ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

For a long time, electricity and magnetism were considered separate and unrelated phenomena.
In the early decades of the nineteenth century, experiments on electric current by Oersted, Ampere
and a few others established the fact that electricity and magnetism are inter-related. They found that
moving electric charges produce magnetic fields.
For example, an electric current deflects a magnetic compass needle placed in its vicinity.
This naturally raises the questions like: Is the converse effect possible? Can moving magnets
produce electric currents? Does the nature permit such a relation between electricity and magnetism?
The answer is resounding yes! The experiments of Michael Faraday in England and Joseph Henry in
USA, conducted around 1830, demonstrated conclusively that electric currents were induced in closed
coils when subjected to changing magnetic fields. The phenomenon in which electric current is
generated by varying magnetic fields is called electromagnetic induction.
The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction is the basis of the working of power
generators, dynamos, transformers etc., Imagine a world where there is no electricity – no electric
lights, no trains, no telephones and no personal computers. Practically, everything that we use today
depends on electricity. We can say that the discovery of electromagnetic induction is responsible for
the progress made in todays Civilization.
THE EXPERIMENTS OF FARADAY AND HENRY
The discovery and understanding of electromagnetic induction are based on a long series of
experiments carried out by Faraday and Henry.
1. MAGNET AND COIL EXPERIMENT:-
Figures shows a coil C1 connected to a galvanometer G.

Following were the few observations made:

i) When the North-pole of a bar magnet is pushed towards the coil, the galvanometer shows
momentary deflection, indicating the presence of electric current in the coil.
ii) When the magnet is held stationary, the galvanometer does not show any deflection.
iii) When the magnet is pulled away from the coil, the galvanometer shows deflection in the opposite
direction, which indicates reversal of the current’s direction.
iv) When the South-pole of the bar magnet is moved towards or away from the coil, the deflections in
the galvanometer are opposite to that observed with the North-pole for similar movements.
v) The deflection (and hence current) is found to be larger when the magnet is pushed towards or
pulled away from the coil faster.
vi) When the bar magnet is held fixed and the coil C1 is moved towards or away from the magnet, the
same effects are observed. It shows that it is the relative motion between the magnet and the coil
that is responsible for generation (induction) of electric current in the coil.
2. COIL AND COIL EXPERIMENT
A) Current induced by current:
In figure the bar magnet is replaced by a secondary coil C2 connected to a battery. The steady current
in the coil C2 produces a steady magnetic field.

i) When the coil C2 is moved towards the coil C1, the galvanometer shows a deflection which
indicates that electric current is induced in coil C1.
ii) When C2 is moved away from the coil C1 , the galvanometer shows a deflection again but in the
opposite direction.
iii) When the coil C2 is held fixed and C1 is moved, the same effects are observed.
iv) The deflections observed as long as there is relative motion between the coils C1 &C2. No
deflection is observed if two coils held stationary or moved with zero relative velocity.
v) The deflection (and hence current) is found to be larger when the coils are moved faster towards or
away from each other. Again, it is the relative motion between the coils that induces the electric
current.
B) Current induced by changing currents: The above two experiments involved relative motion
between a magnet and a coil and between two coils, respectively. Through another experiment ,
Faraday showed that this relative motion is not an absolute requirement. Figure shows two coils
C1 and C2 held stationary . Coil C1 is connected to galvanometer G while the second coil C2 is
connected to a battery through a tapping key K.
It is observed that
i) When the tapping key K is pressed, the galvanometer shows a momentary deflection returns to
zero immediately.
ii) If the key K is held pressed continuously, there is no deflection in the galvanometer.
iii) When the key is released, a momentary deflection is observed again, but in the opposite direction.
iv) It is also observed that the deflection increases dramatically when an iron rod is inserted into the
coils along their axis.
MAGNETIC FLUX:-
Faraday explained the results of the experiments using the notion of magnetic flux. Magnetic flux is
defined in the same way as electric flux is defined.
Magnetic flux B through a plane of area A placed in a uniform magnetic field B can be written as B
= B.A =BAcos where  is angle between B and A.

The above equation can be extended to curved surfaces and non-uniform fields also. If the magnetic
field has different magnitudes and directions at various parts of a surface as shown in figure., then the
magnetic flux through the surface is given by
B = B1 dA1 + B2 . dA2 + ………= B
all
1 . dA1
Where ‘all’ stands for summation over all the area elements dA1 comprising the surface and B1 is
the magnetic field at the area element dA1
The SI unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb) or tesla meter square (T m2)
Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity.
FARADAY’S LAWS OF EMI:-
From experimental observations, Faraday arrived at a conclusion that an emf is induced in a coil when
magnetic flux through the coil changes with time. These experimental observations are stated in the
form of laws called Faraday’s laws of EMI.
I. LAW: Whenever the magnetic flux through a circuit changes, an e.m.f is induced in it. The
induced e.m.f. lasts as long as change in magnetic flux continues.
II. LAW : The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is directly proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux through the circuit.
If dB is small change in magnetic flux in a small interval of time dt then the induced e.m.f. e is
d
e
dt

LENZ’S LAW:-
In 1834, German physicist Heinrich Friedrich Lenz (1804-1865) deduced a rule, known as Lenz’s law
which gives the polarity of the induced emf in a clear and concise fashion. The statement of the law is
The polarity of induced emf is such that it tends to produce a current which opposes the change
in magnetic flux that produced it.
EXPLANATION:- If an emf is induced by an increasing magnetic flux, the induced current produces
a magnetic field which tries to reduce the increasing flux. Conversely if an emf is induced by
decreasing magnetic flux, the induced current tries to prevent the decreasing flux.
− d
Thus, e 
dt
The negative sign is taken because the induced e.m.f always opposes any change in magnetic flux
associated with the circuit.
d
The above equation can be written as, e = - K
dt
d
Where K is a proportionality constant and in SI system K = 1 e = -
dt
This relation is called as Neuman’s relation.
In the case of a closely wound coil of N turns, change of flux associated with each turn, is the same.
d
Therefore, the expression for the total induced emf is given by e = - N
dt
The induced emf can be increased by increasing the number of turns N of a closed coil.
Note:-
d
1. Induced emf always opposes the cause of emf, therefore, e = -
dt
e 1 d
2. If F is resistance of the circuit, then induced current i = =-
R R dt
1 d d
3. The charge induced in time dt is dq = = idt = - dt = -
R dt dt
Therefore, induced charge is independent of time.

Induced current (i) Induced charge (q) Induced power (P)

e N d N e2 N 2  d 
2
i= =− . dq = i dt = −  d P= =  
R R dt R R R  dt 

Induced charge is time It depends on time and

independent. resistance

The various positions of relative motion between the magnet and the coil

Position of magnet
S N G S N G N S G N S G

Observer Observer Observer Observer

Direction of induced Anticlockwise direction Clockwise direction Clockwise direction Anticlockwise direction
current

Behaviour of face of As a north pole As a south pole As a south pole As a north pole
the coil

Type of magnetic Repulsive force Attractive force Repulsive force Attractive force
force opposed

Magnetic field linked Cross (×), Increases Cross (×), Decreases Dots () Increases Dots () Decreases
with the coil and it’s
progress as viewed
from left
LENZ’S LAW IS A CONSEQUENCE OF CONSERVATION ENERGY :-
This statement can be justified as follows:

When the north pole of the magnet is moved towards a coil, the induced current flows through the
coil in anti-clockwise direction and makes the nearer end a north pole. This north pole repels the
north pole of the magnet approaching the coil thereby opposing motion of the magnet. When north
pole of the magnet is moved away from the coil, the induced current will flow in the clockwise
direction and makes the nearer end a south pole. This south pole attracts the north pole of the magnet
moving away from the coil thereby opposing the motion of the magnet. In either case certain amount
of mechanical work is done in moving the magnet. This mechanical work done appears as the
induced e.m.f.. Hence Lenz’s law is a consequence of conservation of energy.

Induced Electric Field

It is non-conservative and non-electrostatic in nature. Its field lines are concentric circular closed
dB
curves. A time varying magnetic field always produced induced electric field in all space
dt
surrounding it. Induced electric field (Ein) is directly proportional to induced emf so
 
e=  E in  d l ..…(i)
d
From Faraday's second laws e=− ..…(ii)
dt
  d
From (i) and (ii) e= E in .d l =−
dt
This is known as integral form of Faraday’s laws of EMI.

dB/dt in cylindrical space  


 B(t)   P
       r
     
     
  Concentric circular field lines
    
of induced electric field   
a 
existing everywhere inside and
(A) outside of cylindrical space (B)

A uniform but time varying magnetic field B(t) exists in a circular region of radius ‘a’ and is
directed into the plane of the paper as shown, the magnitude of the induced electric field (Ein) at point
P lies at a distance r from the centre of the circular region is calculated as follows.

  d
E
dB dB
So in d l =e = =A i.e. E(2r) = a 2
dt dt dt

a 2 dB
where r  a or E= ; E in 
1
2r dt r

METHODS OF PRODUCING INDUCED E.M.F.

