38 the void ratio and the effective stress ratio of reclaimed carbonate
a sand fills from geophysical tests.
ASTM D4254.
b
ASTM D4253.
c
ASTM D854/92.
2. Experimental set-up and test procedure

exploitation of offshore oil reserves. The islands are usually built by
rainbowing and compaction of the sand retrieved from undersea bor-
row areas. The acceptance criteria of the ground improvement tech-
niques are mainly based on the fill density checked by means of
CPTs. Since the empirical correlations used in current practice are cal-
ibrated for silica sands, calibration chamber and centrifuge tests have
been recently undertaken, aimed at evaluating the cone resistance of
various types of carbonate sands (Shaqour, 2007; Van Impe, personal
communication).
An additional method to evaluate the fill state and saturation can
be based on the body wave velocities measured via down-hole and
cross-hole tests: the analysis of velocity profiles through empirical
correlations (e.g., Eqs. (5) and (6) properly calibrated) can allow the
determination of the state parameters with depth of the compacted
fills (current void ratio and effective stress profiles). A step in this di-
rection has already been done by Fioravante (2000), who performed a
comprehensive series of tests, consisting of the propagation of verti-
cal, horizontal and oblique seismic body waves in silica and carbonate
sand triaxial specimens using compression and bender elements.
This paper presents the results of eight seismic tests on reconstituted
calibration chamber specimens of a type of fine carbonate sand (Kenya
Sand) with initial relative densities of about 30% or 85%. The specimens
were both isotropically and anisotropically consolidated. The test results,
together with the measures of shear and compression wave velocities
performed on Kenya Sand triaxial samples by Fioravante (2000), allowed
the calibration of Eqs. (3) to (9).
The tests have been interpreted to:
(i) verify the applicability of the cross-anisotropic elastic model to
the tested material,
(ii) compute the five independent elastic constant of the model
and
(iii) quantify the inherent and stress induced anisotropy.
The tests were performed using the ISMGEO (formerly ISMES) cal-
ibration chamber (CC) which houses a cylindrical specimen 1.2 m di-
ameter and 1.5 m high, that can be subjected to the required stress
and strain history by controlling the boundary stresses and/or strains.
A detailed description of such a CC is given by Bellotti et al. (1982,
1988).
Specimens of dry Kenya Sand were reconstituted by pluviation in
air using a traveller sand spreader (Fretti et al., 1993) at two initial
relative densities DR ≈ 30% and DR ≈ 85%, as indicated in Table 1,
where the type of waves propagated in each test and the stress con-
ditions are also listed.
During pluviation 28 miniaturised cylindrical geophones (35 mm
long and 31 mm diameter) were embedded within the specimen.
The geophones were employed alternatively as sources and as re-
ceivers. They were positioned within the sand mass in such a manner
as to allow the measure of the velocity of compression (P) and shear
(S) waves propagating in three orthogonal planes zx, zy and xy, coin-
cident with the principal stress planes (the vertical direction is z; x
and y are two horizontal directions at 90° to each other; the x direc-
tion coincides with that of the travelling sand spreader motion). As
shown in Fig. 1, the P and S waves were propagated along the vertical
and horizontal directions and along an oblique travel path inclined at
an angle θ of 45° to the vertical (Pv, Ph and P45, Sv, Sh and S45). The ver-
tical S waves were polarised in the horizontal plane (Svh); the hori-
zontal S waves were polarised both in the horizontal and vertical
plane (Shh and Shv). The oblique S waves were polarised in a vertical
plane horizontally rotated by 45° with respect to the zx and zy planes
(S45,−45).
Along each travel path the geophones were arranged in arrays of
3, so as to use one (at one end of the array) as the source of seismic
waves and two as receivers. Thus it was possible to analyse the data
in the time domain by the true time interval method. Typical lengths
of the travel path ranged from 40 to 65 cm. To avoid near-field effects

0.25

Hokksund
0.2
Total Breakage potential Bt

Ticino
Glauconite
Kenya
0.15
Quiou

0.1

0.05

0
1 10 100
Vertical applied stress, MPa

Fig. 6. Total breakage potential vs. vertical applied pressure.

Adapted after Bellotti et al. (1991).
70
Fig. 7. Test 464: effect of principal effective vertical stress acting out of plane.
the source geophone was excited by means of sine waves (50 V ampli-
tude, generated by a function generator and amplified in power) with a
frequency of 2000 Hz and 3000 Hz for P and S waves, respectively (the
wavelength was three times greater than the size of the geophones and
shorter than one half of the adopted travel path). In Fig. 2 a sketch indi-
cating the position of the geophones within the sample is reported.
Based on the interpretation of the impulse response, the point cor-
responding to one quarter wavelength after the observed arrival time
was chosen on each record as the point used to compute the time in-
terval between the two receivers along each travel path.
After deposition, six CC specimens (Table 1) were loaded by
incrementing the major principal effective stress σ1' in steps of
Δσ1' = 50 kPa and keeping constant the effective stress ratio Kc =
σh'/σv' where σv' = vertical effective stress and σh' = horizontal effec-
tive stress. For each value of initial DR, Kc was equal to 0.5, 1 and 2, al-
ternatively, as evidenced in Table 1 and in Fig. 3(a). After reaching the
maximum prefixed σ1' value, the specimens were unloaded following
the same procedure.
1000
Test 465
DR from 87 to 90%
Compression wave velocity Vp, m/s
nc = 0.0062
σ'v [kPa]
100
100
100
40
Fig. 8. Test 465: effect of principal effective vertical stress acting out of plane.
V. Fioravante et al. / Engineering Geology 161 (2013) 65–80
Two more specimens (tests 464 and 465) were loaded and one
(only test 464) was unloaded following the stress paths represented
in Fig. 3(b) and (c) and applying stress steps of 30 kPa. In test 464
the specimen was first isotropically consolidated up to σv' = σh' =
100 kPa (Kc = 1) and then subjected to a stepwise increase of the
vertical effective stress up to σv' = 380 kPa, keeping σh' = constant
(Kc decreasing up to 0.26). In test 465 the specimen was first
isotropically consolidated up to σv' = σh' = 100 kPa (Kc = 1) and
then subjected to a stepwise increase of the horizontal effective stress
up to σh' = 330 kPa, keeping σv' = constant (Kc increasing up to 3.3).
During the tests, vertical and radial displacements of the specimen
were carefully measured by LVDTs allowing the evaluation of the
axial (εa) and volumetric (εv) strains and the estimation of void
ratio change; as shown in Fig. 2 the radial displacements were mea-
sured at seven different heights of the samples. During the loading
phase the relative density of the specimens varied from DR ≈ 30%
to DR ≈ 40% and from DR ≈ 85% to DR ≈ 90%, respectively for low
density and high density specimens (Table 1).
σ'h = 100 kPa σ'h = 200 kPa
Kc = 1 Kc = 2
Pz1 465
σ'h [kPa]
Pz2 465
200 330
400
 V. Fioravante et al. / Engineering Geology 161 (2013) 65–80 71

