Geographic Information System – GIS

What is a GIS?
• Simple definition : GIS is an electronic map.
• The most accurate definition: GIS is a system computers,
software, personnel, peripheral equipment, and data that
allows the user to identify complex spatial relationship.

Basic Elements of GIS

• A system for capturing, storing, checking, integrating,
manipulating, analyzing and displaying data which are
spatially referenced to the earth. This is normally considered
to involve a spatially referenced computer database and
appropriate application software.

• GIS is a system of hardware, software and procedures to

facilitate the management, manipulation, analysis, modeling,
representation and display of geo referenced data to solve
complex problems regarding planning and management of
resources
 1. Data
• Data refers to the digital maps, underlying list of attributes
and values, and the image of the area study.

• The compilation of all the mappable objects into digital maps

and their characteristics into a data base provides the basic
for analysis and thus our decisions.

• Data collection has been said to be 80 percent of the time

commitment of a GIS.

• Geographic data and related tabular data can be collected

in-house, compiled to custom specifications and
requirements, or occasionally purchased from a commercial
data provider.
 2. Computer
• Must be dumb, fast, accurate
• Maximum memory storage for RAM, disk storage, and backup
storage need to be considered.
• Data storage is be capable of secure, fast access, and have
portability of sharing.
• Network capabilities, whether Ethernet or wireless must be
available.
• A large monitor and large graphics card are also must since
we will dealing with large amount of visual and graphic
material.
 2. Peripherals
• Peripherals are those pieces of equipment
that support the computer and the GIS and
allow a variety of input, output and storage
options.
• There are many ways beside a keyboard to get
data into computer.
1. Input
• Input is information.
• Field data is one important source of information.
• Handheld GPS is valuable devices to collect data and map
field objects.
• The data can be downloaded through a docking station and
portable media storage unit from the handheld device into a
GIS.
• Many paper maps is available for analysis.
• In order to use the paper maps in a GIS, they must be
converted to digital format.
• There are 2 ways of doing this:
1.Digitizing the map using a digitizing table
• As the map is mounted on a specialized table, a special
mouse-like “puck” is used to trace the boundaries of objects
from paper map to create a digital copy.
• The paper map is scanned to create a digital image of the
map. This scanned image could be used within a GIS.
• Aerial photo can be digitized.
• These photos were not digital, may be contain images of past
practices or spatial events.
• To digitize an aerial photo, it must be georeferenced; means
that its place in the world must be identified with
coordinates.
• This is done using a GPS unit to calculate the coordinate of a
visible permanent objects.
• When the map is placed on the digitizing table, the
permanent object is located and with a click of the puck, the
coordinate are entered.
• When this is done with at least four points throughout the
photo, it is georefefenced and the coordinates of any points
on the photo can be calculated by the GIS.
• Once georeferenced, and object of interest can be traced with
the puck on the table, with the tracing being co[pied into a
digital GIS map.
• This object is then available to be used in the GIS as a map
layer.
• Within this image, various events or objects will be visible and
available to be used during the analysis.
2. Output
• The most obvious output device is a printer.
• High quality printer is in its ability to provide a high quality
interpretive map.
• The main specification that a user should be aware of when
looking printer is Its DOTs PER INCh (dpi).
3. Storage
• Storage is very important not only for daily use and
accessibility, but also for sharing of data and for backing up
important data.
• Sharing data by two methods:

1 . Networks
• Allow sharing data within local areas, providing wider
accessibility and for backing up data
2. USB devices.
• Memory sticks, secure digital cards, compact flash disk.
 3. Personal/People
• A CAD (Computer Aided Drawing) specialist or
a network administrator are being commonly
assigned to be the GIS specialist.
• Although many people can learn to make
maps, the data analysis and interpretation is
an art and a science.
• It requires not only a person who knows and
enjoys computer, but also someone who
understand statistics and some technical
aspects to which it will be applied.
 4. Methods
• A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed
implementation plan and business rules, which are the
models and operating practices unique to each organization.
 5. GIS-The Software
•
• Provides the functions and tools needed to
store, analyze, and display geographic
information.
• GIS software consists of two component:
1. The Data Base Component
2. The map component
 The Map COMPONENT
• The map component allows the user to view representations
of spatial objects or visualize the results of converting data to
information.
• It is the compilation of map layers.
• Each map layer is a digital representation known as feature of
an object or type of object.
• Each layer will contain from one to thousands of individual
features representing real-world objects.
GIS layers
• Map layers are not just confined to spatial objects ( such as
trees, houses, parking lot etc), special events can also be
mapped.

• An event is an action or occurrence that happen once or over

time and can be recorded.
• Ex: rainfall and earthquake.
• The location of the rain gauge is mapped as an object and the
amount of grain is the attribute to the event.
Special event mapped by GIS
• An agricultural example of event is YIELD MAP.
• As combine harvesting is moving through the field, it is
measuring, collecting and scoring data on the amount of
product being harvested each second.
• GIS map can display characteristics such as monthly rainfall,
yield of crop, soil nutrient by using a legend and color to
differentiate objects.
• GIS map has map layers.

• Each map layer has each individual feature and data.

• The GIS database stores, organizes, retrieves and analyzes this

data.

• GIS databases appears in spreadsheet form.

• Each row spreadsheet is a feature display on the map.

• Each column is an attribute of the map layer’s object data

value entered for each individual feature in the intersecting
cell.
GIS data base
 Function of GIS
i. Storage of Data
ii. Retrieval of Data
iii. Manipulation
iv. Analysis
 i. Storage of Data
• Data used in GIS often come from many sources. Data sources
are mainly obtained from Manual Digitization (a conversion
process which converts paper maps into numerical digits that
can be stored in the computer) and Scanning of aerial
photographs, paper maps and existing digital data set.
Remote sensing satellite imagery and GPS are promising data
input sources for GIS.
• Data storage is based on a Generic Data Model that is used to
convert map data into a digital form.
• The two most common types of data models are RASTER and
VECTOR. Both types are used to simplify the data shown on a
map into more basic form that can be easily and efficiently
stored in the computer.
Spatial data can be represented into two fundamental
approaches:

i. VECTOR DATA
ii. RASTER DATA
• Raster and vector are two terms that frequently mentioned
by people dealing with geospatial technologies.

• As student of spatial analysis , you must be familiar with these

terms and how they used.

• While it is not necessary to understand all the programming

and process that a GIS uses with data, understanding the
fundamentals will allow the student to differentiate
between method of analysis.
 Data Format
• A data format refers how data (attribute data and location
data) is stored and displayed in GIS.

• Attribute data is the characteristics of an object, such as trunk

diameter for a tree or pH for soil sample.

• Locational data is the coordinates necessary to place an object

on a map in its concept geographic position.
 Types of Data
Format
Attributes Data Spatial Data
A characteristic that describes a
Data pertaining to the location,
feature. Pieces of information
shape, and relationship among
that describe a point, line and
geographical features
polygon

Usually stored as coordinates and

Stored in either tabular format or
topology - mapped.
relational format - table

WHAT, HOW MUCH, WHEN WHERE

A value or property that is Physical features with location

characteristic of a spatial element coordinates
 Vector data
• Simplest way to describe vector is a connect the dots drawing.

• A vector map layer is composed of either ; dots (more

correctly referred to as points), a series of connected dots
(more correctly known as lines), or a series of dots that create
an enclosed shape (more correctly known as a polygon).

• All mapable objects need to identified by one of three types

of vectors: POINTS, LINES OR POLYGONS
• Vector data wherein objects or conditions in the real world
are represented by points and lines and polygons that define
their boundaries, much as if they were being drawn on a
map.

• The position of each object is defined by its placement in a

map space that is organized by a coordinate reference
system.
 RASTER DATA
• Raster data wherein the space is regularly subdivided into
cells (usually square in shape).

• The location of geographic objects or conditions is defined by

the row and column positions of the cells they occupy.

• The area that each cell represents defines the spatial

resolution available.

• The value stored for each cell indicates the type of object or
condition that is found at that location in the raster model,
and the homogeneous units are the cells.
• Spatial object such as tree or fire hydrants which do not
require a linear measurement of perimeter or an area
measurement, are typically represented by individual points.

• Spatial objects, such as roads or sidewalks which are long and

narrow and do not have to show width, can be represented
using points and lines.

• When the user requires an area measurement on

two-dimensional objects, points are connected by lines to
form a closed polygon.

• The area enclosed within the polygon can be calculated.

