Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics

RESEARCH PAPER
Fermentable short chain carbohydrate (FODMAP) content of
common plant-based foods and processed foods suitable
for vegetarian- and vegan-based eating patterns
C. Tuck, E. Ly, A. Bogatyrev, I. Costetsou, P. Gibson, J. Barrett & J. Muir
Department of Gastroenterology, Monash University, The Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Keywords
carbohydrates, fermentable carbohydrates,
fermentable short chain carbohydrates, irritable
bowel syndrome, vegan, vegetarian.
Correspondence
C. Tuck, Department of Gastroenterology Central
Clinical School, Monash University, Level 6, The
Alfred Centre, 99 Commercial Road, Melbourne
VIC 3004, Australia.
Tel.: +61 3 9903 0264
Fax: +61 3 9903 0556
E-mail: caroline.tuck@monash.edu
How to cite this article
Tuck C., Ly E., Bogatyrev A., Costetsou I.,
Gibson P., Barrett J., Muir J. (2018) Fermentable
short chain carbohydrate (FODMAP) content of
common plant-based foods and processed foods
suitable for vegetarian- and vegan-based eating
patterns. J Hum Nutr Diet.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jhn.12546
Abstract
Background: The low FODMAP (fermentable, oligo-, di-, mono-saccharides
and polyols) diet is an effective strategy to improve symptoms of irritable
bowel syndrome. However, combining the low FODMAP diet with another
dietary restriction such as vegetarianism/veganism is challenging. Greater
knowledge about the FODMAP composition of plant-based foods and food
processing practices common to vegetarian/vegan eating patterns would
assist in the implementation of the diet in this patient population. The pre-
sent study aimed to quantify the FODMAP content of plant-based foods
common in vegetarian/vegan diets and to investigate whether food process-
ing can impact FODMAP levels.
Methods: Total FODMAP content was quantified in 35 foods, including
fructose-in-excess-of-glucose, lactose, sorbitol, mannitol, galacto-oligosac-
charide and total fructan, using high-performance-liquid-chromatography
and enzymatic assays. The effects of cooking, sprouting, pickling, fermenta-
tion, activation and canning on FODMAP content were assessed. The Mon-
ash University criteria to classify foods as low FODMAP was used.
Results: Of the 35 foods, 20 were classified as low FODMAP, including
canned coconut milk (0.24 g serve–1), dulse (0.02 serve–1), nutritional yeast
(0.01 serve–1), soy cheese (0.03 serve–1), tempeh (0.26 serve–1), wheat gluten
(0.13 serve–1) and wheat grass (0.05 serve–1). No FODMAPs were detected
in agar-agar, egg replacer, vegan egg yolk, kelp noodles and spirulina. Food
processing techniques that produced the greatest reduction in FODMAP
content included pickling and canning.
Conclusions: The present study provides a greater FODMAP composition
knowledge of plant-based foods that can now be applied to the dietetic
management of vegetarians/vegans requiring a low FODMAP diet. Food
processing lowered the FODMAP content of foods, thereby increasing
options for patients following a low FODMAP diet.

bloating, flatulence and alternating bowel habits (3). With

Introduction
A diet low in fermentable short-chain carbohydrates
(FODMAPs; fermentable, oligo-, di-, mono-saccharides
and polyols) is an effective therapy for the management
of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) (1,2), which is charac-
terised by chronic gastrointestinal symptoms such as
the high prevalence rates of IBS (4) and worldwide imple-
mentation of the low FODMAP diet as therapy (5), con-
siderable overlap now exists in clinical practice between
use of the low FODMAP diet and other dietary restric-
tions. An estimated 10% of the world’s population are
following either a vegetarian or vegan eating pattern (6).

ª 2018 The British Dietetic Association Ltd. 1

 FODMAP food composition for vegetarians/vegans
The major reasons for this include religious practices,
ethical, environmental and social concerns, as well as
putative health benefits (6). Various forms of these diets
include lacto-ovo vegetarians (i.e. consumes dairy foods
and eggs but no meat, poultry or seafood), lacto-vegetar-
ian (i.e. consumes dairy but no eggs, meat, poultry or
seafood), ovo-vegetarian (i.e. consumes eggs but no dairy,
meat, poultry or seafood), pescatarian (i.e. lacto-ovo veg-
etarian but also consumes seafood) and vegans (i.e. con-
sumes no animal products). Following a vegetarian diet
in the long-term has been shown to be associated with
the presence of IBS in a cross-sectional study (7). Com-
bining the low FODMAP diet with other dietary restric-
tions such as vegetarian- or vegan- eating patterns can be
challenging as a result of the often competing nature of
each dietary recommendation.
Provided that an appropriate variety of plant-based
foods is consumed and total energy requirements are
met, a strict vegetarian or vegan diet can fulfil an indi-
vidual’s nutritional requirements (8). Key nutrients at risk
of inadequate intake following a vegetarian and vegan
eating pattern include protein, iron, zinc, calcium and
vitamin B12. These nutrients can be sourced from
legumes, wholegrains, nuts and seeds, and soy-based
products (8,9). Because the compositional data to date
show that many of these foods also contain significant
quantities of FODMAPs (10–12), their intake is limited on
a low FODMAP diet. However, comprehensive analysis
of the FODMAP composition of many foods frequently
consumed by vegetarians and vegans has not been under-
taken. Data for the FODMAP composition of common
vegetables, fruits, grains and cereals have been published
previously (10–13). Most varieties of legumes analysed were
high in galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) and fructans (12).
Other vegetarian and vegan foods analysed include nuts,
with cashews and pistachios shown to contain significant
amounts of FODMAPs (13). The FODMAP content of soy
products appears to be variable, with firm-tofu and soy-
protein based soy milk being low and silken-tofu and
whole soybean-based soy milk being high in FODMAP
content (13). Expansion of the current FODMAP database
to provide more food sources of key macro- and micro-
nutrients, especially protein, for vegetarians and vegans is
needed.
Certain food processing techniques offer an opportu-
nity to reduce the FODMAP content of foods. Processes
trialled to date have aimed to reduce the GOS content of
legumes and soy milks via soaking, cooking, germination,
fermentation, enzyme treatments, ethanol extraction,
genetic manipulation, dry heating and dehydration (14).
Oligosaccharides are water soluble and hence are assumed
to be lost when the water used for cooking is
removed (15,16). Although it appears that soaking and
2 ª 2018 The British Dietetic Association Ltd.
C. Tuck et al.
cooking may reduce the total oligosaccharide content of
legumes (16–20), the results have not been consistent (21)
and testing for effects on total FODMAP content have
not been undertaken. Additionally, previous work mea-
suring the FODMAP content of legumes did not assess
the difference in FODMAP content between dried and
canned products of the same forms of legumes (12).
Strategies such as food processing that may reduce the
burden of dietary restriction in an effort to improve
adherence and nutritional adequacy in this patient group
would be welcomed (22).
The present study aimed first to quantify the FODMAP
content of plant-based foods available to vegetarians and
vegans. Second, the study aimed to investigate the effect
of food processing and cooking on FODMAP composi-
tion of a variety of plant-based foods.
Materials and methods
Study 1: Analysis of key vegetarian and vegan foods and
food constituents
Selection of key vegetarian and vegan foods and food
constituents for analysis
Thirty-five common vegetarian and vegan foods or food
constituents that were considered important nutrient
sources and had not previously been analysed for their
FODMAP content by the Department of Gastroenterol-
ogy, Monash University were chosen to be analysed as
shown in the Supporting information (Table S1). Foods
or food constituents were chosen by a group of eight spe-
cialist Dietitians based on foods most commonly con-
sumed by vegetarians and vegans that would also provide
good nutritional value. Nutritional composition was
based largely on the NUTTAB 2010 database (Food Stan-
dards Australia New Zealand) (23). Food samples were
sourced from metropolitan Melbourne. The food collec-
tion protocol requires three different brands of the same
food to be collected and pooled, as described previously
(12)
. Where three brands with similar ingredients were not
available, one or two brands were used and, where possi-
ble, multiple packages with different expiry dates were
used to make up a sample of three, as indicated in the
Supporting information (Table S1)
Food sampling methodology
Food samples were collected and pooled using methods
described previously (10–12, 24). Briefly, three different
brands of each food product were collected, prepared for
analysis either as purchased or cooked in accordance with
the packet instructions (see Supporting information,
Table S1) and pooled and mixed to provide one homoge-
nous sample.
 C. Tuck et al.
Study 2: Analysis of processed and cooked foods
Selection of foods undergoing various forms of food
processing for analysis
Vegetarian and vegan food items that had undergone
additional food processing were selected including; acti-
vated nuts, pickled vegetables and fermented foods (see
Supporting information, Table S1). To assess the effect of
food processing on FODMAP content, a comparison was
made with previous results from the same foods in the
fresh, unprocessed form. In addition, six types of grains
and legumes were chosen to be sprouted: wheat, barley,
rye, chickpeas, red kidney beans and mung beans. Three
brands of each grain or legume were sourced and 50 g of
each was weighed and pooled. The grains and legumes
were first covered in water and soaked overnight for at
least 12 h. They were then wrapped in muslin cloth and
left damp in a cool dark place. Additional rinsing with
water occurred on a daily basis for 3–6 days until the
grain or legume had sprouted. Once the grains or
legumes had sprouts of at least 1 cm, they were consid-
ered to have adequately sprouted.
Selection of foods to compare dried and canned
forms
To compare differences between dried and canned forms
of legumes, red kidney beans in dried (n = 6) and canned
form (n = 12) were collected. Canned red kidney beans
were strained and prepared ‘as eaten’ prior to sampling
in preparation for FODMAP analysis. Dried red kidney
beans were soaked overnight and subsequently cooked in
water as directed on the packet label and then sampled in
preparation for analysis. Additionally, dried and canned
forms (n = 3 of each) of adzuki beans were collected and
analysed.
Preparation of foods to assess the effect of
cooking conditions on the FODMAP content of
legumes
Red lentils and red kidney beans were simmered in accor-
dance with the packet instructions in water for variable
lengths of time. Seven different cooking conditions of red
lentil were assessed, including raw red lentils; red lentils
that had been simmered for 5, 10, 20 and 30 min and
subsequently strained; red lentils that had been simmered
for 30 min without straining; and the strained liquid.
Nine different cooking conditions of red kidney beans
were assessed, including raw red kidney beans; red kidney
beans that had been soaked (overnight) but remained
uncooked; red kidney beans that had been soaked (over-
night) and simmered for 5, 10, 20 and 30 min and
ª 2018 The British Dietetic Association Ltd.
FODMAP food composition for vegetarians/vegans
subsequently strained; red kidney beans that had been
soaked and simmered for 30 min without straining; the
soaking liquid (prior to cooking the red kidney beans);
and the strained liquid (after cooking the red kidney
beans). Two additional cooking conditions (soaked over-
night but uncooked and soaking liquid) were tested for
the red kidney beans compared to the red lentils as a
result of differences in packet instructions, where red kid-
ney beans required soaking overnight prior to cooking
but red lentils did not.
Food sampling methodology
Food sampling for the activated nuts, pickled vegetables,
fermented foods, sprouted products, and dried and
canned adzuki beans was undertaken in the same way as
Study 1, with three different samples being collected and
pooled prior to analysis. However, to assess differences
between brands of canned and dried products and differ-
ences in cooking conditions, samples were not pooled
and, instead, they were analysed individually. As a result
of the large availability of many different brands of dried
and canned products of red kidney beans, a larger sample
size was used to reflect the number of brands available;
hence, 6 dried and 12 canned products were chosen to be
analysed. Legumes were prepared as eaten, with dried
legumes being cooked in accordance with the packet
instructions prior to analysis (see Supporting information,
Table S1).
FODMAP analysis methodology
Samples from both studies were analysed using the same
techniques. Samples were freeze-dried (Operon Thermo-
line Scientific freeze-drier, TDPR-FDB-5003; Thermoline
Scientific, Wetherill Park, NSW, Australia) prior to the
extraction step. The weight of the sample before and after
freeze-drying was recorded and, following analysis, adjust-
ments were made to account for the difference. Samples
that were collected in a pre-dried form (e.g., flour) or in
a liquid form (e.g. macadamia milk) did not undergo
freeze-drying. All dried samples were ground to a fine
particle size (approximately 0.5 mm) prior to sugar
extraction by use of a mortar and pestle or an electric
food processor.
Sugar extraction and analysis of samples were com-
pleted in triplicate in accordance with well-defined meth-
ods used across a wide international range of food types
and previously described in detail (10–12,24,25). Analysis
using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
was completed using a Waters HPLC using evaporative
light scattering detector (ELSD) with Sugar Pak 1 column
(6.5 9 300 mm column; Waters, Rydalmere, NSW,
3
 FODMAP food composition for vegetarians/vegans
Australia) to separate carbohydrates and then compared
with standards for sucrose, glucose, fructose, mannitol
and sorbitol. Excess fructose was calculated by subtracting
the total glucose from the total fructose content. Analysis
using ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC)
was completed using a Waters Acquity UPLC with ELSD
detector (BEH Amide 1.7 lm column; Waters) to sepa-
rate carbohydrates and then compared with standards for
lactose, kestose, raffinose, nystose and stachyose. At the
time of testing, the most common forms of GOS in food
(i.e. stachyose and raffinose) were quantified.
Total fructan content of food samples was determined
using the enzymatic fructan assay (Megazyme Fructan
HK Assay AOAC Method 999.03, AACC Method 32.32;
Megazyme International Ireland Ltd, Wicklow, Ireland) as
described previously (10).
Determination of the FODMAP rating
The results from both studies were compared with the
FODMAP cut-off values for each FODMAP subgroup as
used by Monash University to classify foods as low FOD-
MAP (26), in accordance with serving size. As described
by Varney et al. (2017), the cut-off values per serve to
denote a food as low FODMAP were: oligosaccharides in
grains, legumes and nuts <0.30 g; oligosaccharides in veg-
etables, fruits and other products <0.20 g; total polyols
<0.40 g; excess fructose <0.15 g; and lactose <1.00 g (26).
Serving sizes were taken from packet suggestions and
modified as necessary within typical serving size ranges to
allow for low FODMAP serving sizes where possible.
Results
Study 1: Analysis of key vegetarian and vegan foods and
food constituents
The FODMAP contents of the 35 plant-based foods or
food constituents are shown in Table 1. The results are
displayed per 100 g and per serve, and include key nutri-
ent sources, individual FODMAP subgroup analysis, total
FODMAP content and FODMAP rating. Eight categories
of foods or food constituents were analysed, including
coconut products, soy products, wheat products, milk
alternatives, proteins, meat alternatives, sea vegetables and
other. Twenty foods or food constituents that were iden-
tified to be low in total FODMAP content with their
respective nutrients for which they are major sources
were agar-agar (gelling agent), canned coconut milk (fat),
coconut yoghurt (fat), dulse (iodine), vegan egg yolk and
egg replacer (protein), false chicken (protein), false pork
(protein), fresh gluten (protein), kelp noodles (iodine),
macadamia milk (calcium), nutritional yeast (protein, B
vitamins), pea and rice protein isolates (protein), soy
4 ª 2018 The British Dietetic Association Ltd.
C. Tuck et al.
cheese (protein), soy roll (protein), spirulina (protein),
tempeh (protein, iron and zinc), wheat gluten (protein,
iron), and wheat grass (vitamin A). Foods that did not
meet the low FODMAP criteria per serving included qui-
noa milk and wakame flakes.
Study 2: Analysis of processed and cooked foods
FODMAP analysis of foods undergoing various forms of
food processing
Table 2 shows the FODMAP composition of foods that
had undergone various types of food processing, includ-
ing fermentation, activation, pickling or sprouting. The
FODMAP contents of the activated, sprouted and pickled
foods were then compared with the FODMAP contents
of the fresh variety of each food in accordance with the
Monash University FODMAP database (Fig. 1). The total
FODMAP content was lowered for all types of activated
and pickled foods compared to that of the fresh versions
of these foods. All types of sprouted grains and legumes
also had a lower FODMAP content with the exception of
chickpeas. The most substantial changes were seen with
pickling, where the FODMAP content was lowered by
87% in artichokes, 89% in onion, 95% in beetroot and
97% in garlic. Pickling lowered the FODMAP rating in
garlic, onion and beetroot sufficiently to be classified as
low FODMAP, although the change was not adequate to
alter the FODMAP rating of artichoke.
FODMAP analysis of dried and canned foods
Canning red kidney beans lowered the content of GOS
and fructans compared to the equivalent dried, soaked
and cooked forms (Fig. 2). On average, dried, soaked and
cooked red kidney beans contained 0.60 g serve–1
oligosaccharide compared to 0.21 g serve–1 in canned red
kidney beans. The same effect occurred in the adzuki
beans, which contained 0.76 g serve–1 oligosaccharide in
the dried form compared to 0.62 g serve–1 in the canned
form (Table 2).
Effect of cooking time on FODMAP content of legumes
Simmering reduced total oligosaccharide content in red
lentils from 0.89 g serve–1 in the dried form to 0.44–
0.53 g serve–1 in cooked forms (Fig. 3). Simmering red
lentils for 5 minutes reduced oligosaccharide content by
43% to 0.51 g serve–1. Although longer simmering times
caused no further reduction in oligosaccharide content,
straining the lentils after 30 minutes of simmering caused
a 12% reduction in oligosaccharide content compared to
that of unstrained lentils. Fructan content was reduced
from 0.25 g in raw to 0.13 (0.12–0.14) g in cooked and
strained lentils, whereas, in unstrained lentils, it remained
higher (0.18 g). The total GOS (stachyose plus raffinose)
 Table 1 FODMAP (fermentable, oligo-, di-, mono-saccharides and polyols) composition per serve of vegetarian and vegan food or food constituent items

Meets low
C. Tuck et al.

Food or food Suggested Excess Total Total Total Total FODMAP

Category constituent item nutrient source Portion size fructose Lactose Sorbitol Mannitol GOS fructan Oligosaccharide FODMAP criteria (26)

Coconut Coconut flour Fat, fibre g per 50 g serve 0.34 0.11 1.04 ND ND 0.21 0.21 1.70 No
products
g per 100 g 0.68 0.22 2.08 ND ND 0.41 0.41 3.39 No
Coconut milk canned Fat g per 80 g serve ND ND 0.14 ND ND 0.10 0.10 0.24 Yes

ª 2018 The British Dietetic Association Ltd.

(used in cooking)
g per 100 g ND ND 0.18 ND ND 0.13 0.13 0.30 Yes
Coconut milk (UHT) Fat, calcium g per 250 g serve 0.08 ND 0.28 ND ND 0.21 0.21 0.56 No
g per 100 g 0.03 ND 0.11 ND ND 0.08 0.08 0.22 Yes
Coconut milk with Fat, calcium g per 250 g serve 0.07 ND ND ND ND 1.26 1.26 1.33 No
inulin (UHT)
g per 100 g 0.03 ND ND ND ND 0.51 0.51 0.53 No
Coconut yoghurt Fat g per 125 g serve 0.04 ND 0.17 ND ND 0.11 0.11 0.31 Yes
g per 100 g 0.03 ND 0.13 ND ND 0.09 0.09 0.25 Yes
Soy Soy cheese Protein g per 40 g serve ND ND ND ND 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 Yes
products
g per 100 g ND ND ND ND 0.05 0.04 0.08 0.08 Yes
Soy yoghurt (plain)* Protein g per 175 g serve ND ND ND ND 0.80 0.24 1.04 1.04 No
g per 100 g ND ND ND ND 0.46 0.14 0.60 0.60 No
Soy yoghurt (vanilla)* Protein g per 175 g serve ND ND ND ND 0.08 1.07 1.15 1.15 No
g per 100 g ND ND ND ND 0.05 0.61 0.66 0.66 No
Tempeh Protein, g per 100 g serve ND ND ND 0.12 0.04 0.11 0.14 0.26 Yes
iron, zinc
Textured soy protein Protein g per 30 g serve ND ND ND ND 1.65 0.34 1.99 1.99 No
g per 100 g ND ND ND ND 5.51 1.12 6.63 6.63 No
Wheat Nutritional yeast Protein, g per 16 g serve ND ND ND ND ND 0.01 0.01 0.01 Yes
products B vitamins
g per 100 g 0.01 ND ND ND ND 0.04 0.04 0.05 Yes
Wheat gluten Protein, Iron g per 30 g serve ND ND ND ND ND 0.13 0.13 0.13 Yes
g per 100 g ND ND ND ND ND 0.44 0.44 0.43 No
Wheat grass Vitamin A g per 3.5 g serve ND ND ND ND 0.01 0.04 0.05 0.05 Yes
g per 100 g ND ND ND 0.02 0.14 1.24 1.38 1.40 No
Wheat germ Zinc, g per 50 g serve 0.03 ND 0.01 ND 1.96 1.24 3.20 3.25 No
Magnesium
g per 100 g 0.07 ND 0.03 0.00 3.91 2.49 6.40 6.49 No
FODMAP food composition for vegetarians/vegans

5
 6
Table 1. Continued

Meets low
Food or food Suggested Excess Total Total Total Total FODMAP
Category constituent item nutrient source Portion size fructose Lactose Sorbitol Mannitol GOS fructan Oligosaccharide FODMAP criteria (26)

Milk Macadamia milk Calcium g per 250 g serve ND ND ND ND ND 0.04 0.04 0.04 Yes
alternatives
g per 100 g 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.02 Yes
Quinoa milk (Agave Protein g per 250 g serve 0.33 ND ND ND ND 0.22 0.22 0.55 No
sweetened)†
g per 100 g 0.13 ND ND ND ND 0.09 0.09 0.22 Yes
Quinoa milk Protein g per 250 g serve ND ND ND ND ND 0.22 0.22 0.22 No
(unsweetened)*
g per 100 g ND ND ND ND ND 0.09 0.09 0.09 Yes
Proteins Egg replacer† Protein g per 6 g serve ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Yes
FODMAP food composition for vegetarians/vegans

g per 100 g ND ND ND ND ND 0.02 0.02 0.02 Yes

Egg yolk (vegan) * Protein g per 2.6 g serve ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Yes
g per 100 g 0.01 ND ND ND ND 0.01 0.01 0.02 Yes
Pea protein isolate Protein g per 40 g serve ND ND ND ND 0.04 0.07 0.11 0.11 Yes
g per 100 g ND ND ND ND 0.10 0.17 0.27 0.27 No
Rice protein isolate Protein g per 40 g serve ND ND ND ND ND 0.06 0.06 0.06 Yes
g per 100 g ND ND ND ND ND 0.16 0.16 0.16 Yes
Spirulina Protein g per 3 g serve ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Yes
g per 100 g ND ND ND ND ND 0.02 0.02 0.02 Yes
Fresh gluten Protein g per 100 g serve ND ND ND ND 0.01 0.16 0.17 0.17 Yes
Meat False bacon* Protein g per 100 g serve ND ND ND ND 0.11 0.13 0.24 0.24 No
alternatives
False pork* Protein g per 100 g serve ND ND ND ND ND 0.04 0.04 0.04 Yes
False chicken 1 Protein g per 100 g serve ND ND ND ND 0.29 0.07 0.36 0.36 No
(soybean extract)*
False chicken 2 Protein g per 100 g serve ND ND ND ND 0.31 0.10 0.41 0.41 No
(soybean)*
False chicken Protein g per 100 g serve ND ND ND ND ND 0.03 0.03 0.02 Yes
3 (canned
– fried gluten)*
False chicken 4 (soy Protein g per 100 g serve ND ND ND ND 0.08 0.12 0.20 0.20 No
protein, soybean)*
False chicken 5 Protein g per 100 g serve ND ND ND ND 0.03 0.28 0.30 0.30 No
(gluten, soybean)*
Soy roll* Protein g per 100 g serve ND ND ND ND 0.05 0.14 0.19 0.19 Yes
C. Tuck et al.

ª 2018 The British Dietetic Association Ltd.

 C. Tuck et al. Meets low FODMAP food composition for vegetarians/vegans

content followed a similar pattern. Stachyose was the

Suggested nutrient source largely based on NUTTAB 2010 (Food Standards Australia New Zealand). Serving sizes based on packet suggestion or standard serving size per product. UHT, ultra-high
temperature processing. Results displayed as average of triplicate samples except where marked an asterisk (*) denotes n = 1 and a dagger (†) denotes n = 2. ND, not detected; NA, not applica-
criteria (26)
FODMAP

Yes major GOS present.

Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes

Yes
Simmering also reduced the total oligosaccharide con-

No
No
tent of red kidney beans, and the content continued to

ble; GOS, galacto-oligosaccharide. Excess fructose calculated via subtraction of glucose content from fructose content. Total GOS calculated from the sum of raffinose and stachyose.
FODMAP

decline with simmering times greater than 5 min. Thus, a

further 32% reduction in oligosaccharide content was
Total

0.02

0.19

0.21
2.12
ND
ND

ND

ND
observed when red kidney beans were cooked for 30 min
(Fig. 3). The soaking liquid (prior to cooking) did not
Oligosaccharide

contain significant FODMAP content. Stachyose was pre-

sent in largest quantity with smaller amounts of raffinose.
Total

0.01

0.06

0.04
ND
ND
ND

ND

ND

Application to vegetarian and vegan meal plans

The ways in which these new data can be applied in prac-
fructan

tice are shown in Table 3.

Total

0.01

0.06

0.04
ND
ND
ND

ND

ND

Discussion
Total
GOS

0.00

0.00
ND

ND
ND
ND

ND

ND

The results from the present study provide key FODMAP

composition data with respect to important plant-based
Mannitol

foods that are commonly consumed when following vege-

0.01

0.13

0.21
2.08
ND
ND

ND

ND

tarian- and vegan-eating patterns. Important findings also

include the observation that food processing and cooking
Sorbitol

can lower the FODMAP content of a wide range of foods.

ND

ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND

ND

Greater knowledge of FODMAP composition and the use

of food processing techniques should provide strategies to
Lactose

assist not only patients with IBS, but also especially those
who are following vegetarian/vegan diets to adhere to the
ND

ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND

ND

low FODMAP diet to control gastrointestinal symptoms.

Data from the UK assessing the dietary intake of IBS
fructose
Excess

patients (and not specifically those who are vegetarian or

ND

ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND

ND

vegan) have shown that more than half of patients fol-

lowing a low FODMAP diet did not meet their recom-
113 g serve

7.5 g serve
g per 10 g serve

10 g serve

mended intakes of calcium and iron, although values

100 g

100 g

100 g

g per 100 g

were not dissimilar to the healthy population on a habit-

Portion size

ual diet (27). An inadequate intake of calcium and iron is

per
per
per
per
per
per

of particular concern because these are among the key

g
g
g
g
g
g

nutrients considered to be at risk of inadequacy for vege-

tarians and vegans (8).
nutrient source

The expansion of the FODMAP composition database

Suggested

from Study 1 to include more foods appropriate for vege-

Gelling
agent
Iodine

Iodine

Iodine

tarians and vegans improves food choice, with the aim of

improving nutritional adequacy. Various sources of pro-
tein in particular, such as soy cheese, tempeh, pea-protein
isolate and rice-protein isolate, were found in the present
constituent item

study to be low FODMAP and therefore suitable for the

Wakame flakes
Food or food

Kelp noodles

low FODMAP diet. Nutrient-rich vegetarian foods found

Agar-agar

to be low FODMAP include macadamia milk (a source of

Dulse

calcium via fortification), dulse and kelp noodles (a

Table 1. Continued

source of iodine), and tempeh (a source of iron and

zinc).
vegetables

Legumes are an important source of protein, fibre and

Category

key nutrients (folate, iron, zinc, calcium and magnesium)

Other
Sea

(28)
. Both GOS and fructans present in legumes are

ª 2018 The British Dietetic Association Ltd. 7

 8
Table 2 FODMAP (fermentable, oligo-, di-, mono-saccharides and polyols) composition per serve of foods undergoing prior food processing

Suggested Total Total Meets low

nutrient Excess Lactose Sorbitol Mannitol Total Total oligosaccharide FODMAP FODMAP
Category Food item source Portion size fructose (g) (g) (g) (g) GOS (g) fructan (g) (g) (g) criteria (26)

Activated Activated pistachios Fat, protein, g per 30 g serve 0.01 ND ND ND 0.57 0.20 0.77 0.78 No
nuts fibre
g per 100 g 0.03 ND ND ND 1.88 0.67 2.56 2.59 No
Activated cashews Fat, zinc, g per 30 g serve 0.01 ND ND ND 0.40 0.13 0.53 0.54 No
magnesium
g per 100 g 0.02 ND 0.01 ND 1.34 0.43 1.77 1.80 No
Fermented Kombucha Antioxidants g per 250 g serve ND ND ND ND ND 0.24 0.24 0.24 No
products (fermented tea)
g per 100 g ND ND ND ND ND 0.10 0.10 0.10 Yes
Kvass (fermented rye) B vitamins g per 250 g serve 0.05 ND ND ND ND 0.19 0.19 0.24 Yes
g per 100 g 0.02 ND ND ND ND 0.07 0.07 0.09 Yes
FODMAP food composition for vegetarians/vegans

Legumes, dried Adzuki beans Iron, fibre g per 95 g serve ND ND ND ND 0.55 0.06 0.62 0.62 No
and canned (canned)
g per 100 g ND ND ND ND 0.58 0.07 0.65 0.65 No
Adzuki beans Iron, fibre g per 95 g serve ND ND ND ND 0.61 0.15 0.76 0.76 No
(dried, cooked)
g per 100 g ND ND ND ND 0.64 0.16 0.80 0.80 No
Red kidney beans Protein, fibre g per 95 g serve 0.05 ND ND ND 0.10 0.09 0.19 0.24 Yes
(canned) [n = 12]
g per 100 g 0.05 ND ND ND 0.11 0.10 0.21 0.25 Yes
Red kidney Protein, fibre g per 95 g serve ND ND ND ND 0.49 0.10 0.59 0.59 No
beans (dried,
cooked) [n = 6]
g per 100 g ND ND ND ND 0.51 0.11 0.62 0.62 No
Red lentils Protein, fibre g per 46 g serve ND ND ND ND 0.37 0.14 0.51 0.51 No
(dried, cooked)*
g per 100 g ND ND ND ND 0.81 0.3 1.11 1.11 No
Pickled Pickled artichoke Prebiotic fibre g per 50 g serve 0.16 ND ND ND ND 0.74 0.74 0.90 No
products
g per 100 g 0.31 ND ND ND ND 1.48 1.48 1.79 No
Pickled beetroot Folate g per 60 g serve ND ND ND ND 0.02 ND ND ND Yes
g per 100 g ND ND ND ND 0.04 ND 0.04 0.04 Yes
Pickled garlic Prebiotic fibre g per 20 g serve 0.10 ND ND ND ND 0.02 0.02 0.12 Yes
g per 100 g 0.50 ND ND ND ND 0.12 0.12 0.62 No
Pickled onion Prebiotic fibre g per 45 g serve ND ND ND ND ND 0.11 0.11 0.10 Yes
g per 100 g ND ND ND ND ND 0.24 0.24 0.23 No
Sprouted Sprouted barley Fibre g per 100 g serve ND ND 0.01 ND ND 0.04 0.04 0.06 Yes
products
Sprouted chickpeas Fibre, protein g per 95 g serve ND ND ND ND 0.55 0.14 0.70 0.61 No
C. Tuck et al.

ª 2018 The British Dietetic Association Ltd.

 C. Tuck et al. FODMAP food composition for vegetarians/vegans

prebiotics, which enhance the growth of certain colonic

Meets low

Suggested nutrient source largely based on NUTTAB 2010 (Food Standards Australia New Zealand). Serving sizes based on packet suggestion or standard serving size per product. Results dis-
played as an average of triplicate samples. ND, not detected; NA, not applicable; GOS, galacto-oligosaccharide. Excess fructose calculated via subtraction of glucose content from fructose con-
criteria (26)
FODMAP

bacteria with putative health benefits (14). The many pro-

Yes
Yes
No ven or likely nutritional and health qualities associated

No

No
No
No
with legume consumption [e.g. reduced risk of chronic
FODMAP

disease (14, 28, 29) and prebiotic attributes (14)] highlight

Total

0.73
0.19
0.20
1.00

1.06
1.45
0.55
the importance of identifying legume varieties and pro-
(g)

cessing techniques (e.g. canning and cooking, as shown in

oligosaccharide

the present study) that will improve tolerance for patients

with IBS with the aim of increasing intake. Similarly, soy-
derived products have a high nutritional value as a result
Total

0.73
0.17
0.17
1.00

1.06
1.45
0.55

of their high protein content, as well as their amino acid

(g)

profile, which corresponds more closely to human

requirements than do other plant-based proteins (30, 31).
fructan (g)

Hence, the soy-based products such as soy cheese found

Total

0.15
0.06
0.06
0.19

0.20
1.45
0.55

to be low in FODMAP content in the present study are

of importance.
GOS (g)

The FODMAP content was not always consistent

Total

0.58
0.11
0.11
0.81

0.85
ND
ND

between different varieties of similar products in both

Study 1 and Study 2. Variation in the FODMAP content
Mannitol

of meat alternatives (‘false meat’) was likely attributed to

0.01
0.01

the different type of ingredients used. For example, false

ND

ND

ND
ND
ND
(g)

chicken based on soybean was high in FODMAP content

Sorbitol

compared to the low FODMAP content when based on

gluten. Similarly, the FODMAP content of rice and soy
ND
ND
ND
ND

ND
ND
ND
(g)

milks appears to be significantly affected by the ingredi-

Lactose

ents chosen and the processing methods used. For exam-

ND
ND
ND
ND

ND
ND
ND
(g)

ple, soy milks based on the whole-soybean have a much

higher FODMAP content compared to soy milks based
fructose (g)

on the soy protein only (13). The FODMAP contents of

Excess

legumes found in the present study are considerably

0.02
0.02
ND

ND

ND
ND
ND

lower than the results previously obtained by Biesiekierski

et al. (12), who reported that red kidney beans contain
g per 100 g serve
g per 100 g serve
95 g serve

95 g serve

0.54 g fructan and 1.44 g GOS per 100 g and red lentils
contain 0.14 g fructan and 0.46 g GOS per 100 g, despite
100 g

100 g

g per 100 g
Portion size

similar methodology. Variations seen in the FODMAP

tent. Total GOS calculated from the sum of raffinose and stachyose.
per
per
per
per

content of legumes between studies may be the result of a

g
g
g
g

number of reasons, including different growing condi-

tions of the legumes, seasonal changes, harvesting condi-
Fibre, protein

tions and the preparation methods used. This is

Suggested
nutrient

consistent with previous work reporting significant varia-

source

Fibre

Fibre
Fibre

tions in raffinose, stachyose and verbascose content

among lentil varieties (16), as well as within varieties of
Sprouted mung beans

the same common Indian pulse types (21). These differ-

ences highlight the importance of testing multiple
Sprouted wheat
kidney beans

sources/brands of food products in any nutrient analysis

Sprouted red

Sprouted rye
Food item

of foods in accordance with the FSANZ guidelines (Can-

berra, Australia) (32), as well as the need for the analysis
of products originating from different countries.
Table 2. Continued

Food processing methods, such as pickling and sprout-

ing, may also provide a way to lower FODMAP content.
For example, in Study 2, pickling of vegetables such as
Category

onion, garlic and beetroot resulted in a sufficiently large

change in total FODMAP content to adjust the overall

ª 2018 The British Dietetic Association Ltd. 9

 FODMAP food composition for vegetarians/vegans C. Tuck et al.

6.86
7

Total FODMAP content (g per serve)

6
Fresh

4.24
5 Processed

3.47
4

2.31
3

1.88
2

1.45
1.4
1.02

1.00
0.97
1.2

0.90

0.90
0.89
0.78
1.0

0.70
0.54
0.8

0.55

0.44
0.43
0.6

0.34
0.06

0.19

0.02

0.12

0.10
0.4
0.2
0.0
s

l ic
at

on
os

as

ye

ke

oo
an
w

le

dn ean

he

ar
R

ho
e
hi

ni
he

ar

tr
p

be

G
W
c

O
ee
ck

b
B

ic
as
ta

ey
g

rt

B
hi
s

un

A
Pi

ki
ed
R

Activated Sprouted legumes Pickled

nuts and grains vegetables
Figure 1 Comparison of the total FODMAP (fermentable, oligo-, di-, mono-saccharides and polyols) content of processed foods with the
FODMAP content of fresh varieties of each food. FODMAP content of fresh varieties taken from the Monash University FODMAP database (13).
The FODMAP content was compared with the Monash University criteria to classify foods as low FODMAP (26), as indicated by the dashed line.

additionally, it has been proposed that pH, time, water

Total FODMAP content (g per serve)

ratio and temperature may also influence the carbohy-

0.8
drate content following pickling (34,35). Sprouting
0.7 appeared to have variable effects on the FODMAP con-
0.6 tent of grains and legumes; the most significant effect of
0.5 sprouting was on reducing the FODMAP content of
0.4 grains, with a lesser effect seen on legumes. Upon germi-
0.3
nation, it has been postulated that enzymes that break
down carbohydrates are activated (36), although more
0.2
work is needed to confirm any specific action on
0.1 oligosaccharides.
0.0 The water solubility of FODMAPs provides a simple
way to reduce the FODMAP content of legumes via
)

d
6 d

n nne
= ke

12

changes in cooking methods. In Study 2, cooking lentils

n co o

a
C
=

for a short duration (5 min) and straining them reduced

(
d
rie

the FODMAP content by 43%, with no further reduction

D

Figure 2 Total FODMAP (fermentable, oligo-, di-, mono-saccharides seen with longer cooking times. By contrast to the red
and polyols) content of different samples of dried (cooked) and lentils, red kidney beans had further reduction in FOD-
canned red kidney beans. Data are expressed as grams per 95 g MAP content with longer cooking times. This may have
serve. Dried forms of red kidney beans were cooked in accordance been a result in differences in the legume size. Red lentils,
with the packet instructions prior to analysis. The FODMAP content which are small, may allow the FODMAPs to leach out
was compared with the Monash University criteria to classify foods as
quickly; hence, no further reductions occurred with
low FODMAP (26), as indicated by the dashed line.
longer cooking times. A similar effect was seen where len-
tils had a much larger reduction in oligosaccharide con-
FODMAP rating from high to low. This lower FODMAP tent with cooking compared to other legumes tested in
content following pickling is in agreement with previous one study (37). Other proposed mechanisms for the reduc-
work also showing that pickling resulted in lower abdom- tion in carbohydrate content include heat hydrolysis (17).
inal symptoms and colonic fermentation (33). We propose By contrast, some studies have shown increased oligosac-
that the water solubility of FODMAPs and the likely charide content with cooking proposed to be a result of
leaching of FODMAPs into the pickling liquid is the the comparable leaching of other soluble components, as
mechanism by which the FODMAP content is reduced; well as the release of bound oligosaccharides during

10 ª 2018 The British Dietetic Association Ltd.

 C. Tuck et al. FODMAP food composition for vegetarians/vegans

Total FODMAP content of red lentils Total FODMAP content of red kidney beans
(g per 100 g) (g per 100 g)
6 6
Total FODMAP content (g per 100 g)

Total FODMAP content (g per 100 g)

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0
d

in

in

in

d
in

u n ie d

in

in

in

ed d )
d

d
in
ed
rie

ui

ui
ke

ui
m

m
m

m
m

ne
in

liq

liq

liq
D

So coo
D
10

20

30
5

10

20

30
5

ai
ra

tr
t

ne
ns

in

ns

in
ak
i
(u

(u
ra

ra
ed
St
in

St
in
ak
m

m
So
30

30
Figure 3 Effect of cooking conditions on the FODMAP (fermentable, oligo-, di-, mono-saccharides and polyols) content of (a) red lentils and (b)
red kidney beans compared to dried forms. Data are expressed per 100 g. The FODMAP content was compared with the Monash University
criteria to classify foods as low FODMAP (26), as indicated by the dashed line.

cooking (18,21,38). These divergent results may be releated to trial such techniques to determine their individual
to the legume variety used (18), whether or not the cook- tolerance.
ing liquid has been discarded (20), and/or differences in In conclusion, the improved knowledge of FODMAP
the cooking and subsequent cooling methods prior to composition from the present study can assist in
carbohydrate analysis. improving the ability of vegetarians or vegans who
The clinical implications of these results will only be require a low FODMAP diet to better adhere to the
fully understood after conducting longitudinal studies dietary guidelines. The most common FODMAPs found
of vegetarian and/or vegan patients following the low in these plant-based foods were fructans and GOS.
FODMAP diet with a comprehensive analysis of dietary Expanding low FODMAP food choice by the strategy of
intake. Theoretically, the results provided by the present cooking and removing strained liquid from legumes is
studies will allow patients to increase their intake of likely to enhance protein intake in those who are follow-
foods containing low and moderate amounts of fruc- ing a low FODMAP diet. Other food processing tech-
tans and GOS, improving their prebiotic intake. Dieti- niques, such as pickling, provide additional ways of
tians should encourage their patients to include the improving patient tolerance of high FODMAP foods.
foods and food constituents found to be low in FOD- The variation in FODMAP content found in the present
MAP content during the initial phase of the low FOD- study, depending on product, food processing and cook-
MAP diet. Dietitians should target foods containing ing methods, highlights the importance of individual tol-
nutrients of concern, such as tempeh in an individual erance testing in patients with IBS (39). Reductions in
with low iron intake. Foods not meeting the low FOD- FODMAP content via food processing and cooking tech-
MAP cut-off criteria at a standard serving size could niques, even if only modest, may improve patient toler-
then be trialled in small quantity during the re-chal- ance. These results can be translated into practice to
lenge phase with a gradual increase in serving size to allow patients to maximise symptom relief and nutri-
assess individual patient tolerance (39). For example, tional adequacy at the same time as minimising dietary
first by commencing the patient on 100 mL of Quinoa restrictions.
milk, which did meet the low FODMAP cut-off, and
gradually increasing the serving size as tolerated toward
Transparency declaration
a standard serving size of 250 mL, which did not meet
the low FODMAP criteria. Dietitians should educate The lead author affirms that this manuscript is an honest,
their patients on the effect of food processing and accurate and transparent account of the study being
cooking on FODMAP content and encourage patients reported. The lead author affirms that no important

ª 2018 The British Dietetic Association Ltd. 11

 FODMAP food composition for vegetarians/vegans C. Tuck et al.

Table 3 Sample vegetarian and vegan low FODMAP meal plans incorporating newly analysed food items

Additional nutrients provided by

Sample low FODMAP meal plan incorporating newly analysed food items incorporation of newly analysed foods

Vegetarian
Breakfast ¼ cup of low FODMAP muesli (made with oats, rice or quinoa puffs, 10 almonds, 1 Macadamia milk: calcium
tbs of dried cranberries but without other dried fruits), served with 250 mL of lactose Wheat grass: vitamin A
free cow’s milk (vegans: use calcium fortified macadamia milk†), topped with 10 fresh
or frozen raspberriesWheat grass drink† (made with 3.5 g of wheat grass)
Snack 10 almonds
Lunch Sandwich made with two slices gluten free bread or spelt sourdough bread, 20 g of Soy cheese: protein
cheddar cheese (vegans: use soy cheese†), 60 g of pickled beetroot†, low FODMAP Pickled beetroot: folate
salad ingredients (e.g. lettuce, tomato, cucumber)
Snack One cup of fresh grapes
Dinner Stir fry made with 100 g of false chicken† (made from gluten), 113 g of kelp noodles†, False chicken: protein
95 g of sprouted mung beans†, 45 g of pickled onion†, low FODMAP vegetables Kelp noodles: iodine
(e.g. bok choy, baby corns, green beans), one egg stir-fried (vegans: use egg replacer†), Sprouted mung beans: fibre
soy sauce Pickled onion: prebiotic fibre
Egg replacer: protein
Snack 170 g of lactose free yoghurt (vegans: use coconut yoghurt†) Coconut yoghurt: fat
Vegan
Breakfast Oats (" cup) made with 250 mL of calcium fortified macadamia milk† (vegetarians: Macadamia milk: calcium rice protein:
option to use lactose free cow’s milk), topped with 10 fresh or frozen strawberriesRice protein
protein drink made with 40 g of rice protein isolate† and water
Snack Fresh orange
Lunch Homemade minestrone soup made with canned red kidney beans† (limit to 95 g of red Canned red kidney beans: prebiotic fibre,
kidney beans per serve), rice and low FODMAP vegetables (e.g. carrot, tomato, potato) protein
Add 16 g of nutritional yeast† as a topping (source of Vitamin B12 with a cheese-style Nutritional yeast: Vitamin B12
flavour) (vegetarians: option to use parmesan cheese)
Snack Rice crackers with 40 g of soy cheese† (vegetarians: option to use regular cheese) Soy cheese: protein
Dinner Peanut marinated tempeh salad, made with 100 g of tempeh† marinated in maximum Tempeh: protein, iron, zinc
of 32 peanuts, two cups of mixed low FODMAP salad vegetables (e.g. lettuce, tomato,
cucumber, roasted eggplant) and one cup of cooked rice and/or quinoa
Snack 125 g of coconut yoghurt† (vegetarians: option to use lactose free yoghurt) Coconut yoghurt: fat

†
Indicates newly tested foods.

aspects of the study have been omitted and that any dis-
crepancies from the study as planned have been
explained.
Conflict of interests, sources of funding and
authorship
The Department of Gastroenterology financially bene-
fits from the sales of a digital application and booklets
on the low FODMAP diet. P Gibson has published an
educational/recipe book on diet.
C. Tuck was supported by an Australian Postgraduate
Award Scholarship.
CT, JB and JM designed the study. CT, EL, AB and IC
collected and analysed the samples. CT interpreted the
data. CT, JM, JB and PG drafted the manuscript. CT
had primary responsibility for final content. All authors
have read and approved the final manuscript submitted
for publication.
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32, 11–15.
Supporting information
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Table S1. Food description and sampling details
ª 2018 The British Dietetic Association Ltd.