1000
Test 464 σ'v = 100 kPa σ'v = 200 kPa
DR from 86 to 90% Kc = 1 Kc = 0.5

Shear wave velocity Vs, m/s

nb = 0.1581

σ'v [kPa] na = 0.1258

380

200
Sxz 464
Syz 464
100
100
Szx 464
σ'h [kPa]
Szy 464
100
100
40 400
Direction of propagation or particle motion σ'a or σ'b = σv, kPa

Fig. 9. Test 464: effect of principal effective vertical stress acting in the direction of wave propagation or particle motion.

Each loading step was kept constant for 60 min, in order to maximum and minimum void ratio, γmax and γmin are the maximum
'
achieve grain re-arrangement and reach an acceptable equilibrium and minimum dry density, Gs is the specific weight and ϕcv is the
of grain contact stresses. At the end of each step the seismic tests shearing resistance angle at the critical state. The minimum and max-
were performed (the P and S waves were generated and their veloc- imum dry densities and the specific gravity were obtained using the
ities were measured). The same procedure was adopted during ASTM procedures. The Kenya Sand was considered an ideal test soil
unloading, to evaluate the effect of stress history on the seismic since it's almost uniform, is fine (scale effects related to the geophone
wave velocity. The change in void ratio during the whole tests is dimensions can be neglected), and the sub-rounded particles are less
given in Table 2. prone to grain crushing. Further tests on less “academic” materials are
anyway advisable.
3. Test sand and programme The crushability of Kenya Sand was investigated by comparing the
grain size distribution of the virgin sand with those measured after
The test soil is a type of fine uniform carbonate sand (Kenya Sand), oedometer tests performed in a special high capacity apparatus
whose grain size distribution is shown in Fig. 4. The sand mainly con- (Bellotti et al., 1991). The test results evidence the existence of a
sists of fine, sub-rounded particles, made of 97% carbonate, b2% threshold pressure larger than 10 MPa, at which massive grain
quartz, and 1% feldspar, as deduced from X-ray diffractometry. A pic- crushing starts to occur, as shown in Fig. 6, where the total breakage
ture of Kenya Sand grains is reported in Fig. 5. Some physical proper- potential of Kenya Sand is plotted versus the applied vertical stress. In
ties are given in Table 3, where: D50 is the mean grain size, CU and CC the figure the behaviour of Kenya Sand is compared with that of four
are the coefficients of uniformity and curvature, emax and emin are the other types of sand: two types of silica sand (Ticino and Hokksund),

1000
Test 465 σ'h = 100 kPa σ'h = 200 kPa
DR from 87 to 90% Kc = 1 Kc = 2
Shear wave velocity Vs, m/s

nb = 0.1228

σ'v [kPa] na = 0.0954

100 Szx 465

σ'h [kPa] Szy 465
330 Sxz 465
100 200
Syz 465
100
40 400

Fig. 10. Test 465: effect of principal effective vertical stress acting in the direction of wave propagation or particle motion.
72 V. Fioravante et al. / Engineering Geology 161 (2013) 65–80

1000
Test 464 σ'v = 100 kPa σ'v = 200 kPa
DR from 86 to 90% Kc = 1 Kc = 0.5

Compression wave velocity Vp, m/s

na+nb = 0.2699

σ'v [kPa]
380

200

100
100
Pz1 464
Pz2 464
σ'h [kPa]
100
100
40 400

Direction of propagation or particle motion

Fig. 11. Test 464: effect of principal effective vertical stress acting in the direction of particle motion and wave propagation.

one type of carbonate sand (Quiou) and one type of glauconitic sand. the measurement of the propagation velocity of compression and shear
The total breakage potential Bt is given by: waves in 8 specimens of dry Kenya Sand belonging to two different clas-
ses of densities, DR ≈ 30–40% and DR ≈ 85–90% and characterised by
Bt ¼ Bp −Bp0 ð11Þ values of the stress ratio Kc ranging from 0.26 to 3.3.
The effective stress paths along which the P and S wave velocities
were measured in different tests are shown in Fig. 3.
where:

Bp = ∫ bp ⋅ dp breakage potential after stressing; 4. Test results

Bp0 = ∫ bp0 ⋅ dp0 breakage potential before stressing;
bp, bp0 breakage potential for the particle of size D; 4.1. Effect of principal effective stresses
p sieve fraction of particle of size D;
dp differential sieve fraction. The results of tests 464 and 465 have been analysed to evaluate the
outcome of the effective principal stress on seismic wave velocities and
In view of the results in Fig. 6, for the CC tests presented here, the to estimate the constant na, nb and nc of Eqs. (3) and (4).
effects of crushing on the soil stiffness have been neglected. In Figs. 7 and 8, the velocities of compression and shear waves prop-
The calibration chamber test programme is summarised in agated in the horizontal and vertical planes (Ph and Shh for test 464 and
Table 1, where the test conditions are also reported. It consisted in Pv for test 465) are plotted versus the out of plane stress σc', which

1000
Compression and shear wave velocity Vp & Vs, m/s

Test 465 σ'h = 100 kPa σ'h = 200 kPa

DR from 87 to 90% Kc = 1 Kc = 2

na+nb = 0.2726

na+nb = 0.2341

σ'v [kPa]

Px 465
Py 465
100 Sxy 465
σ'h [kPa] Syx 465
100 200 330

100
40 400
Direction of propagation or particle motion 'a = 'b = 'h, kPa

Fig. 12. Test 465: effect of principal effective vertical stress acting in the direction of particle motion and wave propagation.
 V. Fioravante et al. / Engineering Geology 161 (2013) 65–80 73

Table 4
Kenya Sand: tests 464 and 465, coefficient of Eqs. (3) and (4).

VP = CP · ed · (σa'/pa)na · (σb'/pa)nb · (σc'/pa)nc

VS = CS · ed · (σa'/pa)na · (σb'/pa)nb · (σc'/pa)nc

Test 464 Test 465

Kc = 1–0.26 DR = 86–90% Kc = 1–3.3 DR = 87–90%

na nb nc na + nb CP · ed a or CS · ed b
na nb nc na + nb CP · ed a or CS · ed b

Pv – – – 0.2699 418 – – 0.0062 – 434

Ph – – 0.0564 – 476 – – – 0.2726 475
Shh – – 0.0531 – 308 – – – 0.2341 303
Svh 0.1258 – – – 279 – 0.1228 – – 285
Shv – 0.1581 – – 278 0.0954 – – – 285
a
CP · ed = VP value when σa' = σb' = σc' = pa.
b
CS · ed = VS value when σa' = σb' = σc' = pa.

coincides with the vertical stress σv' in test 464 and with the horizontal The above results suggest that dry pluviated Kenya Sand behaves
stress σh' in test 465. as a cross-anisotropic material, that the stress exponents na and nb
The figures show that the influence of the out of plane stress is small can be assumed equal and that nc can be assumed equal to 0.
(0.0062 b nc b 0.0564), confirming the experimental evidence presented
by Roesler (1979), Knox et al. (1982), Lee (1985), Stokoe et al. (1985,
1991), and Bellotti et al. (1996). 4.2. Effect of inherent anisotropy
The effect of the effective principal stresses acting in the direction of
wave propagation and in the direction of particle motion is represented The shear wave velocities measured during the seismic tests
in Figs. 9–12. performed on isotropically consolidated specimens (tests 460 and
Figs. 9 and 10 show that the shear wave velocities Svh and Shv are 462, relative density DR ≈ 30–40% and DR ≈ 85–90%, respectively)
almost identical, even if the stress exponent nb, obtained by a regres- are reported in Figs. 13 and 14.
sion analysis, is slightly greater than na. Moreover the velocities of The velocities of waves propagated and polarised in the hori-
waves Szx and Szy coincide, as well as those of Sxz and Syz, suggesting zontal plane (Sxy and Syx) are independent of the direction of prop-
that the horizontal plane acts as a plane of isotropy. The values of the agation, confirming that the horizontal plane corresponds to the
stress exponents na and nb obtained from the regression analysis are isotropic plane.
given in Table 4. The velocities of waves propagated in the vertical direction and
In the case of the Pv and Ph waves represented in Figs. 11 and 12, the polarised in the horizontal plane (Szx and Szy) and of those propagat-
directions of propagation and of particle motion coincide (i.e. σa' = σb') ed in the horizontal direction and polarised in the vertical plane (Sxz
and Eq. (3) is simplified in: VP = CP ⋅ e d ⋅ (σa'/pa) na + nb (see Table 4 and Syz) are similar and the ratio VS,vh/VS,hv is close to 1.
for the stress exponent na + nb). The same applies for the Sh waves, The velocities of waves either propagated in the vertical direction
also represented in Fig. 12, for which Eq. (4) is simplified in: VS = or polarised in the vertical plane (Szx and Szy or Sxz and Syz) are al-
CS ⋅ e d ⋅ (σa'/pa) na + nb (Table 4). The results in Fig. 12 again indicate ways lower than those of waves entirely confined within the horizon-
that the horizontal plane is a plane of isotropy in which the stiffness tal plane (Sxy and Syx). The ratio VS,hh/VS,vh is on average equal to 1.06
is independent of the direction of stressing. in medium and 1.1 in dense specimens, respectively.

