Load-Flow

in
Power System
Load Flow: Introduction

• A snapshot of the system (operational conditions).

• Mostly used tool in steady state power system analysis.

• Knowing the demand and/or generation of power in each bus, find

out:
–buses voltages
–load flow in lines and transformers

• The problem is described through a non-lineal system of equations

• Need of iterative solution techniques

• Solution technique: accuracy vs. computing time

Problem Formulation:
Two- Bus case

We want to find out the relationship between 𝑆𝑖 = 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑗𝑄𝑖 and 𝑉𝑖 =

𝑉𝑖 𝑒 𝑗𝛿𝑖 in all buses of the power system

Transmission line π model

Problem Formulation:
Using Kirchhoff laws:

Matrix Representation

Complex power injected in each bus

Notation:

Now by replacing:

The non-linear equations for the Two-buses network are

For 𝑖 = 1,2
Now for two-bus cases:

General building rules Matrix 𝒀𝑩𝑼𝑺

• Self admittance of node 𝑖, 𝒀𝒊𝒊 ,equals the algebraic sum of all

the admittances connected to node 𝒊

• Mutual admittance between nodes 𝑖 and 𝑘, 𝒀𝒊𝒌 ,equals the

negative of the sum of all admittances connecting nodes 𝒊 and
𝒌

• 𝒀𝒊𝒌 = 𝒀𝒌𝒊
Characteristics of 𝑌𝐵𝑈𝑆
• 𝑌𝐵𝑈𝑆 is symmetric

• 𝑌𝐵𝑈𝑆 is very sparse

Example:

Shunt element 𝑌𝐺 = j 0.01 (two per line)

Series element 𝑍𝑆 = j0.1
General equations:
• ‘2n’ Equations (static load flow equations)

• Polar representation for voltages and rectangular for admittances

• ‘4n’ variables

• If ‘2n’ variables are specified, the other ‘2n’ are determined by

above equations
BUS Classification
1. PQ buses

2. PV buses

3. Slack bus, generator with large capacity

Variable types and limits

• Power balance

• Variable types
Variable types and limits

• Variable limits
Gauss-Seidel for Power Flow Solution

1. Known Quantities:

2. Build 𝑌𝐵𝑈𝑆

3. Initialize voltages
Gauss-Seidel solution technique
4. PQ buses

At iteration (𝑟 + 1) and bus 𝑖, the available values of voltages at

previous buses are used:
Gauss-Seidel solution technique
5. PV buses

At iteration (r+1):

Limits:
Gauss-Seidel solution technique
6. Stop criterion

• Slack bus power (after convergence)

• Compute line currents (after convergence)

Gauss-Seidel solution technique
• Compute line complex power (after convergence)

• Compute losses (after convergence)

Variable types and limits

7. If no convergence, go to step 4

Acceleration factor (in order to decrease the number of iterations):

Example: Gauss Seidel Method

Base power is 𝑆𝐵 =100 MVA

Data and unknown:

𝑌𝐵𝑈𝑆 Can be found out as:

Voltage magnitude initialization (iteration 0):

Vector form:

Per iteration:
PV buses: iteration (r+1) : Bus-2

where

PQ buses iteration (r+1): Bus-3

where
Stopping criterion:

If convergence:
Line losses:

If no convergence, the procedure continues..

Final results
(11 iterations needed to attain the solution)
Final solution
The Newton-Raphson solution technique
General Formulation:

Matrix form:
The Newton-Raphson solution technique
Load flow case:
Using Taylor Expansion:

The increments below should be 0:

Matrix notation:
Jacobian matrix:

• PQ buses generate 2 Jacobian rows corresponding to ΔP and ΔQ

• PV buses generate 1 Jacobian row corresponding to ΔP

Jacobian dimension:

for improving computational efficiency

Steps involved in N-R Technique
1. Build 𝑌𝐵𝑈𝑆

2. Specify

3. Initialize

4. Compute
5.

6. Compute sub-matrices

7. Solve

8. Update

9. Go to step 4..
Example:

Base power is 𝑆𝐵 =100 MVA

Assumptions:
1. Three (3) buses:

Bus1: Slack
Bus 2: PV
Bus 3: PQ

2. Voltage magnitude at bus 3 initialized at 1.02.

3. Angles initialized to zero.

Now 𝑌𝐵𝑈𝑆

Initialization:
Residuals:

Checking:

No tolerance satisfied: the process continues.