According to Faraday’s laws, an e.m.f. is induced whenever the magnetic flux is changing. Following
are the three methods of changing the magnetic flux through a coil and producing an induced e.m.f.
i) Changing the magnetic field B ii) Changing the area A of the loop and
iii) Changing the relative orientation of the coil with respect to the magnetic fleld.
E.M.F INDUCED IN A ROD MOVING IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD:-
Consider a straight conducting rod MN of length l moving at right angles to a uniform magnetic field
B with a constant speed V. The magnetic field B is perpendicular to the plane of the diagram and
away from the observer as shown in figure.

Let the conductor move from MN to M1N1 through a distance dx in time dt.
Then, area swept by the conductor = MNN1M1 = l x dx

 Change in magnetic flux linked with the conductor in time dt is d = B(ldx)  → →


  = B. ds 
 
d dx  dx 
The magnetic of induced e.m.f. is e = = Bl = Blv  = v 
dt dt  dt 
Thus, the motional e.m.f., e = Blv
e Blv
If the conductor is included in a circuit of net resistance R, then induced current is i = =
R R
FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE (GENERATOR RULE):-
The direction of induced current can be obtained fromFleming’s right hand rule. According to that, if
theThumb, fore finger & middle finger of the right hand areStretched mutually perpendicular to each
other such thatthe fore finger points the direction of the field, thumbpoints the direction of motion of
the conductor, then themiddle finger indicates the direction of induced current.
ENERGY CONSIDERATION IN MOTIONAL EMF:
When a straight conductor PQ of length l is moved with a velocity of v in a direction perpendicular to
the magnetic field B, the motional emf produced in the conductor is e = Blv.
Let R be the resistance of this conductor and the two ends of the conductor be connected externally by
e Blv
a wire of negligible resistance. Then the current through the conductor is I = =
R R
The magnetic force on the conductor PQ moving perpendicular to the magnetic field B is
 Blv  B 2l 2 v
F = IlB =  lB =
 R  R
The direction of this force is opposite to the velocity of the conductor.
The power required to push the conductor against this force is
B 2l 2 v B 2l 2 v 2
PB = F x v = xv = --------------------(1)
R R
As the conductor is pushed mechanically, the mechanical energy dissipated per second is given by
B 2l 2v 2
PE = I 2 R = ---------------------(2)
R
This is the same as the power required to push the conductor. Hence, the mechanical energy required
to move the conductor is converted into electrical energy first and then to thermal energy.
Dynamic (Motional) EMI Due to Translatory Motion

(1) Consider a conducting rod of length l moving with a uniform velocity v perpendicular to a

uniform magnetic field B , directed into the plane of the paper. Let the rod be moving to the right as
shown in figure. The conducting electrons also move to the right as they are trapped within the rod.
× × × P × × ×

++
× × × × × → × ×
e v
× × × × × × ×

– –
F
× × × × × ×
Q

Conducting electrons experiences a magnetic force Fm = evB. So they move from P to Q within the
rod. The end P of the rod becomes positively charged while end Q becomes negatively charged, hence
an electric field is set up within the rod which opposes the further downward movement of electrons
i.e. an equilibrium is reached and in equilibrium
Fe = Fm i.e. eE = evB or E = vB  Induced emf e = El = Bvl [E = V
]
l
(2) If rod is moving by making an angle  with the direction of magnetic field or length. Induced
emf e = Bvl sin
   

   
v sin l 

v
l sin
   
v
v cos 
B    

(A) (B)
 (3) Motion of conducting rod on an inclined plane : When conductor start sliding from the top
of an inclined plane as shown, it moves perpendicular to it’s length but at an angle (90 −  ) with the
direction of magnetic field.