1000
Kc=1
Test 460 DR from 30 to 41%

Sxy 460
Shear wave velocity Vs, m/s

Syx 460
Sxz 460
Szx 460
Syz 460
Szy 460

VS,xy /VS,yx VS,zx /VS,xz VS,zy /VS,yz VS,xy /VS,zx VS,yx /VS,zx VS,xy /VS,xz VS,yx /VS,xz VS,xy /VS,zy VS,yx /VS,zy VS,xy /VS,yz VS,yx /VS,yz
0.996 1.016 0.984 1.042 1.047 1.058 1.062 1.073 1.077 1.056 1.060

100
10 100 1000
Mean effective stress p'0 [kPa]

Fig. 13. Test 460: VS,hh, VS,hv and VS,vh vs. the applied isotropic pressure.
74 V. Fioravante et al. / Engineering Geology 161 (2013) 65–80

1000
Kc=1

Test 462 DR from 86 to 92 %

Shear wave velocity Vs, m/s

Sxy 462
Syx 462
Sxz 462
Szx 462
Syz 462
Szy 462

VS,xy/VS,yx VS,zx/VS,xz VS,zy/VS,yz VS,xy /VS,zx VS,yx/VS,zx VS,xy/VS,xz VS,yx/VS,xz VS,xy/VS,zy VS,yx/VS,zy VS,xy/VS,yz VS,yx/VS,yz
1.004 0.974 0.989 1.114 1.110 1.085 1.081 1.114 1.109 1.101 1.097

100
10 100 1000
Mean effective stress p'0 [kPa]

Fig. 14. Test 462: VS,hh, VS,hv and VS,vh vs. the applied isotropic pressure.

The same considerations apply for the compression waves (whose The strains induced by anisotropic compression stresses do not in-
results are not shown here), for which, the ratio VP,h/VP,v is overall fluence to a large extent the inherent anisotropy of the small strain
equal to 1.12, independently of the relative density. The values of stiffness of Kenya Sand. The effect of Kc is negligible on the velocity
the ratios VS,hh/VS,vh and VP,h/VP,v allow quantifying for the inherent of Shv and Svh waves, while the velocity of Shh, Pv and Ph is partially
anisotropy of Kenya Sand: under the isotropic effective stress the influenced by the stress ratio, especially when Kc = 2. The same re-
propagation velocity of waves fully contained in the horizontal sults were obtained from samples characterised by low relative
plane is on average 10% higher than that of waves contained in the density.
vertical plane, i.e. the horizontal stiffness is larger than the vertical The results of tests 461, 463, 466 and 469 were interpreted to
stiffness. evaluate the coefficients of Eqs. (3) and (4), assuming na = nb and
nc = 0. The results are given in Table 5, where the calibration coeffi-
cients are also given for isotropic tests 460 and 462.
4.3. Effect of Kc

The effect of stress induced anisotropy on the small strain stiffness 4.4. Effect of stress history
of Kenya Sand is shown in Figs. 15 and 16, where the velocity of the
compression and shear waves propagated in specimen characterised Fig. 17 shows the velocity of shear and compression waves propa-
by high relative density and different values of the effective stress gated during the loading and unloading phases of test 462, plotted
ratio Kc are compared. versus the isotropic effective stress. It can be seen that during

1000
Compression and shear wave velocity Vp and Vs, m/s

Tests 462, 463 and 466 DR from 84 to 93%

Ph

Shh Kc =0.5

Kc =1

Kc =2 +

100
1000 10000 100000 1000000

Fig. 15. Tests 462, 463 and 466: effect of Kc on the velocity of waves contained in the horizontal plane.
 V. Fioravante et al. / Engineering Geology 161 (2013) 65–80 75

1000

Compression and shear wave velocity Vp & Vs, m/s

Test 462, 463 and 466 DR from 84 to 93%

Pv

Kc =0.5
Svh and Shv Kc =1
+
Kc =2

100
1000 10000 100000 1000000

Fig. 16. Tests 462, 463 and 466: effect of Kc on the velocity of waves contained in the vertical plane.

 0 n
unloading the velocities are less influenced by the current stress state d
VS ¼ CS ⋅e ⋅ p =pa ⋅OCR
k
ð8bÞ
and are larger than during loading. The difference increases as the
' '
ratio OCR = σ1,max /σ1,curr between the maximum and the current
'
value of σ1 increases. For the tests presented in this paper OCR ranges
from 1 to 12. The average increase of body wave velocity for OCR = with k ≈ 0.102.
12 is 24%. While in silica sand the velocity of body waves is not influenced
In order to take into account the effect of stress history, Eqs. (3) to by overconsolidation or pre-stressing (Jamiolkowski et al., 1991;
(8) can be modified as follows: Jamiolkowski and Lo Presti, 1992; Tatsuoka and Shibuya, 1992; Lo
Presti et al., 1993), body wave velocity in carbonate Kenya Sand is
 0 na  0 nb  0 nc
d k influenced by OCR, confirming previous studies (Fioravante et al.,
VP ¼ CP ⋅e ⋅ σ a =pa ⋅ σ b =pa ⋅ σ c =pa ⋅OCR ð3bÞ
1994, 1998; Yamashita et al., 2000). It seems reasonable to consider
 0 na  0 nb  0 nc that a higher degree of interlocking between grains is produced by
d k
VS ¼ CS ⋅e ⋅ σ a =pa ⋅ σ b =pa ⋅ σ c =pa ⋅OCR ð4bÞ application of significant normal stresses.

 0 nv  0 nh
d k 5. Determination of correlation coefficients
VP ¼ CP ⋅e ⋅ σ v =pa ⋅ σ h =pa ⋅OCR ð5bÞ

 0 nv  0 nh The results presented above were compared to the results of triax-
d k
VS ¼ CS ⋅e ⋅ σ v =pa ⋅ σ h =pa ⋅OCR ð6bÞ ial tests with bender and compression elements (Tx — BE/CE) on
Kenya Sand discussed by Fioravante (2000); all the experimental
 0 n data were analysed together to calibrate the coefficients of Eqs. (5)
d k
VP ¼ CP ⋅e ⋅ p =pa ⋅OCR ð7bÞ
to (8).