 DATA STRUCTURE
Two fundamental structure for storing data in GIS are
VECTOR
RASTER and VECTOR RASTER
Vector Raster
Features are represented as: points, Features are represented as square
lines, polygons cells in a grid (array)

Information about a feature is stored in The data stored is usually numeric

an attribute table

formats are efficient when comparing formats are efficient when comparing
information whose geographical shapes information among arrays with the
and sizes are different. same cell size.
Vector files are much smaller because a Raster files are generally very large
relatively small number of vectors can because each cell occupies a separate
precisely describe large areas and a line of data, only one attribute can be
many attributes can be ascribed to assigned to each cell, and cell sizes are
these areas. relatively small.
Concept of
Vector and Real World
Raster

Raster Representation
Vector Representation

point
line

polygon
 Vertexes and Nodes
• The actual dots within the GIS map are more properly called
VERTEXES.
• Each vertex has a latitude and longitude associated with it
that provides its location.
Three (3) different types of features all uses vertexes.
1. A point feature is a single vertex that represent an object
2. A line feature is at least two vertexes with a straight line
connecting each pairs of vertexes.
3. A polygon feature has a minimum of three vertexes connected
by three straight lines and is enclosed.
• A vertexes that is intersects another feature, i.e. shared
between the features is referred to as Node.

• This is very important to remember because it is the vertexes

and lines that serve as the link between the locational and
attribute data.
 Source of Vector Data
Two main source of vector data:
1.GPS
• GPS can be used to collect both locational and attribute data.
• Locational data is series of vertexes.
• Once the user has used the GPS data collection unit to calculate and store
locational information, there is attribute data about the features that need
to be collected and saved.

2.Digitizing
• Vector data can also be created by using digitizing a scanned image within
GIS software.
• Aerial digital orthophotograph can be used as basis of digitizing.
• With a digitizing table, the user can trace over an object displayed within
the photo with a mouse or puck cursor.
 Vector Data From Internet
• The user can also download the map data that has been
placed in internet.

• Vector data can be also created by GPS or a digitizing table.

 Raster data
• Raster data formats store data in a grid- a series of rows and columns that
form a grid.
• Each cell can provide locational data and has one attribute value.
 Raster Image
• Raster is a broad term that refers to different types of
surfaces.
• Raster image is georeferenced digital photographs.

• The structure of a raster image still relies on grid cell.

• Locational data is not included directly with each grid cell.

• Raster grid provide valuable information and the color
represent specific attribute such as elevation data, yield data,
nutrient data and distance from a specific object.
 • Locational data must be associated with some images’ grid
cell by:

1. Identifying the coordinate in the upper-left-hand-grid cell

2. Defining the grid cell size horizontally
3. Defining the grid cell vertically
4. And any rotation that might needed for the image.
5. THIS INFORMATION is stored in a simple text file called a
world file.
• ATTRIBUTE data within a raster image cell is a
color value.

• Example:. 256-color, gray scale system uses

number from white (0) to 255 (black).

• Raster grid provide valuable information and

the color represent specific attribute such as
elevation data, yield data, nutrient data and
distance from a specific object.
 ii. Retrieval of Data
• Query is the most common method for the retrieval of data.
• Query in GIS means to question the data.
• Within the GIS database, particular value or range of values
for a selected attribute can be specified, and the database is
questioned or queried for that value or values.
• A map also can be queried, but instead of specifying data
values a spatial extent or location is specified.
• Querying a spatial extent allows the user to determine the
objects or events that are within a certain distance or are
adjacent to objects of interest.
• There are many ways of defining an extent to query; the
simplest way is to draw a box, circle or other shape to define
area to be queried.
• When viewing a yield map, there are patterns of high and low
yield.
• Using this method of map query, a polygon shape can be
drawn around an area of low yield where data from these
yield points can be extracted and be summarized.
 iii. Manipulation
• The data as it is entered into the database may not be in a
form that is ready to use or that is functional for analysis.
• Thus, the data need to be manipulated in order to be useful.
• Joining Database is one of a GIS manipulation technique (the
ability to join together two databases or layers).
• There are two (2) types of joins ; a table join and spatial join.
 Table Joins
• The table join allows to join an aspatial database (one that
does not have location connected to it) to a data base that
does have spatiality (one that has a location).
• A good example would be soil test points where the points as
sample with GPS have location data and the results from the
soil test lab are aspatial (doest not have location).
• Using a table point join, the sample points as destination
database, and the soil test report as the source, the user can
join these two database so that the results are on the map.
 Spatial Join.
• Spatial join is also joins two database, but instead of a join
based on a common attribute in the two database, the basis
for a spatial joins is location.

• A spatial join typically works when the destination database is

a point feature and the source database is a polygon feature.

• The information from the polygon source database is joined

with the database of any point found within that polygon.
Since there may be several points in a single polygon, this
called a one-to-many join.
• The best example of this would be the joining of soil types
attributes to a yield point database.

• A digital soil type map has many attributes that may explain
difference of yield.

• A spatial join will joint the attribute of each soil type to any
point within that soil type.
• Data manipulations could be considered pre-analysis, in that
it needs to be completed before further analysis can be done.