→ Fm cos
R
Q B

 (90 – )
Fm
mg cos (90–)
v
P

mg
 R 
(A) (B)

Hence induced emf across the ends of conductor e = Bv sin(90 −  )l = Bvl cos 
Bvl cos
So induced current i= (Directed from Q to P).
R
The forces acting on the bar are shown in following figure. The rod will move down with constant
velocity only if
Fm cos = mg cos(90 −  ) = mg sin   Bil cos  = mg sin 

 Bv l cos   mgR sin θ

B T  l cos  = mg sin   vT =
 R  B 2 l 2 cos 2 θ

Motional EMI Due to Rotational Motion

(1) Conducting rod : A conducting rod of length l whose one end is fixed, is rotated about the
axis passing through it’s fixed end and perpendicular to it’s length with constant angular velocity .
Magnetic field (B) is perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
emf induces across the   →
   B 

ends of the rod

     
where  = frequency Q P
  
l  
(revolution per sec) and T
= Time period.     

(2) Cycle wheel : A

conducting wheel each
spoke of length l is rotating with angular velocity  in a given magnetic field as shown below in fig.
Due to flux cutting each metal spoke becomes identical cell of emf e (say), all such identical cells
connected in parallel      
B
fashion e net = e (emf of      
O
single cell). Let N be the    
l
 
number of spokes hence
1      
e net = Bwl 2 ; = 2
2       
 B
Here e net  N o i.e.
total emf does not depends on number of spokes ‘N’.
O r
 (3) Faraday copper disc generator : A metal disc can be assumed to made of uncountable radial
conductors when metal disc rotates in transverse magnetic field these radial conductors cuts away
magnetic field lines and because of this flux cutting all becomes identical cells each of emf ‘e’ where
1
e= B r 2 ,
2

(4)Semicircular conducting loop : If a semi-circular conducting loop (ACD) of radius ‘r’ with
centre at O, the plane of
 
loop being in the plane of
C S A
paper. The loop is now r 
→


made to rotate with a  r B

  
constant angular velocity , O
about an axis passing   
 = t
through O and B
perpendicular to the plane
of paper. The effective
resistance of the loop is R.
1 1 dA r 2
In time t the area swept by the loop in the field i.e. region II A= r(r ) = r 2 t ; =
2 2 dt 2
Flux link with the rotating loop at time t  = BA
Hence induced emf in the loop in magnitude
d dA Br 2 | e| B r 2
| e|= =B = and induced current i= =
dt dt 2 R 2R

EDDY CURRENTS:-
When a metal plate is placed in a continuously changing magnetic field, a change in magnetic flux is
linked with it. As a result, induced currents are set up in the plate in accordance with Faraday’s laws.
These currents flow in circular paths and their direction is given by eddies in a fluid and is known as
‘eddy currents’. These are sometimes called ‘Focault current’ after the name of their discoverer. The
currents induced in a thick conductor when the conductor is placed in a continuously changing
magnetic field are called ‘eddy currents’.
Consider the apparatus shown in figure. A copper plate is allowed to swing like a simple pendulum
between the pole pieces of a strong magnet. It is found that the motion is damped and in a little while
the plate comes to a rest in the magnetic field. This can be explained on the basis of electromagnetic
induction. Magnetic flux associated with the plate keeps on changing as the plate moves in and out of
the region between magnetic poles. The flux change induces eddy currents in the plate. Directions of
eddy currents are opposite when the plate swings into the region between the poles and when it swings
out of the region.
If rectangular slots are made in the copper plate as shown in figure, area available to the flow of eddy
currents is less. As we know, magnetic moments of the induced currents depend upon the area
enclosed by the currents (i.e., m = IA), the pendulum plate with holes or slots reduces
electromagnetic damping and the plate swings more freely. This fact is helpful in reducing eddy
currents in the metallic cores of transformers, electric motors and other such devices in which a coil is
to be wound over metallic core. Eddy currents are undesirable since they heat up the core and
dissipate electrical energy in the form of heat. Eddy currents are minimized by using laminations of
metal to make a metal core. The laminations are separated by an insulating material like lacquer. The
plane of the laminations must be arranged parallel to the magnetic field, so that they cut across the
eddy currents paths. This arrangement reduces the strength of the eddy currents. Since the dissipation
of electrical energy into heat depends on the square of the strength of electric current, heat loss is
substantially reduced.