Table 5
Kenya Sand: tests 460, 461, 462, 463, 446 and 469, coefficient of Eqs. (3) and (4).

VP = CP · ed · (σa'/pa)na · (σb'/pa)nb
VS = CS · ed · (σa'/pa)na · (σb'/pa)nb

Kc = 0.5 Kc = 1 Kc = 2

Test 461 Test 463 Test 460 Test 462 Test 466 Test 469
DR = 31–41% DR = 89–93% DR = 30–41% DR = 86–92% DR = 84–91% DR = 27–45%

na + nba CP · edb or na + nba CP · edb or na + nbd CP · edb or na + nbd CP · edb or na + nba CP · edb or na + nba CP · edb or
CS · edc CS · edc CS · edc CS · edc CS · edc CS · edc

Pv 0.2496 436 0.2472 458 0.2746 375 0.2228 433 0.2066 381 0.2292 339
Ph 0.2458 386 0.2396 447 0.268 423 0.23 483 0.2618 531 0.2878 471
Shh 0.2552 239 0.2442 286 0.2768 253 0.2488 301 0.2444 328 0.2818 270
Svh 0.262 246 0.2338 275 0.274 238 0.2422 272 0.226 284 0.2648 249
Shv 0.2598 244 0.239 281 0.2752 239 0.2518 275 0.2364 280 0.257 248
a
na = nb.
b
CP · ed = VP value when σa' = σb' = pa.
c
CS · ed = VS value when σa' = σb' = pa.
d
na = nb, na + nb = n (Eqs. (7) and (8)), σv' = σh' = p'.
76 V. Fioravante et al. / Engineering Geology 161 (2013) 65–80

1000

Compression and shear wave velocity Vp & Vs, m/s

Tests 462 DR from 86 to 92%

Ph unload

Ph load

Shh unload

Shh load

100
10 100 1000
p' [kPa]

Fig. 17. Test 462: loading and unloading phases.

5.1. Isotropic stress state
5.1.1. Determination of the stress exponent n
Body wave velocities gathered from CC and Tx specimens iso-
tropically consolidated were grouped in classes of constant void
ratio and fitted (VS and VP plotted as a function of p′, see for
example Figures 13 and 14) producing five values of the coefficient
n = na + nb (Eqs. (7) and (8)) for each group. In Table 5 the n
values gathered from CC tests 460 and 462 are reported. In principle
the influence of the increment of the isotropic effective stress should
be the same regardless of the kind of wave propagated; this was ex-
perimentally confirmed since the difference between the five values
of n is very small. Consequently an average value of n was assumed
within the five kinds of velocities and within the classes of void
ratio analysed, n = 0.2605, in agreement with the value evaluated
by Fioravante (2000) only from Tc-BE/CE tests (n = 0.26).
(CP = VP/[e d ⋅ (p '/pa) n] and CS = VS/[e d ⋅ (p '/pa) n]); in Table 6 the
values obtained are reported. The values are in good agreement
with those inferred by Fioravante (2000) from only Tx tests on
Kenya Sand and are consistent with those derived by Fioravante et
al. (1998) for carbonate Quiou Sand on the base of resonant column
tests on isotropically consolidated specimens (the specimens were
reconstituted by pluvial deposition of the dry uncemented sand and
then saturated; during the tests the shear modulus on vertical plane,
G0(VH) was measured). The correlation coefficients for Quiou Sand
are given in Table 7.
5.2. Axis-symmetric stress state
The material constants CP and CS and the void ratio function e d
established for isotropic stress condition (see Table 6) were kept con-
stant and all the experimental data from anisotropically consolidated

5.1.2. Evaluation of void ratio exponent d

The coefficient d was determined by plotting the measured velocities,
divided by the stress function (p'/pa)n (n evaluated as described above),
Table 7
as a function of the void ratio e. The interpolation gave an average value Quiou Sand: material constant inferred from resonant column
of d = −0.606. tests on isotropically consolidated specimens (Fioravante et al.,
1998).
5.1.3. Evaluation of the material constants CP and CS  0 0 n
G0(VH) = CG pa' p =pa 0 e−x OCRk
 0 0 n =2
A final data fitting was carried out normalising the measured Vs,vh = (CG pa/ρ)0.5 p =pa 0 e−x/2 OCRk/2
'

velocities by the stress ratio function and the void ratio function CG [–] 953.2
n0 [–] 0.612
x [–] 1.3
k [–] 0.313

Table 6
Kenya Sand: material constant inferred from Table 8
isotropically consolidated CC and Tx tests. Kenya Sand: material constant under axis-symmetric stress from CC and Tx tests.

VP = CP (p′/pa')0.2605 e−0.606 VP = CP · e−0.606 · (σv'/pa)nv · (σh'/pa)nh

Vs = CS (p′/pa')0.2505 e−0.606 Vs = CS · e−0.606 · (σv'/pa)nv · (σh'/pa)nh

CP or CS CP or CS nv nh nv + nh

Pv 511 Pv 511 0.239 0 0.239

Ph 570 Ph 570 0 0.262 0.262
Shh 350 Shh 350 0.024 0.244 0.268
Svh 323 Svh 323 0.119 0.143 0.262
Shv 323 Shv 323 0.138 0.126 0.264
 V. Fioravante et al. / Engineering Geology 161 (2013) 65–80 77

800
+10%
700

-10%

Computed velocity, m/s

600

500
Pv
Ph
400 Shh
Svh
300 Shv

200

100

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Measured velocity, m/s

Fig. 18. Computed vs. measured seismic velocities from CC and Tx tests.

