St. Mary’s Convent Sr. Sec.

School
Bhatola, Sector-82 Faridabad
(Affiliated to C.B.S.E.)
Session :- 2022-2023

CHEMISTRY PROJECT

Topic:- Study of effect of Potassium

bisulphite as a food preservative .

Submitted To: Submitted By:

Ms. Hema Bhatia mam TANU

Chemistry 12th Science

Roll no. 46

"The ladder of success doesn't

care who climbs it."
PREFACE
Soaps and detergents remove dirt and grease from skin and
clothes. But all soaps are not equally effective in their
cleaning action. Soaps are the Na and K salts of higher fatty
acids such as Palmitic acid, Stearic acid and Oleic acid. The
cleansing action of soaps depends on the solubility of the long
alkyl chain in grease and that of the -COONa or the -COOK
part in water. Whenever soap is applied on a dirty wet cloth,
the non polar alkyl group dissolves in grease while the polar -
COONa part dissolves in water. In this manner, an emulsion is
formed between grease and water which appears as foam. The
washing ability of soap depends on foaming capacity, as well as
the water used in cleaning. The salts of Ca and Mg disrupt the
formation of micelle formation. The presence of such salts
makes the water hard and the water is called hard water.
These salts thus make the soap inefficient in its cleaning
action. Sodium Carbonate when added to hard water reacts
with Ca and Mg and precipitates them out. Therefore sodium
carbonate is used in the treatment of hard water. This
project aims at finding the foaming capacity of various soaps
and the action of Ca and Mg salts on their foaming capacity.
INTRODUCTION
Soap is an anionic surfactant used in conjunction with water
for washing and cleaning, which historically comes either in
solid bars or in the form of a viscous liquid. Soap consists
of sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids and is obtained by
reacting common oils or fats with a strong alkaline in a process
known as saponification. The fats are hydrolyzed by the base,
yielding alkali salts of fatty acids (crude soap) and glycerol.
The general formula of soap is Fatty end water soluble end

CH3-(CH2) n -              COONa

Soaps are useful for cleaning because soap molecules have

both a hydrophilic end, which dissolves in water, as well as
a hydrophobic end, which is able to dissolve non polar grease
molecules. Applied to a soiled surface, soapy water effectively
holds particles in colloidal suspension so it can be rinsed off
with clean water. The hydrophobic portion (made up of a
long hydrocarbon chain) dissolves dirt and oils, while the ionic
end dissolves in water. The resultant forms a round structure
called micelle. Therefore, it allows water to remove normally-
insoluble matter by emulsification.
 Commercial production of soap
The most popular soap making process today is the cold
process method, where fats such as olive oil react with strong
alkaline solution, while some soapers use the historical hot
process. Handmade soap differs from industrial soap in that,
usually, an excess of fat is sometimes used to consume the
alkali (super fatting), and in that the glycerin is not removed,
leaving a naturally moisturizing soap and not pure detergent.
Often, emollients such as jojoba oil or Shea butter are added
'at trace' (the point at which the saponification process is
sufficiently advanced that the soap has begun to thicken),
after most of the oils have saponified, so that they remain
unreacted in the finished soap. Fat in soap Soap is derived
from either vegetable or animal fats. Sodium Tallowate, a
common ingredient in much soap, is derived from rendered
beef fat. Soap can also be made of vegetable oils, such
as palm oil, and the product is typically softer. An array
of saponifiable oils and fats are used in the process such as
olive, coconut, palm, cocoa butter to provide different
qualities. For example, olive oil provides mildness in soap;
coconut oil provides lots of lather; while coconut and palm oils
provide hardness. Sometimes castor oil can also be used as an
ebullient. Smaller amounts of unsaponifable oils and fats that
do not yield soap are sometimes added for further benefits.
 Preparation of soap
In cold-process and hot-process soap making, heat may be
required for saponification. Cold-process soap making takes
place at a sufficient temperature to ensure the liquification
of the fat being used. Unlike cold-processed soap, hot-
processed soap can be used right away because the alkali and
fat saponify more quickly at the higher temperatures used in
hot-process soap making. Hot-process soap making was used
when the purity of alkali was unreliable. Cold-process soap
making requires exact measurements of alkali and fat amounts
and computing their ratio, using saponification charts to
ensure that the finished product is mild and skin-friendly. Hot
process In the hot-process method, alkali and fat are boiled
together at 80–100 °C until saponification occurs, which the
soap maker can determine by taste or by eye. After
saponification has occurred, the soap is
sometimes precipitated from the solution by adding salt, and
the excess liquid drained off. The hot, soft soap is then
spooned into a mold. Cold process A cold-process soap maker
first looks up the saponification value of the fats being used
on a saponification chart, which is then used to calculate the
appropriate amount of alkali. Excess unreacted alkali in the
soap will result in a very high pH and can burn or irritate skin.
Not enough alkali and the soap are greasy. The alkali is
dissolved in water. Then oils are heated, or melted if
they are solid at room temperature. Once both
substances have cooled to approximately 100-110°F
(37-43°C), and are no more than 10°F (~5.5°C) apart,
they may be combined. This alkali-fat mixture is
stirred until "trace". There are varying levels of trace.
After much stirring, the mixture turns to the
consistency of a thin pudding. "Trace" corresponds
roughly to viscosity. Essential and fragrance oils are
added at light trace. Introduction to the experiment
Soap samples of various brands are taken and their
foaming capacity is noticed. Various soap samples are
taken separately and their foaming capacity is
observed. The soap with the maximum foaming capacity
is thus, said to be having the best cleaning capacity.
The test requires to be done with distilled water as
well as with tap water. The test of soap on distilled
water gives the actual strength of the soaps cleaning
capacity. The second test with tap water tests the
effect of Ca2+ and Mg2+ salts on their foaming
capacities.
Objective
To compare the foaming capacity of various
soaps.