Applications of eddy currents:

i) Magnetic braking in trains: Strong electromagnets are situated above the rails in some electricity
powered trains. When the electromagnets are activated, the eddy currents induced in the rails
oppose the motion of the train. As there are no mechanical linkages, the breaking effect is
smooth.
ii) Electromagnetic damping: Certain galvanometers have a fixed core made of nonmagnetic
metallic material. When the coil oscillates, the eddy currents generated in the core oppose the
motion and bring the coil to rest quickly.
iii) Induction furnace : Induction furnace can be used produce high temperatures and can be utilized to
prepare alloys, by melting the constituent metals. A high frequency alternating current is passed
 through a coil which surrounds the metals to be melted. The eddy currents generated in the metals
produce high temperature sufficient to melt it.
iv) Electric power meters: The shiny metal disc in the electric power meter (analogue type) rotates
due to the eddy currents. Electric currents are induced in the disc by magnetic fields produced by
sinusoidally varying currents in a coil.

SELF INDUCTION :-
Consider a coil C connected in series with a cell and a tap key .. When the key is pressed, the current
in the circuit does not rise from zero to maximum instantaneously. Instead it takes a finite time t1 to
do so. As the current changes, the magnetic flux liked with the coil also changes from zero to a certain
maximum value. In accordance with Faraday’s 1 law, an e.m.f. is induced in the coil and is called the
back e.m.f or inverse e.m.f since it is in the opposite direction to the applied e.m.f. When the key is
released, the current in the coil decreases from maximum to zero in time t2 . The flux linked with the
coil also decreases from maximum to zero. As a result again an e.m.f. is induced in the coil opposing
the decay of current in the coil. This induced e.m.f. is called forward e.m.f. since it is in the same
direction as the applied e.m.f. It is observed that the time of growth t1 is greater than the time of decay
t2 as shown in figure (b). Hence the forward e.m.f. is greater than the back e.m.f.
The phenomenon in which an e.m.f is induced in a coil due to the change of current through it
is called as self induction.
COEFFICIENT OF SELF – INDUCTION (L) OR SELF INDUCTANCE:-
For a given coil magnetic flux (  ) is directly proportional to the current (I) i.e.   I
Or  = LI - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -(1)

Where L is a constant of proportionality called self-inductance or coefficient of self-induction of the

coil.
If I = 1, then L =  (numerically)
The self-inductance of a coil is numerically equal to the magnetic flux linked with the coil when
unit current flows through it.
According to Faraday’s law of induced e.m.f.
d
= − (LI ) = − L
d dI
e=−
dt dt dt
dI
e = −L - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ( 2)
dt
dI
If = 1, then e = L (numerically)
dt

Thus, the self-inductance of a coil is numerically equal to the e.m.f. induced in it when the rate of
change of current through it is unity.

UNIT OF SELF-INDUCTANCE:
SI unit of self inductance is henry (H).
 dI 
We have, e = − L 
 dt 
dI
If e=1V, = 1As −1 then L=1H
dt
Thus, self inductance of a coil is said to be one henry if one volt of e.m.f is induced in the coil
when the current in it changes at the rate of one ampere per second.
NOTE:
1. The self inductance of a coil depends on a) length of the coil, b) area of cross-section of the coil,
c) number of turns in the coil, d) permeability of the medium inside the coil.
2. The resistance of a coil is its opposition to the flow of steady current, while inductance of a coil is
its opposition to the flow of varying current.
3. The circuit symbol for inductor is
V e
4. Just like R = , inductance is given by L =
I  dI 
 
 dt 
SELF INDUCTION OF A SOLENOID:-
Consider a long solenoid of cross-sectional area A and length l having n turns per unit length. The
magnetic field due to a current I flowing in the solenoid is B =  0 nI

The total magnetic flux linked with the solenoid is =NBA, where N = nl is the total number of turns.
 = (nl) (0 nI ) A = 0 n 2 AlI
But we have  = LI
 LI =  0 n 2 AlI or L =  0 n 2 Al
If the solenoid has a core of some magnetic material of relative permeability  r , then

L =  r  0 n 2 Al
PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF SELF INDUCTANCE
Self inductance is the electromagnetic analogue of mass in mechanics. Mass is a measure of inertia
which is responsible for slowing down the change in mechanical motion of a body. Similarly, self
inductance slows down the change in the current in an electrical circuit. Therefore self inductance is
called as “inertia of electricity”. The self induced emf always opposes the change in the current in a
circuit and therefore, it is also known as a back emf. Work is needed to be done against this back emf
in establishing current in the circuit.
ENERGY STORED IN A COIL:-
An inductor is a device having self inductance. The self induced emf always opposes any change in
current in the circuit. Hence, it is called back emf. Work needs to be done against this back emf in
establishing the current. This work done is stored as magnetic potential energy. Let dW be the work
done in establishing a current I in the coil in a time dt. Then
dW = −eIdt where e is the induced emf.
dI
Since e = − L
dt
 dI
We have dW = L Idt = LI dI
dt
The total work done in establishing the current is
I
I I  1 2
W =  dW =  LIdI = L
 2  = 2 LI
2