CC specimens (tests 461, 463, 464, 465, 466 and 469) and Tx-BE/CE
tests were fitted to evaluate the stress exponent nv and nh of
Eqs. (5) and (6). Results are summarised in Table 8; Fig. 18 reports
a comparison between the measured velocities and the velocity com-
puted using the parameters given in Table 8. The error between com-
puted and measured velocities is lower than 10%.
6. Five independent elastic constants of a
cross-anisotropic material
The results showed above indicate that at very small strains the
dry Kenya Sand behaves as a cross-anisotropic elastic medium
with a vertical axis of symmetry. The stress–strain relationship of

Table 9
Cross-anisotropic elastic parameters of low to medium dense dry Kenya Sand.

DR = 30–40%

Kc Test ρ e σv' σh' Mh Mv Gvh Ghh C12 C13 Ev Eh νhh νvh νhv
[mg/m3] [–] [kPa] [kPa] [–] [–] [–] [–] [–] [–] [–] [–] [–] [–] [–]

0.5 461 1.062 1.617 50 25 1671 2115 656 628 415 364 1988 1531 0.219 0.174 0.134
1.065 1.609 100 50 2342 2980 940 892 558 505 2804 2157 0.210 0.174 0.134
1.068 1.603 150 75 2858 3647 1162 1097 665 613 3434 2640 0.204 0.174 0.134
1.070 1.598 200 100 3286 4203 1349 1268 751 702 3959 3042 0.200 0.174 0.134
1.072 1.594 251 125 3668 4699 1517 1421 826 780 4428 3401 0.197 0.174 0.133
1.074 1.589 300 150 4003 5136 1665 1556 890 849 4841 3717 0.194 0.174 0.133
1.075 1.585 350 175 4309 5535 1802 1680 949 912 5219 4005 0.192 0.173 0.133
1.077 1.582 400 200 4596 5910 1930 1797 1003 970 5574 4276 0.190 0.173 0.133
1.078 1.578 450 225 4859 6253 2048 1903 1052 1023 5899 4524 0.189 0.173 0.133
1.080 1.574 500 250 5113 6586 2163 2007 1099 1075 6214 4765 0.187 0.173 0.133
1.081 1.571 549 275 5347 6892 2268 2102 1142 1122 6504 4986 0.186 0.173 0.133
1.083 1.567 599 300 5577 7193 2373 2197 1184 1168 6790 5204 0.185 0.173 0.132
1 460 1.060 1.623 50 51 2327 1813 731 822 682 528 1628 2045 0.243 0.175 0.220
1.064 1.614 100 100 3347 2630 1059 1197 953 783 2345 2947 0.231 0.182 0.229
1.066 1.607 150 151 4156 3283 1322 1497 1162 991 2914 3664 0.224 0.186 0.234
1.069 1.601 200 200 4831 3830 1542 1749 1333 1166 3389 4262 0.218 0.189 0.238
1.071 1.596 249 250 5428 4315 1737 1973 1482 1323 3809 4791 0.214 0.191 0.241
1.073 1.591 300 300 5981 4767 1918 2181 1619 1469 4199 5282 0.211 0.193 0.243
1.075 1.587 350 351 6488 5181 2085 2372 1743 1604 4555 5732 0.208 0.195 0.245
1.077 1.582 400 400 6957 5565 2239 2550 1857 1730 4885 6148 0.206 0.196 0.247
1.078 1.578 450 450 7398 5926 2384 2717 1964 1849 5196 6539 0.203 0.198 0.249
1.080 1.574 499 500 7814 6268 2522 2875 2064 1962 5489 6908 0.201 0.199 0.250
1.081 1.571 549 550 8207 6592 2652 3025 2158 2069 5766 7257 0.200 0.200 0.251
1.083 1.567 599 599 8586 6903 2777 3169 2247 2172 6032 7593 0.198 0.201 0.252
2 469 1.059 1.624 25 50 2300 1354 674 823 654 353 1270 2065 0.255 0.119 0.194
1.063 1.615 50 100 3408 1851 968 1209 989 557 1709 3032 0.253 0.127 0.225
1.066 1.608 75 150 4281 2218 1194 1512 1257 723 2030 3788 0.252 0.130 0.243
1.068 1.603 100 200 5044 2527 1388 1776 1493 869 2296 4445 0.252 0.133 0.257
1.070 1.598 125 250 5716 2790 1557 2007 1703 1000 2521 5021 0.251 0.135 0.268
1.072 1.593 151 300 6354 3035 1716 2226 1903 1125 2728 5566 0.250 0.136 0.278
1.074 1.589 174 350 6912 3244 1854 2417 2078 1234 2905 6040 0.250 0.137 0.285
1.076 1.585 200 400 7466 3448 1990 2606 2254 1344 3077 6511 0.249 0.138 0.293
78 V. Fioravante et al. / Engineering Geology 161 (2013) 65–80

Table 10
Cross-anisotropic elastic parameters of dense dry Kenya Sand.