• It includes preparation of the data so that it is in a useable

and compatible with other data layers.

• The most important part of this preparation is changing the

projection (Projection is the technique of transforming a
spherical surface to a flat map with minimum distortion) also
known as REPROJECTION
 Several tools for reprojection data

1. A specific tool within a GIS software

2. ArcVeiw 9.0 ( within its toolbox)

These tools are designed to create new source files that have
the projection and coordinate system specified by the user.

3. Blue Marble Geograpics ( able to make coordinate conversion)

 Process of reprojecting the coordinates
Steps:
1. The data source file of the map layer to be
projected.
2. The current coordinate system and datum are
identified.
3. The new coordinate system and datum are
identified.
4. A new filename and path to save the new
data source are provided.
 Vector map tools
• Spatial analysis mean analyzing space; therefore, it makes
sense that we have several tools for maps.

• One goal when using a vector map is to have points, lines or

polygons that can be compared to each other.
i. Overlays
Overlay is the process of placing on vector
polygon, line or point on top of another to
see relationship between them.
ii. Unioning
Unioning is an application of merging of two
adjacent digital soil maps.
iii. Merging
Merging combines polygon features similar to
unioning, however all of the polygons must be
from the same layers.
iv. Intersecting
As opposed to unioning and merging, which are
both combining operation, intersecting is a
subtracting operation.
v. Clipping
Clipping is also known as a cookie cutter and is
another subtracting function.
 Raster analysis tools
• There area several methods of converting vector data to
raster data.

1.Convert to grid.
• Convert to grid works best when a polygon or boundary is
used.
• This convert to grid also best when the vector polygon
database already has the attribute data that needed.
ii. Interpolation
• Convert to grid tool will not work with points, since points
have no dimension.
• Interpolation is a process of estimating the value for each grid
cell based on values of surrounding point.
• As a fundamental mathematical function, interpolation can be
used to calculate an estimated value for an unknown point
that is between two known points.
iii. Finding distances
• Finding distances is a tool that can be used to calculate
distances or other spatial characteristics.
• The distance between objects can be a factor in the suitability
of placement of crop inputs or management factors.
iv. Proximity
• Proximity is another sample of a tool that is based on a spatial
calculation, but it goes another step by using data from an
attribute that has been collected by the user.
• Proximity creates a continuous grid surface based on the
extent and cell size identified by the user.
• The grid raster that results will appear as a sort of puzzle with
similarly colored polygonal shapes representing the grid cells
that are closest in proximity to one specific object.
v. Map Calculator
• Map calculator is the ultimate tool for the user wanting to do
spatial analysis.
• It is the tool that can be used maps to add, multiply, subtract,
and perform many other operations.
 iv. Analysis
• Once the data has been retrieved and manipulated, the key
function is the analysis.

• This is the step by which the user tries to establish a

relationship between layers of data.

• One specific technique that will be use as an example here is

the ability to do mathematical operation.
 Raster or Vector Analysis
• Analysis can be done either as vector or raster.

• Vector data is common in basic maps for record-keeping and

mapping function.

• Vector data can be used for analysis, however it is not

efficient as raster data.

• Raster data is very common in spatial analysis and imaginary.

1. The grids cover the complete surface of study area.
2. Every grid cell has an attribute value.
 Raster Versus Vector Analysis
• Each type of analysis has its benefits

1. Vector data work well for purposes of record

keeping.
2. Raster data works better for spatial analysis
because raster surface covering an entire
extent of a field and the grid cells lining up.
 Mathematical Operation.
• Mathematical operations is used to process the values found
in data base.
• Basic addition, multiplication, subtraction, division, average,
standard deviation, correlation and normalization can help
create additional information for analysis.
• For example; to complete the earlier example of a decision
involving converting cropland to wetland, various calculations
would be needed. One specific calculation would be income
from yield (yield/area x price of the crop).
• Mathematical operations can be done with a specific tool
within the GIS.
 Example of GIS Software
• GIS including mapping functions.
• Mapping functions include the display of features and images,
the development of a legend to create a thematic map, and
labeling the features and objects
 There are many software and companies that
produce mapping and GIS programs
1. ESRI ( produce a scalable and robust product)
2. ArcReader is software that allow viewing of spatial data.
3. ArcView include viewing functions, but adds many analysis
functions.
4. ArcEditor and ArcInfo represent more advanced software
that is needed by GIS specialist that are creating, sharing,
and using spatial data from various sources.
5. ArcGIS, which is the parent software suite.