Theory
The foaming capacity of soap depends upon the
nature of the soap and its concentration. This
may be compared by shaking equal volumes of
solutions of different samples having the same
concentration with same force for the same
amount of time. The solutions are then allowed to
stand when the foam produced during shaking
disappears gradually. The time taken for the
foam to disappear in each sample is determined.
The longer the time taken for the disappearance
of the foam for the given sample of soap, greater
is its foaming capacity or cleansing action.
Requirements:
Five 100ml conical flasks, five test tubes,
100ml measuring cylinder, test tube stand,
weighing machine, stop watch.

Chemical Requirements
Five different soap samples, distilled water,
tap water.
Procedure:
1. Take five 100ml conical flasks and number them
1, 2,3,4,5. Put 16ml of water in each flask and add
8 Gms of soap.

2. Warm the contents to get a solution.

3. Take five test tubes; add 1ml of soap solution

to 3ml of water. Repeat the process for each
soap solution in different test tubes.

4. Close the mouth of the test tube and shake

vigorously for a minute. Do the same for all test
tubes and with equal force.

5. Start the timer immediately and notice the

rate of disappearance of 2mm of froth.
Observations
The following outcomes were noticed at the
end of the experiment Test Tube no Vol. of
soap solution Vol. of water added Time taken
for disappearance of 2mm

1.    Dove 8ml 16ml 11’42”

2.    Lux 8ml 16ml 3’28”

3.    Tetmosol 8ml 16ml 5’10”

4.    Santoor 8ml 16ml 15’32”

5.    Cinthol 8ml 16ml 9’40”

Result
The cleansing capacity of the soaps taken is in
the order: Santoor > Dove > Cinthol > Tetmosol >
Lux

From this experiment, we can infer that Santoor

has the highest foaming capacity, in other words,
highest cleaning capacity. Lux, on the other hand
is found to have taken the least amount of time
for the disappearance of foam produced and thus
is said to be having the least foaming capacity and
cleansing capacity.

Test for hardness in water Test for Ca2+ and

Mg2+ salts in the water supplied Test for Ca2+ in
water H2O +NH4Cl + NH4OH + (NH4)2CO3 No
precipitate Test for Mg2+ in water H2O +NH4Cl
+ NH4OH + (NH4)3PO4 No precipitate The tests
show negative results for the presence of the
salts causing hardness in water. The water used
does not contain salts of Ca2+ and Mg2+. The tap
water provided is soft and thus, the experimental
results and values hold good for distilled water
and tap water.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Parts of this project have been referred from
foreign sources and have been included in this
investigatory project after editing. The
references of the sources are as follows: Books:
Together With Lab Manual Chemistry-XII
Comprehensive Chemistry - 12 Internet sources:
www.wikipedia.org www.google.com www.yahoo.com
Structure of soap molecule and micelle formation

Source: https://www.icbse.com
THANK YOU