DR = 85–95%

Kc Test ρ e σv' σh' Mh Mv Gvh Ghh C12 C13 Ev Eh νhh νvh νhv
[mg/m3] [–] [kPa] [kPa] [–] [–] [–] [–] [–] [–] [–] [–] [–] [–] [–]

0.5 463 1.192 1.333 50 25 2019 2086 774 819 382 669 1714 1790 0.093 0.278 0.291
1.193 1.329 100 51 2820 2945 1072 1151 519 925 2432 2509 0.090 0.277 0.286
1.195 1.327 150 75 3410 3583 1290 1397 617 1113 2968 3040 0.089 0.276 0.283
1.196 1.325 200 100 3908 4123 1473 1605 698 1270 3423 3490 0.087 0.276 0.281
1.197 1.323 250 125 4346 4602 1634 1788 769 1408 3827 3886 0.087 0.275 0.279
1.198 1.321 300 150 4737 5030 1778 1953 832 1530 4189 4240 0.086 0.275 0.278
1.199 1.319 350 175 5095 5423 1909 2103 889 1642 4521 4565 0.085 0.274 0.277
1.200 1.317 400 200 5428 5789 2030 2243 942 1746 4832 4867 0.085 0.274 0.276
1.200 1.316 449 225 5738 6129 2143 2374 990 1842 5121 5147 0.084 0.274 0.275
1.201 1.314 500 250 6035 6457 2251 2499 1037 1934 5399 5417 0.084 0.274 0.274
1.202 1.313 550 275 6309 6761 2351 2615 1079 2020 5657 5666 0.083 0.273 0.274
1.203 1.311 599 300 6574 7053 2447 2727 1120 2101 5906 5907 0.083 0.273 0.273
1 462 1.186 1.344 49 51 2836 2302 884 1073 691 697 2027 2537 0.183 0.198 0.248
1.188 1.340 100 101 3903 3137 1238 1515 872 929 2776 3530 0.165 0.195 0.247
1.190 1.336 151 152 4703 3758 1506 1854 994 1097 3335 4279 0.154 0.193 0.247
1.191 1.334 201 201 5350 4257 1725 2132 1086 1230 3787 4888 0.146 0.191 0.247
1.193 1.331 250 250 5907 4686 1915 2373 1160 1343 4176 5413 0.140 0.190 0.246
1.194 1.329 300 301 6424 5083 2092 2599 1226 1446 4536 5902 0.135 0.189 0.246
1.195 1.326 350 351 6889 5438 2252 2804 1282 1538 4859 6343 0.131 0.188 0.246
1.196 1.324 400 401 7319 5767 2401 2994 1332 1622 5158 6751 0.128 0.188 0.245
1.197 1.322 449 450 7709 6064 2536 3167 1375 1698 5429 7122 0.124 0.187 0.245
1.198 1.320 499 500 8082 6347 2665 3333 1416 1769 5688 7476 0.122 0.186 0.245
1.199 1.318 549 549 8433 6614 2787 3490 1452 1836 5932 7811 0.119 0.186 0.245
1.200 1.316 599 600 8773 6873 2906 3643 1487 1901 6168 8136 0.117 0.185 0.244
2 466 1.183 1.349 13 25 1923 1198 622 784 355 426 1039 1748 0.115 0.187 0.315
1.184 1.347 26 51 2778 1601 855 1105 568 545 1424 2536 0.148 0.163 0.290
1.186 1.344 50 100 3925 2102 1152 1526 873 676 1912 3591 0.177 0.141 0.265
1.189 1.339 76 151 4869 2491 1387 1866 1138 765 2296 4458 0.195 0.127 0.247
1.190 1.337 100 200 5633 2794 1573 2137 1359 827 2598 5158 0.207 0.118 0.235
1.192 1.333 126 250 6325 3061 1738 2381 1563 876 2866 5791 0.216 0.111 0.224
1.193 1.331 150 299 6939 3292 1882 2596 1747 915 3099 6351 0.223 0.105 0.216
1.194 1.328 175 350 7521 3507 2018 2799 1924 947 3317 6882 0.230 0.100 0.208
1.195 1.326 200 401 8056 3701 2141 2984 2088 974 3514 7369 0.235 0.096 0.201
1.196 1.324 225 450 8564 3884 2256 3159 2246 997 3700 7831 0.240 0.092 0.195
1.197 1.323 250 500 9033 4050 2362 3320 2393 1015 3870 8257 0.244 0.089 0.190
1.198 1.321 275 549 9487 4209 2464 3475 2537 1031 4032 8669 0.247 0.086 0.184

such a material can be described by the following stiffness matrix velocity is equal to the ray velocity multiplied by the angle ψ between
(Love, 1959): the normal to the wave surface and the ray direction:
 
 C11
 C12 C13 0 0 0  phase velocity ¼ measured ray velocity ⋅ cosψ: ð10Þ
 C12
 C11 C13 0 0 0 
C C13 C33 0 0 0 
½C ¼  13
0 0 0 C44 0 0  Stokoe et al. (1991) and Lee (1993) found that, for dry silica sand,
0
 0 0 0 C44 0  such an angle is usually equal to 10° or less, leading to a very small
0 0 0 0 0 C66  correction to achieve the phase velocity from the measured ray velocity;
such assumption was extended here to carbonate Kenya Sand. In light
where: of the above, the measured ray velocity of the oblique seismic body
waves propagated during CC tests (P45 and S45,−45) were assumed to
C11 Mh (horizontal constrained modulus); coincide, as a first approximation, with the phase velocity and used to
C33 Mv (vertical constrained modulus); assess the values of C13.
C44 Gvh (shear modulus in a plane including the axis of symmetry); According to White (1983), for body waves propagating in a vertical
C66 Ghh (shear modulus in the plane of isotropy); plane the following equations are valid:
C12 Mh − 2Ghh; qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 ffi
C13 fifth independent material constant of the model. VS;θh ¼ Ghh ⋅ sin2 θ þ Gvh ⋅ cos2 θ =ρ ð11Þ

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

The constants C11, C33, C44 and C66 can be determined by means of
VS;θv ¼ Mh ⋅ sin2 θ þ Mv ⋅ cos2 θ þ Gvh −Δ =2ρ ð12Þ
Eqs. (1) and (2), when the velocities of the seismic body waves Ph, Pv,
Svh and Shh are known. The physical meaning of C13 is not evident but qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

it influences the shape of anisotropic wave fronts. VP;θ ¼ Mh ⋅ sin2 θ þ Mv ⋅ cos2 θ þ Gvh þ Δ =2ρ ð13Þ
The shape of the propagating wave surface is circular in a plane in
a homogeneous and isotropic medium, while it is elliptical if the me- where:
dium is anisotropic (Lee, 1993); the measured ray velocity, through
an anisotropic and/or heterogeneous soil, coincides with the wave VS,θh velocity of shear waves travelling along an axis rotated by
propagation velocity (phase velocity) only if the body waves are an angle θ with respect to the z-axis and polarised in the
propagated along the principal stress direction. Otherwise the phase horizontal plane;
 V. Fioravante et al. / Engineering Geology 161 (2013) 65–80 79

a VP,θ velocity of compression waves travelling along an axis rotated

600 by an angle θ with respect to the z-axis;
V, m/s Kc = 0.5 and:

500 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 ffi
Δ¼ ðMh −Gvh Þ sin2 θ−ðMv −Gvh Þ cos2 θ þ 4ðC13 þ Gvh Þ2 sin2 θ cos2 θ:
VP,θ VP,θ ð14Þ
400
Vsθ,v In the present research, two oblique waves, propagated along an axis
300 rotated by an angle of 45° with respect to the z-axis and polarised in the
VSθ,v Vsθ,h vertical plane, were measured: S45,−45 and P45. Their measured values,
200
VSθ,h together with the values of Mh, Mv and Gvh, have been used to evaluate
the fifth independent material constant of the cross-anisotropic model
C13, by using Eqs. (12)–(14) and following an iterative procedure.
100
θ Once the five independent material constants (Mh, Mv, Gvh, Ghh and
C13) are known, the remaining elastic parameters can be computed as:
V, m/s    
0 2 2
νhh ¼ C12 Mv −C13 = Mh Mv −C13 ð15Þ
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
 
2 2
b νvh ¼ ðC13 Mh −C12 C13 Þ= Mh −C12 ð16Þ
600
V, m/s  
Kc = 1 2
νhv ¼ ðC13 Mh −C12 C13 Þ= Mh Mv −C13 ð17Þ
500
 
2 2
VP,θ Ev ¼ jCj= Mh −C12 ð18Þ
VP,θ
400
 
Vsθ,v 2
Eh ¼ jCj= Mh Mv −C13 ð19Þ
300
VSθ,h Vsθ,h where:
200  
VSθ,v  Mh
 C12 C13 
jCj ¼  C12 Mh C13 :
100
θ C
13 C13 M  v

V, m/s The elastic parameters of cross-anisotropic pluviated dry Kenya Sand

0 for all the CC tests performed using oblique waves are summarised in
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 Tables 9 and 10. The parameters are normalised with respect to the
reference pressure pa and the void ratio function (e2d).
c Fig. 19 shows the surface of the seismic body waves propagated in
600
the vertical plane. The continuous lines correspond to the solution of
V, m/s Kc = 2 Eqs. (12) and (13) as a function of θ; the dotted lines correspond to
500 the solution of Eq. (11); the symbols are the experimental values.

VP,θ VP,θ 7. Final remarks

400
The research presented here deals with the evaluation of the stiffness
Vsθ,v
at very small strains (“elastic region”) of a fine carbonate sand with sub-
300
rounded particles.
Vsθ,h
The main findings achieved are the following:
200 • The measurement of seismic body wave velocities through isotropically
consolidated specimens allowed the quantification of the effect of
θ VSθ,h the inherent (structural) anisotropy on the small strain deformation
100
V θ,v moduli, while the measurement through anisotropically consolidated
V, m/s specimens allowed the quantification of the effect of stress-induced an-
0 isotropy (mechanical heterogeneity).
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 • The test results evidenced that the elastic stiffness of carbonate Kenya
Sand is well represented by a cross-anisotropic elastic model, whose
Fig. 19. Anisotropy of seismic waves in Kenya Sand: σv' = 150 kPa, e = 1.55 ÷ 1.6, (a) five independent constants were evaluated measuring the velocity
Kc = 0.5 (b) Kc = 1, (c) Kc = 2.
of compression and shear waves propagated along vertical, horizontal
and oblique paths.
• Semi-empirical correlations were calibrated on the basis of the exper-
VS,θv velocity of shear waves travelling along an axis rotated by imental results; they allow determining the influence on the stiffness
an angle θ with respect to the z-axis and polarised in the of the type of sand, of the void ratio, of the effective stresses, of the
vertical plane; stress ratio and of the overconsolidation ratio.
80 V. Fioravante et al. / Engineering Geology 161 (2013) 65–80
As to applications in the engineering practice, these outcomes allow
the evaluation of the state parameters with depth of carbonate sand
deposits from the analysis of VS,hh and VS,vh in situ profiles through
the calibrated empirical correlations.
The knowledge of the state parameters could be particularly useful
in the evaluation of the degree of the ground improvement achieved
for compacted fills in artificial islands where the main unknown values
are the void and the effective stress ratios (the densification of the
rainbowed sand can produce a significant increase in the horizontal
effective stress). This method can be included in the acceptance criteria
of the ground improvement techniques, actually based only on the fill
relative density estimated trough cone penetration tests.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Istituto Sperimentale Modelli
Geotecnici (ISMGEO, formerly ISMES) for making available all the
experimental data.
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