0
 0
Thus, the magnetic potential energy stored in an inductor of self inductance L carrying a current
1 2 L
I is U= LI If I=1, then W = or L=2W Thus, self inductance of a coil is equal to
2 2
twice the work done in establishing unit current in the coil.
Growth and Decay of Current In LR- Circuit
If a circuit containing a pure inductor L and a resistor R in series with a battery and a key then on
closing the circuit current through the circuit rises exponentially and reaches up to a certain maximum
value (steady state). If circuit is opened from it’s steady state condition then current through the circuit
decreases exponentially. L L

Induced
current Induced
current

Main
current Main
+ current +
B K B K
(A) Growth of current (B) Decay of current

(1) The value of current at any instant of time t after closing the circuit (i.e. during the rising of
 − t
R
E
current) is given by i = i 0 1 − e L  ; where i0 = imax = = steady state current.
  R
 

(2) The value of current at any instant of time t after opening from the steady state condition (i.e.
R
− t
during the decaying of current) is given by i = i 0 e L

(3) Time constant () : It is given as  =

L
; It’s unit is second. In other words the time interval,
R
during which the current in an inductive circuit rises to 63% of its maximum value at
make, is defined as time constant or it is the time interval, during which the current after
opening an inductive circuit falls to 37% of its maximum value.
 i
i
i0
i0
i = 0.63i0

i = 0.37i0

t= t
t= t
(A) (B)
 Condition Figure
Circular coil

0N 2r
L=
2

Solenoid
l
 0 r N 2 A N 2 A
L= = ( =  0 r )
l l

Toroid
Winding
0 N 2r
L= Core
2
r
i

Square coil

2 2 0 N 2 a
L=

O

Coaxial cylinders r1

0 r2 r
L= log e
2r r1

2 .303 r
0 log10 2 l
2r r1 r2
MUTUAL INDUCTION:-
The phenomenon, in which an e.m.f. is induced in one coil due to the change of current in the
other coil kept close to it, is called as mutual induction.
COEFFICIENT OF MUTUAL INDUCTION (M) OR MUTUAL INDUCTANCE:-
The magnetic flux linked with the secondary coil is proportional to the current flowing in the primary
coil.
i.e.,  I or  = MI - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
where M is a proportionality constant called coefficient of mutual induction.
If I = 1, then M =  (numerically)
The mutual inductance of two coils is numerically equal to the magnetic flux linked with one coil
when a unit current flows through the neighbouring coil.
According to Faraday’s low of induced e.m.f
d
= − (MI ) = − M
d dI
e=−
dt dt dt
dI
 e = −M - - - - - - - - - - - - - ( 2)
dt
dI
If = 1, then e = M (numerically)
dt
Thus, the mutual inductance of a coil is numerically equal to the e.m.f induced in the coil when
the current in it changes at the rate of one ampere per second.
UNIT OF MUTUAL – INDUCTANCE
The SI unit of mutual inductance is henry (H)
 dI 
We have, e = −M  
 dt 
dI
If e = 1V, = 1AS −1 then M= 1 henry
dt

Thus, the mutual inductance between a pair of coils is said to be one henry if 1 volt of e.m.f. is
induced in the secondary coil when the current through the primary coil changes at the rate of
one ampere per second.
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE OF TWO LONG COAXIAL SOLENOIDS:-
Consider two long co-axial solenoids S1 and S2 each of length l has shown in figure. Let n1 be the
number of turns per unit length and r1 be the radius of the inner solenoid S1 while n2 be the number of
turns per unit length and r2 be the radius of the outer solenoid S2.

When a current I2 is set up through S2 , which in turn sets up a magnetic flux 1 through S1 . The

corresponding flux linkage with solenoid S1 is

1=M12 I2 --------------------(1)

Where M12 is the mutual inductance of solenoid S1 with respect to solenoid S2 .

The magnetic field due to current I2 in S2 is B2 = B2 =  0 n2 I 2

Magnetic flux through S1 is 1 = N1 B2 A1

Where N1 = n1l is total number of turns in S1 and A1 =  r12 is the cross sectional area of S1 .

1 = (n1l )(0 n2 I 2 ) r12 = 0 n1n2 r12l I 2 -----------------(2)

From equations (1) and (2) we get

Or M 12 I 2 =  0 n1n2 r12 l I 2

Or M 12 =  0 n1n2 r12 l ------------------------(3)

Now, consider the reverse case. When a current I1 is set up through S1 which in turn sets up a
magnetic flux through the solenoid S2
The corresponding flux linkage with solenoid S2 is 2=M21 I1 --------------------(4)
Where M21 is the mutual inductance of solenoid S2 with respect to solenoid S1
The magnetic field due to current I1 in S1 is B1 =  0 n1 I 1
This magnetic field is confined solely inside S1 . There is no magnetic field outside S1 due to the
current in S1 .
Therefore, the magnetic flux liked S2 is 2 = N 2 B1 A1 --------------------(5)

Where N2 = n2l is total number of turns in S2 and A1 =  r12 is the cross-sectional area of S1 .

2 = (n2l )(0 n1 I1 ) r12 = 0 n1n2 r12 l I1 -----------------(6)

From equations (5) and (6) we get
Or M 21 I1 = 0 n1n2 r12l I1 Or M 21 =  0 n1n2 r12 l ----------------------(7)
Thus, from equations (3) and (7) we get
M 12 = M 21 = M = 0 n1n2 r12 l

If a medium of relative permeability r is present inside the solenoids, then

M =  r  0 n1n2 r12 l
Thus, the mutual inductance of a pair of coils depends on their geometry, their separation and relative
orientation.

Condition Figure
Two concentric coplaner circular i
coils

 0 N 1 N 2 r 2 R P
M = r
2R
S

Two Solenoids
l

μ0 N1 N 2 A
M= i1
l Secondary
Primary
(N2 turns)
(N1 turns)
Two concentric coplaner square coils
(1)
 2 2 N 1 N 2l 2 (2)
M = 0 i
L
l

Combination of Inductance
(1) Series : If two coils of self-inductances L1 and L2 having mutual inductance are in series and
are far from each other, so that the mutual induction between them is negligible, then net self
inductance LS = L1 + L2
When they are situated close to each other, then net inductance LS = L1 + L2  2 M

(2) Parallel : If two coils of self-inductances L1 and L2 having mutual inductance are connected in
parallel and are far from each other, then net inductance L is 1
=
1
+
1
 LP =
L1 L2
LP L1 L2 L1 + L2
 When they are situated close to each other, then
L1 L2 − M 2
LP =
L1 + L2  2 M

AC GENERATOR
The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction has been technologically exploited in many
ways. An exceptionally important application is the generation of alternating currents (ac). The
modern ac generator with a typical output capacity of 100 MW is highly evolved machine. As the coil
rotates in a magnetic field B, the effective area of the loop (the face perpendicular to the field) is Acos
 where  is the angle between A and B. This method of producing a flux change is the principle of
operation of a simple ac generator. An ac generator converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
EXPRESSION FOR SINUSOIDAL EMF
Consider a rectangular coil abcd placed in an uniform magnetic field B as shown in figure (a) . The
coil is free to rotate about an axis passing through its centre and perpendicular to the direction of the
magnetic field in the anticlockwise direction. Let N be the number of turns of the coil and A be the
area of each turn. Let  be the uniform angular velocity of the coil.
At any instant of time t, let  be the angle between the normal to the plane of the coil and the
direction of the magnetic field B shown in figure.(b) . At this position, the magnetic field B has a
component B cos perpendicular to the plane of the coil. The magnetic flux linked with the coil at
time t is given by

 = NAB cos = NAB cos( t ) (  =  t )

According to Faraday’s law, the induced e.m.f. (voltage) in the coil at any instant t is given by
d
= − (NAB cos t ) = − NAB (−  sin t )
d
e=−
dt dt
e = NAB sin  t
Let nAB  = e0 , the maximum value of induced e.m.f

 e = e0 sin t ----------------------- (1)

From equation (1) it follows that the voltage varies sinusoidally with time.
If R be the resistance of the circuit in which the coil is connected then the induced current is
e e0 sin  t
i= =
R R
e0
But = i 0 , the maximum value of induced current.
R
 i = i0 sin t ---------------------------- (3)

If we plot a graph of V versus for the following values, we get a sine curve as shown in below
figure.
ωt 00 900 1800 2700 3600
E 0 V0 0 -V0 0