Jacobian:
First iteration:

Residuals:

No convergence.

Jacobian for iteration 2:

State variables at iteration 2

Residuals:

Tolerance OK

Jacobian iteration 3:
Final power values:
Decoupled Newton-Raphson Technique

• Half of the Jacobean represent weak coupling

between P-V and Q- 

• This reduces computational burden

• The elements to be neglected are J and N

• The H and L can be constructed simultaneously and
updated at each iteration

• Further,  and V are computed at each iteration.

• The main advantage of decoupled NR over NR is the

reduced memory location in storing the Jacobean

• There is not much improvement in speed as time per

iteration is same in DLF as compared to NR as it takes more
iteration due to approximation.
Fast decoupled AC load flow

• The second and most important simplification arises by considering the weak
coupling between active powers and voltage magnitudes, on the one hand,
and reactive power and phase angles, which translates into numerical values
of matrices 𝑵 and 𝑱 being significantly smaller than those of the diagonal
blocks 𝑯 and 𝑳

• There are two reasons : (a) phase angle differences between adjacent buses
are rather small, implying that 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜹𝒊 − 𝜹𝒋 ) ≈ 𝟏 and 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜹𝒊 − 𝜹𝒋 ) ≈ 𝟎and
(b) for high-voltage transmission networks the ratio r/x= g/b1≪ 𝟏 (for 220
and 400 kV levels, this ratio lies between 1/5 and 1/10).

• Therefore, it is expected that the performance of decoupled models, that is,

models ignoring the coupling between the active and the reactive sub-
problems, can be less satisfactory when solving strongly loaded systems and
lower voltage systems (for 50-kV lines, the ratio r/x≈1, while it clearly exceeds
unity for 20-kV lines)
Fast decoupled AC load flow
Two simplifications:
• Do not build Jacobian at each iteration (small error
introduced, then, the procedure needs more iterations to
reach the solution)

• Decoupling between P-V and Q-δ (not recommended in

system highly loaded and/or with low voltage levels)
Fast decoupled AC load flow

Assume:
We have

Now

(Using Newton-Raphson Iteration)

Example:

Tolerance 0.1 MVA

Base Power 𝑆𝐵 = 100MVA

• Admittance matrix

• Data and unknown:

• Initialization:
Flow Diagram:
• Compute

• Calculate P and Q:

No convergence

• First iteration:
• Residuals:

Error = 0.5976 : no convergence

• System state (2nd iteration)

• Residuals:

Error = 0.2885 : no convergence

• Residuals:

Error = 5.6285·10-4: convergence attained

• State at iteration 11:
Variable limits:
Computational Considerations Changing PV to PQ
DC load flow:

• Even though both P and Q are nonlinear functions of V and 𝜹, a reasonable

linear approximation between P and 𝛿 can be found, leading to the so-called
DC load flow.

Approximate solution.
Two simplifications:
1. In network model: do not consider series resistances and shunt
admittances
2. Assume 𝑽𝒊 =1 at all buses
• Approximate analytical solution
Assuming
Approximate analytical solution..

where
Solution:
Example:
Now:

Further looking at matrix B

Solving the equation:

The solution becomes:

Regulating Transformer:
• Transformers which provide small adjustment in voltage magnitude and phase are important
components on power systems.
• Most of the transformers provide windings to adjust the ratio of the transformer at deenergized
condition. However, when the taps are changed when the transformer is energized is known as
a load-tap-changing transformer.
• The tap changing is automatic and achieved by motors triggered by the relays set on the voltage
at the prescribed level.
• Regulating Transformers are used to control both active and reactive power flows in the
transmission systems.

Regulating Transformers for control of voltage magnitude

 Admittance Matrix:

Yik
Regulating Transformer connected to the power
system:
Y- BUS Elements:

Y-BUS matrix:
Load-Flow study:
Load-Flow study:
Example:
Load-Flow study:
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Load-Flow study: