aa _ LABORATORY MANUAL of Applied Physics Experiments First Year B.Tech., earch &B.E. Students Prof. D.S. Srivastava Sa Dr. Ameer Azam Ex-Chairman : . Reader f DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED PHYSICS re . Z.H, COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY, ALIGARH = -PREFACE This. booklet entitled’ “Laboratory” Manual For Applied Physics Experiments" contains all the 30 experiments prescribed under course numbers AP-191, AP-192, AP-193 and EAP-191, by the’ Board of Studies of Department of Applied Physics, respectively for the first year B. Tech., B, Arch. (Day Class) and first yeat BLE, (Evening Class) students studying at the Z.H. College of Engineering & Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. ‘The experiments have been described in relevant details from practical point of view. Where ever necessary, the derivation of formula and description of apparatus have also been given. For other cases, the students are referred to standard textbooks, which they can find in their college library. ‘The booklet will be very useful and handy to the students at the first year engineering level because the usual text books on Practical Physics (meant for B.Sc. students) available in the market are quite voluminous, and relatively costly for they contain more than 60 experiments which the B.Sc. students are expected to perform over a period of 3 years. The engineering students, however, perform Physics Practicals only in one term at the first year level and generally they do not buy a detailed text book on Practical Physics because of its large volume, high cost and extra materials that they would not require-for their prescribed course. Moreover, many experiments prescribed by our Board of Studies are new and they are generally not found in most of the text books of Practical Physics available in the market, for example, ‘Verification of uncertainty principle using diffraction of microwaves on a single slit, ‘Determination of value of unknown inductance and capacitance by studying Lissajous figures made in an oscilloscope’, ‘Study of characteristics of a solar cell and light emitting diodes’, ‘Determination of wavelengths of Ka and Kp characteristic X-ray lines emitted by a copper target Using Bragg X-ray spectrometer’, ‘Determination of energy gap of 1 semiconductor, ‘Determination of linear absorption coefficient of copper foils for gamma rays using a G.M. counter’, ‘Study of motion of electrons in a magnetic field perpendicular to their velocity and determination of e/m of electrons measuring-the radii of ‘their curved path using a narrow beam tube’, ‘Determination of e/m of electrons by J J Thomson's mechod using a pair of Helmholtz coils, ‘Determination of Planck's constant using a vacuum type photocell, ‘Measurement of diameter of very very thin wires or fibres using diffraction of laser beam from a He-Ne laser tube' ete, Because of the absence of a single book for Practicals, the engineering students generally do not come well prepared to the lab classes in-spite of all instructions given by their teachers in the beginning on the very first tum, This creates lot of difficulties to the students and because of it the teachers in the Applied Physics laboratory are also over strained in practical classes.This manual on experimental Physics will defifitely. seduce these problems. The students will get all the required material at on pligggela relevant details. They can easily prepare and also write the experiment Solar gine to the fab in a short time. While writing their experiment in the Prac Book the students can omit the portion of ‘description of apparatus’ wah jrocolues They should write the theory in bie or he formula wed explaining thy eebols employed. In some experiments we have also drawn 3-dimensional drawings of the apparatus and block diagrams are given for the help of students so that they may clearly foresee the apparatus while preparing for the experiments at their residence. These 3-dimensional figures should, however, not be drawn or copied by them in their Practical Note Book. Instead the students should draw only sectional line diagrams, ray or circuit diagrams as the case may be. At the end, we would like to emphasize that this booklet is not meant as a replacement of standard textbooks. It is only like a ‘ready-reckonner' to the first year engineering students. Once the students prepare the experiments from this ‘booklet and have performed the experiments in their class, they will themselves develop interest in reading standard text books in the college library in their free time before the examinations, As the work of this type cannot be claimed as original, the authors express their gratitude and acknowledge with thanks the help of various standard text books and write-ups that they must have read or consulted for preparing this manual on experimental physics. Thanks are also due to Mr. Tariq Salam Ansari for drawing figures and diagrams furnished in this booklet. Although utmost care has been taken to make this booklet error-free, some errors might have crept in unnoticingly. The users of this manual including the teachers are requested to bring these errors to the notice of the authors so that the same may be corrected in future editions of the booklet. Aligarh DAS. Srivastava July, 2002 Ager AzamCONTENTS Object of Experiments "To determine the moment of inertia of a flywheel about its own axis of rotation To study the variation of magnetic field along the axis ofa circular coil carrying current and to find the radius of this coil_ with the help of tan6 versus distance graph To determine the modulus of rigidity of the material of a thick wire by statical method using vertical twisting Barton's apparatus To determine the value of modulus of rigidity of the given thia wire by dynamical method using Maxwell’s needle gpparatus termine the wavelength of yellow line (of shorter ‘wavelength) in the spectrum of -mercury light using a plane transmission diffraction grating ‘To determine the resistance per unit length of a Carey Foster's bridge wire and to find the difference in the values of two nearly equal unknown resistances “Fo study the variation of resistance of a semiconductor with temperate and-then to determine the energy-gap of the semiconductor [To determine the coefficient ‘of thermal conductivity of in the form of a tube To determine e/m of electrons by J J Thomson's method. To determine the wavelength of sodium light by Fresnel’s biprism To calibrate the given voltmeter with the help of a potentiometer ‘To draw the graph between the thermo emf, generated and the temperature difference of the two juntions of a opper constantan thermo-coupleTo determine the currem sensitivity of a moving coil suspended type galvanometer To determine the specific rotation of cane sugar solution in water using Biquartz polarimeter To determine the refractive index of the material of @ prism for the parrot green line (= 5461 A.U,) in the spectrum of mercury light using a spectrometer To find the operating voltage of a GM. counter and then to use the GM. counter for determination of absorption coefficient of copper for the given gamma rays To study the behaviour of an electron in a magnet field normal to the electron trajectory and to find the value of e/m of the electron by measuring the radius of curvature of its curved path To study the diffraction pattern of microwaves due to @ single slit and to verify the uncertainty relation 'O measuse the thickness (diameter) of a set of very fine wires (or fibres) using a He-Ne laser i). To study the V-1 and power characteristics of the given solar cell and to determine its “fill factor" Gi) To study the V-I characteristics of Light Bmitting Diodes (LED) and to determine their “cut-in" voltages To determine the value of Planck's constant using. «| photocell To observe the Lissajous figures by combining two simple harmonic motions at right angles to each other using a cathode tay oscilloscope and two oscillators of variable frequencies To draw the 1/f versus C and 1/f versus L ‘graphs for the tank-circuit of a Colpis oscillator by observing circular Lissajous figures and hence to determine the values of an unknown inductor and an unknown capacitor To plot the X-ray spectrum and to measure the wavelengths of Ka and Kp lines for characteristics. X- rays using Bragg’s lawGeneral Instructions 1, Read the experiment allotted to you at home carefully and write i with bfank observation table/tables, draw proper diagram in the practical: notebook before coming to the laboratory. 2. Always take your practical record notebook, practical book, geometry ‘box, graph paper and calculator to the laboratory. 3. Before starting the experiment, get the necessary apparatus and check the instruments. In case of any defect change it immediately. 4. First understand the theory and procedure of the experiment and then perform it 5. Take observations systematically and intelligently. Record them in-a tabular form ‘on the fair record book. Do not write the observations on a spare sheet of paper. ize the erro. 6, Repeat every observation a number of times so as to mini 7. Try to calculate the result and get it checked by your teacher. Always mention the proper unit (if any) with the result. 8. Incase of any difficulty, consult your teacher without any hesitation. 9. Do not try to "cook" or "manipulate" the observations to get the correct result, 10. If the result is wrong itis advisable to repeat the experiment and take necessary precautions. 11. Do not wander in the laboratory wasting your time. Devote your time in taking a large number of observations. 12, 1f any apparatus gets damaged accidentally during the experiment, report to your teacher honestly and immediately. 13, Leave the laboratory only after returning all the apparatus issued to you and getting the observations signed in the practical notebook by one of the teachers, ‘As marks are allotted to the practical record, neat and systematic recording of the experiment in the notebook is very essential. Experiments may be recorded on the notebook under the following headings: 1. Date 2. Experiment No. 3. Object . ApparatusFormula Used Observations Calculations Result Percentage Error 10. Precautions PP Dw Do not forget to draw a neat and labeled diagram, ray diagram or a circuit diagram. ‘Types of Errors: While performing an experiment there are certain errors, which are bound to occur. They cannot be eliminated but their effect may be reduced considerably by observing some precautions. The following are the common types of errors, which ‘generally occur during the course of an experiment, Personal or Chance Error: Ifa person repeats the observations of an experiment a number of times, the result is not always the same. This type of error. which is caused by the faulty judgement of a person, is called personal error. This is also called chance error as it ‘depends on chance. Such errors cannot be eliminated but can be greatly reduced by taking a large number of observations and then taking the arithmetical mean of these observations. For example, if ina measurement of the diameter of a cylinder, the observations are 2.54 cm, 2.52 em, 2.55 em, 2.51 em and 2.53 cm, then the average ot ‘mean diameter will be dom 254425242.554251 053 Z =2.53cm Instrumental Errors: ‘The errors, which are caused due to inherent manufacturing defects or duic to wear and tear in the instruments, are called instrumental errors. These errors are of constant magnitude and suitable correction should be applied to minimize their effect. Percentage Error: The accuracy of result is expressed in percentage error_/Lesser the percentage error, more accurate is the result, Calculating the ratio of the difference of the result obtained and its standard value to the standard value and multiplying the ratio with 100 determine the percentage error. fi G Aor a circuit fe bound to liderably by frors, which times, the the faulty ‘error as it, Ireduced by lan of these Ainder, the average or or diie to ors are of heir effect. entage ‘the result ratio with Observed Value~Standard Vile, 149 9g Percentage Error = cee eee Standard Value Graphs: A graph is generally the most convenient way of showing how physical quantities vary with respect to each other. The quantity, which is made to change at is known as the independent variable and the other quantity that varies as a result of this change is known as the dependent variable. The independent variable must be plotted on X-axis while the dependent variable on the Y-axis. Advantages of graphs: 1. A graph is a sort of ready reference, which teils us, almost at a glance, the nature of the relationship between the quantities involved. 2. We can see visually from a graph some salient features of a given experimental data. For example, points of maxima or minima (or point of inflexions) can be easily known by carefully looking at the graph. These points cannot so easily be concluded by merely looking at the data, especially large data. 3. Using a graph we can determine the value of a quantity not actually given in the dota supplied, 4, While plotting a graph of quantities obeying a well-known law if we do not obtain the required form of graph, it tells us how far we have succeeded in taking out observations correctly. How to plot a graph: Graphs are generally plotted on a paper suled in millimeter or 1/10" squares. The following points should be kept in mind while plotting a graph: 1, Examine the data carefully and note the range of variation of the two variables to be plotted, Also examine the number of divisions available on the two axes drawn ‘on the graph paper. Now choose the appropriate scale so that the graph fills the paper. You can choose different scales for X-axis and Y-axis, 2. Write properly the chosen scales for the. two axes on the top of the graph paper. Draw an arrow along each axis and write the symbols used for corresponding variables and its unit in bracket, Also write the values of the respective variable on the divisions marked by dark lines along the axes. 3. Plot the independent variable on the X-axis and the dependent variable on the Y= axis. 4. Mark each point of the data on the graph paper by a dot where X and Y values intersect each other. Encircle the dots. Join the dots either by a line or a curve. If there are several lines of curves om one graph paper, it is useful to use different encircling marks like , ©, @ or 4 etc. for the data points of different curves,5. A straight line can be drawn using sharp pencil and a straight edged ruler. A smooth curve is drawn with the help of a device known as French curve. If French curve is not available, a thin flexible spoke of a broom can also be used. Care should be taken to ensure that maximum number of points passes through graph line of curve and the remaining points are almost evenly distributed on both sides. 6. Assign a title to the graph and fix it at a proper place. Least Count; The smallest measurement that can be taken accurately by an instrument is called its least count e.g. the least count of a meter scale is Imm. Least Count of Vernier € allipers: The difference between the value of one main scale division and one vernier Seale division is the least count of Vernier callipers. ‘Suppose the length of one main scale division is $ units and that of one ‘Vernier scale division is V units. Also suppose that N division of the Vernier coincide with (N-1) divisions of the main scale. Therefore, Length of (N-1) main scale divisions = length of N vernier scale divisions (N-1)S=NV NSS =NV NS-=NV=S N(S-V) =S s EMF the length of the smallest division on main scale (S-V) = ; total number of divisions on vernier scale The quantity (S-V) is the smallest length that can be measured with the help of a Vernier callipers and therefore, it is its least count or Vernier constant, Zero Error: In perfect Vernier callipers the zero mark of the Vernier scale coincides with the zero mark of the main scale when the jaws are made to touch each other. In such a situation it is said that the instrument has no zero error. However, due to wear and tear of the jaws and due to some manufacturing defect, the zero of two scales may not coincide when the jaws are made to touch each other. It gives rise to an error called zero error.-There are two kinds of zero errors viz. positive zero error and negative zero error. v‘through graph ‘on both sides, {40 instrument is f and one vemnier ‘and that of one Vernier coincide te with the help of bnt, coincides with ‘other. In such a ‘due to wear and 0 scales may not 0 an error called ror and negative Positive Zero Error: It arises when the zero mark of the Vernier scale lies towards the right side of the zero of the main scale after perfect contact of the two jaws. To determine this error we read the coinciding division of the vernier scale when the jaws are in contact, This coinciding division is multiplied by the vernier constant and the product gives the Value of positive zero error. In order to obtain the actual result, we subtract the positive zero error from the observed vatue. In fact, zero error is always subtracted with its proper sign. Negative Zero Error: It arises when the zero mark of the vernier scale lies towards the left side of the zero of the main scale after touching the jaws. To determine this error, we read the coinciding division of the vernier scale when the jaws are in contact. This coinciding division is fist subtracted from 10 and then multiplied by the vernier constant. This product gives the value of negative zero error. in order to obtain the actuai result, we add the negative zero eftor to the observed value, Least Count of Screw Gauge: ‘The least count of screw gauge is given by Pitch of the screw Least Mme coun Toxal number of divisions on the clcularscle ‘The pitch of screw is defined as the distance between the two consecutive threads taken parallel to its axis. It is measured by the distance through which the serew moves forward or backward when one complete rotation is given to the circular cap, ‘Zero Error: Ina perfect screw gauge the zero mark of the circular scale coincides with the reference line on the main scale when the studs are made to touch each other, without applying any undue pressure. In such a situation it is said that the instrument fas no zero error. However, due to wear and tear of the studs and due to some manufacturing defect, the zero mark of the circular scale may not coincides with the reference line on the main scale when the studs are made to touch each other. It gives rise to an error called zero error. There are two kinds of zero errors viz. positive zero error and negative zero ertor. Positive Zero Error: Tt arises when the zero mark of the circular scale is left below the referenceline on the main scale after touching the studs. To determine this error we read the coinciding division of the circular scale when the studs are in contact. This coinciding division is multiplied by the least count and the product gives the value of positive zero error. In order to obtain the actual result, we subtract the positive zero error from . the observed value. Negative Zero Error: Itarises when the zero mark of the circular scale goes above the reference line fon the main scale after touching the studs. To determine this error, we read the coinciding division of the vernier scale when the studs are in contact. This coinciding dis n is first subtracted from 100 (the total number of divisions on the circular scale) and then multiplied by the least count. This product gives the value of negative zero error. In order to obtain the corrected result, we add the negative zero error to the observed value. Least Count of Spectrometer: The main scale, which is a circle, is divided into 360 equal parts i.e. degrees. Each degree is further divided into two parts. Thus the value of smallest division on the main scale is 0.5 degree or 30 minutes. The vernier scale has 30 equal divisions, which generally coincide with 29 division of the main scale, Hence 30 Vernier scale division (V.S.D.) = 29 Main Scale divisions (MSD) 29 I1VSD=— MSD 30 The least count is given by Lc. =1MSD.-1VS.D. 29 = 1MS.D.-=MS.D, 30 29 (1 - 2) Ms.D. 1 =—MSD. 30". L = —x0,5° [IMSD=0.5°| 39705 [Msp =0.5°] ee ekfre read the lof positive error from nce line read the siding circular negative ror to the divisions, -Prctentat energy lost Kinetic energy gained by the mass + Kinetic energy gained Experiment No. Object: To determine the moment of inertia of a flywheel about its own axis of _sptation Apparatus: The Flywheel, set of weights (50 & 100g), thread, metre scale, stopwatch and Vernier callipers Description of the Apparatus: The flywheel is simply a heavy disc which is anal made thick ‘thin in the mi i i it a given rhass and diameter, It is mounted on ball bearings with the ‘help of a long cylindrical horizontal axle having a small peg P, on it. The whole setup is fixed on the wall normally about 1.5 m above the floor, as shown in Figure 1 ®) & (b). As the centre’of gravity of a flywheel lies om its axis of rotation so it can come to rest in any desired position. A cord carrying a mass, m at its one end and having a length less than-the height of the axle from the floor is wrapped completely and evenly round the axle with the help of the peg. A visible line is made on the circumference of the wheel to facilitate the counting of the number of revolutions made by it ‘Theory: The determination of moment of inertia, of a Flywheel is based on the law of conservation of energy. When the mass m, falls under gravity through a height h, it loses a potential energy equal to mgh. This potential energy is used up in three ways: (in giving the kinetic energy of translation to the falling mass itself, (i) * in giving the kinetic energy of rotation to the flywheel and (ii) in doing work against the friction, At the time when the thread just leaves the peg P, we have, from the principle of conservation of energy, the equation lby falling mass = by fly wheel + work done against friction during this period T= moment of inertia of flywheel about its own axis.Figure 1.4 (2) Figure 1.1 (b)© = angular velocity of wheel at that instant W, = work done against friction for each turn and —_m = number of revolutions performed by the flywheel till the mass detaches from the axle. Now, due the pretence of ton, the argue velocy of the ywhel goes on decreasing andi finally comes t rest when allt rotational kinetic energy ¢ 10) is used up in overcoming friction. Suppose it happens in n, revolutions then Flo anW, ® where na is the number of revolutions made by the wheel after the detachment of the ‘thread and before the flywheel come to rest, From equation (2) we have @) Substituting this value of Wr in equation (1), we get. gh = 4 mv? + tio? Lio? @ 2 49 ty ‘On simplifying, we get 2 = 2mgh =m’ 5 a + 3) a Ifris the radius of the axle then HenceThe value of o is determined by assuming that at the time when the thread Joop just detaches from the axle the angular velocity of the fly wheel is w and when it comes to rest, after making 1, revolutions in time ¢, its angular velocity is zero. Assuming the force of fiction in the ball bearings to be steady, the motion of the flywheel is uniformly retarded and the average angular velocity during this time is equal to 22? ie, 2, Ths @ _ 2m, it Le] Procedure: I. Take a thread of iength slightly fess than the height of the axle from the floor. Make a small loop at its one end and tie a suitable mass (say $0 g) at the other end. Now slip the loop on the peg P on the axle of the flywheel and wrap the thread completely and evenly (touching each other but without overlapping) round the axle: Count the number of tums n; wound round the axle. Release the mass without pushing and fet it fall by itself under gravity. Observe the unwinding of the thread carefully and start the stopwatch just when the thread loop is detached from the axle. Count the number of revolutions n, made by thee fAlywheet before it finally comes to rest, and stop the watch immediately. Note this ‘time, t for n, revolutions. ‘Take at least three sets of observations for n,, n, and t for the same value off mass, m. Repeat the experiment for two more masses (viz. 100 g and 150 g). Now measure the diameter of the axle with the help of & Vernier callipers at| different points and along two mutually perpendicular directions at each point. Observations: (i) Table for determination of n, h, m, t and8 Mass Tm] ob fm] t Mean “Mean No, | suspended =2arm alae Angular ™ velocity, o () (ex) (xe) i © a) | naan rad/sec 1 | 0050 when the thread oe 1 is @ and when it esa velocity is zero 2 | 0.100 lthe motion of the 0.100 faring this time is 0.100 3. | 0180 0.180 0.150 Gil) Measurement of the diameter, d of the axte: . ® Least Count of Vernier callipers = em Zero error (if any), 2= + .......0m Mean corrected radius ofthe axe, r= $= . Zero correction oa hie from the floor. ; 50 g) at the other : Diameter along one Diamteralog pepeadclar | Mean dame theel and wrap the No. Co 2 ase werlapping) round a ar (om on ~ br gravity. Observe i st when the thread , 2 i | 3 J - | fernier callipers at | a . hsat each point. | Mean observed diameter, ¢ em | ‘Mean corrected diameter ,d=¢Fz=.......m6 Calculations: Kg m? Result : The moment of inertia of the given flywheel about its axis of rotation is found to be Kg m’. ‘Standard Value :{ =3.29x 107 Kgm? (In our Leb.) Percentage Error= <. % Precautions : (@ The thread loop’ should be sufficiently loose and the winding should be uniform. Make sure that there is no overlapping or space left between various turns of the thread round the axle. Use a thread whose diameter is negligible in comparison of the diameter of the axle, ‘The mass tied at the one end of the thread should be such that it may rotate the flywheel when let free. : The diameter of the axle should be measured at various points slong two ‘mutually perpendicular directions. Friction should be made small by greasing the ball bearings,|s of rotation is jing should be jetween various (diameter of the ‘may rotate the its along two | Experiment No. * Object: To study the variation of magnetic field along the axis of a circular coil ' carrying current and to find the radius of this coil with the help of tan @ versus © distance graph. Apparatus: Stewart and Gee’s type tangent galvanometer, a storage battery, a | rheostat, an ammeter, a plug key, a reversing key, connecting wires and spirit level | Description of the Apparatus: The Stewart and Gee’s type tangent galvanometer consists of a circular coil having a number of tums of insulated copper wire as shown in Figure 2,1. The free ends of the wire are connected to two terminals T, and T2 provided at the base. The coil is fixed on a bench with its’ plane vertical. A deflection ‘magnetometer (compass box) can slide on the bench in horizontal plane in such a way that the centre of its magnetic needle always lies on the axis of the coil. The distance of the magnetic needle from the centre of the coil can be read on the scale provided on the magnetometer arms, which are kept in the East-West direction in this experiment. The plane of the coil has to be set in the magnetic meridian (North-South direction) in otder that Tangent law may be valid for this experiment. ‘Theory: The intensity of magnetic field B at a point due to current I flowing in a circular coil of radius R and having n turns is given by the formula : Weber/m? a) where x is the distance of the point from the centre of the coil If the field B is perpendicular to the horizontal component H of the earth’s ‘magnetic field and @ is the deflection of the magnetic needle from the direction of H, then by Tangent law B=Htan® (2) ‘Since H is constant at a given place, B will be proportional to tan @. Thus conaring equations (2) and (2) it is clear that a graph between tan © and x will also represent the variation of magnetic field intensity B with distance x because all other quantities are constant, Hence Htang> wR’ _ ° 2p? + x The graph between tan @ and x is shown in Figure 2.3 which is the plot of equation (3), I is clear from the figure that B is maximum at the centre of the coil where x = 0 and decreases as we'move away from the centre, becoming zero at ‘isfinity. The curve is concave towards the origin for points pear the centre of the coil9 ‘The curvature goes on decreasing with increasing x and for certain value of x the curve changes the sign of jts curvature i. the curve becomes concave upward (at points P and Q). These points are called ‘points of inflexion’. Mathematically, 2 at @B the point of inflexion is constant or “7 = 0. Differentiating equation (1) twice and i equating to zero we get: @) nina Thus, the distance between the ‘points of inflexion’ P and Q gives the radius of the coil R, ' Procedure : 1. Place the instrument on the table in such a way that the arms of magnetometer lie in East and West direction and the plane of the coil is in the North-South direction, Level the instrument with the help of spirit level 2, Bring the centre of the magnetic needle of the compass box at the centre of the coil by reading equal values on the two indicators on the scale on either side of the coil. Place your eye a little above the coil and rotate the instrument in the horizontal plane till the coil, the magnetic ‘needle and its image in the mirror provided at the base of the compass box all lie in the same vertical plane. This adjustment puts the coil roughly in the magnetic meridian. Rotate the compass box so that the aluminum pointer reads 0-0 (zero-zero) on the circular scale. 3. Make the connections as shown in Figure 2.2 using a reversing key and 20 turns terminals of the coil 4. ass the current in the instrument and adjust it with the help of rheostat so that the deflection in the magnetometer is about 75°. Read both ends of the pointer, Now reverse the direction of the current with the help of reversing key and note the deflection again (by taking readings of both ends of the aluminum pointer). Ifthe mean is 75° then the coil lies exactly in the magnetic meridian. If the mean eflection in the two cases does not agree closely, slightly turn the instrument till the deflection with the direct and the reversed current agree closely within +1° or 20. 5. Record the readings of deflections of both ends of the pointer for direct and reversed current by moving the magnetometer towards right hand side in steps of 2cm. Note observations tll the deflection falls to about 30°. © Keeping the current constant, make similar sets of observations by moving the magnetometer towards left hand side of the coil.10 7. Plot a graph between tan @ and x. Locate the ‘points of inflexion’ (P, Q) and determine R..Compare it withthe actually measured mean value, of R using a metre scale Observations: ‘The current through the coil = ........A. Table for recording the angle of deflection: Tisance | Deflocion with magnetometer on Left Hand Side | Deflection with magnetometer on Right Hand Side aecdie |Poiter reading ‘Mean 0 | 8 [Pointe reading] Pointer reading] Menao | und Tor des. for dre | forrevrsd ‘One | Other | One [cer ‘One | Other nd | End End | End | Bed | End ee) | (op ea) | (ea) | oe | (on Calculations: Plot the graph between tan @ and x as shown in Figure 2,3, From the graph find: Distance between P and Q= em Radius of the coil, R= PQ = em Result: The variation of the magnetic field with distance is shown in the attached graph. The radius of the coil is found to be em. Standard Value: R = 13 cm (Ina typical apparatus in our Lab.) Percentage Error = wi Yoinflexion’ (P, Q) and in value of R wsing a igh the coil = .......A. (pester on Right Hand Side fuerreadng] Mane | une Ferrand he | Ode | Bad wo} 4 | con m the graph find; shown in the attached ib) Lug, <—— Distance ‘x’ > R-#.S Fi igure 2.3 Precautions: ® There should be no magnet, magnetic substances and current carrying conductors near the magnetometer. The theostat should be kept sufficiently far away from the compass box. ®@ The plane of the coil should be carefully adjusted in the magnetic meridian s0 that the magnetic needle obeys the Tangent law. ©) The current should remain constant throughout and should be reversed for each observation €») Both ends of the pointer must be read for each pointer in order to avoid error due to eccentricity. +) While taking observations for deflection, the eyes should be placed in such a ‘way that the pointer lies on its image in the mirror below. © The curve on the graph should be drawn smooth and the positions of the “points of inflexion’ should be located carefully.Experiment No. Object: To determine the modulus of rigidity of the material of a thick wire by Statical method using vertical twisting Barton’s apparatus, Apparatus: Statical apparatus (Barton’s apparatus), six slotted weights of half kg. each, screw gauge, and a Vernier callipers. Description of the Apparatus: ‘The Statical apparatus designed by Barton is shown in Figure 3.1. The experimental wire, whose modulus of rigidity is to be determined, is kept vertical. Its upper end is rigidly clamped at A and lower end is rigidly connected to a metallic cylinder C. Two flexible inelastic strings are fixed, at two diametrically opposite points on this cylinder and pass over the two frictionless pulleys (P,, P:) carrying pans at the lower ends as shown in figure. The strings are fixed on the cylinder in such a way that they are able to slightly rotate the cylinder, which in turn twists the experimental wire when equal loads.are placed on the pans. The angle of twist can be read at three different points on the three graduated circular scales S,, Sz and Ss fixed at known distances from the upper end A. The base of the apparatus is provided with levelling screws to make the experimental wire (rod) vertical Theory: The principle of the experiment is based on the fact thatthe restoring couple per unit radian twist for a cylindrical rod of length / and radius r, fixed at one end and twisted atthe other is given by ‘ Restoring couple = om where 7 is the modulus of rigidity of the material of the rod. 1Fthe twists @ radian then the total satoring couple = =? In actual practice the angle of twist is measured in degree therefore xn 8 Gn radian) = <> Total restoring couple = =r «De a = Ear’| of a thick wire by | ! weights of half kg signed by Barton is lof rigidity is to be A and lower end is strings are fixed, at the two frictionless re, The strings are rotate the cylinder, placed on the pans. graduated circular ‘A. The base of the ‘wire (fod) vertical the restoring couple fixed at one end andIf M be the mass placed on each pan then the amount of the twisting couple which provides 6° of twist is Mg d where d is the diameter of the metallic cylinder. Therefore, in the equilibrium position Twisting couple = Restoring couple qe 2r'8 3607 360Mgd/ mr Since the exact point where the rod is perfectly clamped ie, for which @ = zero cannot be located from outside the clamps at A, hence value of / cannot be measured accurately. This error can be eliminated by making measurement of twists @1 and 642 at two different points of the experimental rod using two circular scales Sy and S2 and noting positions of their pointers from any arbitrary point on the rod. Let this arbitrary point be et a distance x from rigidly clamped point inside the clamps at A then the attual length /= (/; + x) where / is the measured position of S, and it is (/, +x) for the other pointer whose position is Hence the effective twist is (02+ 41) and effective length is (ts - 11). This eliminates the error x. Therefore, equation (1) becomes: aD 360Mgd(1, -) 7r*6,-8,) Mg “or ae) at ae ® The mean value of (2) can be found by graph using three pointers at S:, S: and S1 as explained under the sub heading “Calculations” below. Procedure: . Make the apparatus vertical with the help of the levelling screws provided at the base Adjust the pointers of the circular scales fixed at suitable positions so that they read zero-zero on both sides when no weights are placed on the pans. . Place gently equal weights (0.5 kg) on each pan and note down the readings on both ends of the pointers on the three scales S1, S2 and Ss,the twisting couple he metalic cylinder. w@ @ i.e, for which @ = lue of / cannot be surement of twists circular scales $1 int on the rod. Let hiside the clamps at pm OF Sy and it is (ly th is (h - h). This @) f pointers at Si, S» screws provided Positions so that bed on the pans, note down the |. Sa and Ss, 1s 4, Now gradually increase the load ‘on each pan in steps of 0.5 kg and note down the twist for each value of M separately on the three scales till 3 kg load is reached 5, Similarly record the readings of the pointers while decreasing the load in steps of 0.5 kg till the original condition of no load on the pan is reached. 6. Note the positions of three circular scales from the fixed end A and hence find h, fy and fs, 7. Measure the diameter of the cylinder with the help of Vernier callipers at different positions and along two mutually perpendicular directions at each position, 8, Measure’ the diameter of the wite with the help of a screw gauge at different positions and along two mutually perpendicular directions et each position, 9. Plot the graph between load and angle of twist for each pointer separately on a'single graph paper and evaluate the value of (8) as explained in sequence, Observations: © @ Position of the first pointer S; from any fixed atbitrary point on the rod, AX cere (b) Reading of twist @, indicated by the first pointer 5; 8. | Loadon ‘With increasing load With decreasing load Meu No, | each pan | Reading at one | Reading atthe | Readingat one | Reading atthe | TY s\0 eadotthe | otherendofthe | endofihe | otherend of | TfL pointer pointer pointer the pointer | TE ‘e ‘e ‘’ ¢ Kew | ee eg ee ee ee 00) 0s 10 1s 20 25(@) Position of the second pointer Sz from the same fixed arbitrary point on the rod, A=. metre (b) Reading of twist @, indicated by the second pointer $: Load on ‘With increasing Joad With decreasing load Mean} cach pan | Reading at one | Reading at the | Reading at one | Reading atthe | TiS ‘endothe | otberendofthe | endafthe | otherendot. | = MEd pointer pointer poner” | thepoiner | 6-4 ‘e @ ‘e ea Kewt_| de dee 6 ee &e_ | 00 os 10 Ls 20 2s 30 (@ Position of the third pointer $3 from the same arbitrary point on Ba... metre (b) Reading of twist 0s, indicated by third pointer Ss Load on, With increasing load /__With decreasing load cachpan | Reading wione [ Reading atthe | Readingatone | Reading athe endofthe | otherendotthe | endofthe | other end of pointes pointer pointer the poimter e e ‘e t dog, deg. des, ee.arbitrary point on [point on the rod, bod Mean cra] Tri end of of d, fee eae ‘e fee. ees (IV) Measurement of the diameter of the cylinder Least count of Vernier callipers=..........om ‘Zero error (if any) ,2=+ om. Zero correction = ¥ z= em S| Diameter along any direction | Diameter along the ‘Mean diameter perpendicular direction hs = ee( tb S (Se i (om Ca (omy Mean corrected diameter = oF z= .....cm Sec 10% m (V)_ Measirement of diameter of the rod \ Least count of the screw gauge = .. mm | Zero-ervor (if any),2 = .......mm Zeeo conection =# 2!= ‘mm ‘8. | Diameter along any direction ‘Mean diameter No. * egal 24¥ 2 (muni) (am) Mean corrected diameter'= w Fa! =..!.........mm' Force 107mCalculations: In the load versus angle of twist © graph there are three lines passing through the origin, as shown in Figure 3.2. Draw a straight line paralfel to Y-axis at some value of load (say 1.75 Kg). From the graph note down the values of 1, @:, 03 corresponding to /, s/s respectively. Oy = ieee deg at he Ore cn deg at he = deg at he Now calculate the mean value of (Z ) which is given by (al) _ a 4), G-4) , G-4) 0)" 316.4)" @-8)"@.=4) mtn 360Med (al wr (0) = Nin? Result; The modulus of rigidity ofthe material of the given (brass) rod is found to be Nim’, [Show substitution of data in the formula] Standard Value for brass. 1 = 3.6 x 10"° Nim* Percentage Error —— “% ® Precautions () Before starting the experiment, make sure that the base is levelled. Gi) Load should be increased or decreased gradually and gently. Readings should. bbe taken after waiting for some time after placing the loads. (iii) The loads should never exceed the “elastic limit” otherwise Hooke’s law shall cease to be valid. Gv) _ The diameter of the string wound round the cylinder should be small (v) As the radius of the wire 7, occurs in fourth power in the formula, it should be measured very accurately at least at five different positions and along two mutually perpendicular directions at each position. (vi) The diameter of the cylinder should also be measured at a number of places and along two mutually perpendicular directions at each place.lines passing lel to Y-axis at 8 of 01, Or, Os in the formula) | fod is found to be ted. [Readings should looke’s law shall: smal. hula, it should be \s and along two humber of places k. yg Experiment No. a Object: To determine the value of modulus of rigidity of the given thin wire by dynamical method using Maxwell's needle apparatus. Apparatus: Maxwell's needle, a fairly thin and long given wire, telescope and scale arrangement, a screw gauge, a metre scale, a stop-watch, a physical balance and a ‘weight box. Description of the Apparatus: Maxwell's needle, shown in Figure 4.1, is simply a torsional pendulum. It consists of a hollow brass tube of length L suspended horizontally by a vertical wire attached to its middle point and carrying within it four cylinders each of length L/4. Two of these cylinders are solid and equal in mass while the remaining two are hollow and also equal in mass. A plane mirror M is attached to the middle point of the main tube to facilitate the counting of the oscillations with the help of telescope and scale arrangement Theory: If the two hollow cylinders are placed in the middle and the solid ones at the ‘two ends of the tube [Figure 4.2 (a)] and the combination is slightly rotated in a horizontal plane and released, the system will execute-S.H.M (torsional oscillations) about the wire as the axis. The period of torsional oscillations is given by: Q) ‘where I is the moment of inertia of the combination about jhe wire as the axis and C the restoring couple per unit radian twist. bs If, now, the positions of the hollow and solid cylinders are interchanged so that solid cylinders are in the middle (Figure 4.2 (b)], then’ the period of torsional ‘oscillations will be given by T= ref @) ‘where I is the moment of inertia of the new combination about the wire as axis. =~ Squarring equations (1) and (2) and subtracting, we get _ T-Sh) a c= 4eu=h) @ oT[ : eae However, we know that the value of C for'a wire of length /, radius r, and modulus of rigidity n, is given by ant sa 2 @ Equating the values of C from equation (3) and (4), we have ft _ 4a(=1)) “oe c 6) To evaluate (I; - 12) let m, and ma be the masses of each of the hollow and solid cylinders respectively; Io, I and I" be the moments of inertia of the hollow tube, de hollow cylinder and the solid cylinder respectively about a vertical axis passing through their middle points. Then, if L be the length of the hollow tube, using theorem of parallel axis we may write: ye tsat-+am(E ) +21" +am(2) and L= ee) now wore) 0] “eat. * ‘Substituting this value of (1, -I,) in equation (5), we get This is the required expression which is usos to find the value of modulus of rigidity of the material ofthe experimental wire. Procedure: 1. Place all the four cylinders of the Maxwell's needle inside the hollow tube such that the two hollow cylinders are,in the middle, No portion of the solid cylinders should be projecting outside the tube. Focus the telescope on the. image of the scale seen in the mirror till the scale divisions are distinctly visible:ae ee Rotate the Maxwell's needle slightly in a horizontal plate (so as to twist the wi and then release it. The system will perform torsional oscillations Begin timing the oscillations of the Maxwell's needle with a stop-watch bj observing the transits of any fixed reference mark on the scale when vie ‘through the telescope with the help of vertical cross-wire. Determine the time for 15 oscillations twice and 20 oscillations twice. Find ‘the mean value of time period 7; in the usual manner. Now interchange the positions of the hollow and solid cylinders fitting the properly inside the tube, ‘Again set the Maxwell's needle oscillating in a horizontal plane and determine mean value of time period T as before. ‘Measure the length of the hollow tube and that of wire between the wo clamps ‘metre scale. Then measure the diameter of the wire with a screw gauge at snumber of places and at every place slong two mutually perpendicuter directions, To find the mean value of (m; - m), place a solid cylinder on the feft pan of the| balance and the hollow one on the right and add extra weights on the right pan til the two sides become of same mass as shown by the balance, These extra weights| ive the vaiue of (m, - m;). Similarly find its value for the other pair, and then| calculate the mean value. (A) Readings for time periods T; and Ty: ‘Solid cylinders on outer side id cylinders on inner side Time taken ‘Time period, ‘Time taken ‘Time period, ‘Minute [Second n | Second th {60}(so as to twist the wire} Mean Time Period, T= (B) Readings for length and radius of the wire: (O° Length ofthe wire, = m= sm Gi) Readings for the diameter of the wire: Least count of the screw gauge = Zero error (ifany), 2 =+ Zero corection =F 2 = endicular directions on the left pan of the ts on the right pan tll These extra weights fe other pair, and then erial of the wire from Mean observeSidiameter, w'=.........mm_ Mean corrected diameter = w! Fz = .....mm F eceeee 107m (C) (Length of the hollow tube, L = Gi) Readings for (mz- mi) Difference between the masses of one solid and one hollow cylinder Difference between the masses of other pair of solid and hollow cylinders = ‘Mean value of (ma- mi)4 j ‘ 4 See oem. ry Calculations: Mean radius of the wire, r= m eee ML" [Show, the substitutions of data] y e N/m? Result: The value of modulus of rigidity for the material of the wire (brass) is found to be Ni/m*. Standard Value for brass 4 = 3.6 x 10'° N/m? Percentage Error =. % Precautions: a) Gi) Git) iv) w) The Maxwell's needle should always remain horizontal so that the moment of inertia of the hollow tube about the axis of rotation remains unaltered throughout the whole experiment. There should be no kinks in the wire ‘The Maxwell's needle should oscillate equally on both sides of Teference mark on the scale. The pendulum should not be permitted to execute other types of motion “(to and fro or up and detvn motion) except the torsional ‘oscillations about the wire as the axis. The angular twist at the lower end of the wire should be small 30 that the wire is not twisted beyond the “elastic limit”. Diameter of the wire should be measured most accurately at a number of places along the whole length of the wire and at every place slong two mutually perpendicular directions because the radius occurs in fourth power in the formula and is itself a small quantity. Naturally, even a slight error in its measurement will cause large percentage error in the result While measuring the diameter of the wire, the error due to backlash in the screw gauge must be avoided.tutions of data] material of the wire rizontal so that the the axis of rotation at, on both sides. of sute other types of xcept the torsional should be small 30 mit”. st accurately at a wire and at every tions because the d is itself a small urement will cause ror due to backlash Experiment No. Object: To determine the wavelength of yellow line (of shorter wavelength) in the spectrum of mercury light using a plane transmission diffraction grating Apparatus: A spectrometer, a plane transmission diffraction grating of known ‘umber of lines per inch, a mercury lamp, a reading lens and reading lamp. Description of Apparatus: A diffraction grating consists of a large number of parallel slits of the same width and separated by equal opaque spsc ih and separated by equal opaque space. Gratings “ther of the transmission type or of the reflection type, They are produced by ruling @ large number of Tine, equidistant and parallel lines on an optically plane glass with a diamond point. The number of lines varies from 12000 to 30000 per . inch, Since the actual grating is very costly, hence its replica is used in the laboratory. The replica of a master grating is obtained by depositing a very thin film of gelatin on it. The film is removed when dry and is fixed between two glass plates. The distance between the centre of the two successive slits thus formed is termi fement (e+d) Theory: When a parallel beam of monochromatic light falls normally on 4 diffraction grating having a very large number of lines (say 15000 lines per inch), most of the light after transmission through it goes along the normal to the grating and if focussed by the convergent lens forms what is called the zero order image in the focal plane of the lens, However, sufficient amount of light is also” diffracted at all angles. It can be shown that these parallel diffracted beams from each slit of the grating, reinforce each other and form bright images in the focal plane of the lens along directions @, from the normal given by the relation 4 (e+ 4) sin®,= 0 Q gu Ge dsin8, @ ” where (etd) is called the grating element ai istance-between two eerresponding points of two consecutive slits in.the grating, 2 is the wavelength ‘ef the light used and n is the order of the diffracted image which is formed on ffecossing the parallel diffracted rays along the direction. Thus a large number of EBracted images of various orders can be obtained depending upon the grating foment and the wavelength of the light used. The order of the central image is zmzro (n= 0) for all wavelengths. # = In this experiment the source of light is mercury lamp $, which is a Interogeneous source having nine prominent lines (4 = 4047 AU. (V), 4078 E 256 AU, (V), 4358 AU. (V), 5025 A.U, (G), 5461 A.U. (G), 5770 AU. (¥), 5790 AU, (¥), 6152 A.U. (R), and 6234 A.U. (R) in the visible spectrum. Here, parallel beam of light is obtained from’a collimator C. The parallel diffracted rays from the grating are focussed in the telescope T, of spectrometer, already set for parallel rays, (eee Figure 5.1). Along the normal to the grating, all the wavelengths present in the heterogeneous source reinforce irrespective of the value of their wavelengths (since = 0) and therefore when focussed by the telescope an image of the collimator slit having:the same colour as the original light, is obtained. But the first order images of the different wavelengths are formed at different angles from the normal, The violet'colour diffracts ‘by least angle and the red colour by the latgest angle [see equation (1)]. Thus the diffraction in the first order brings about dispersion of various wavelengths and we get separate coloured spectra lines in the field of view, of either side of the normal. These spectral lines are said to constitute the first order spectrum, Similarly we get second order spectral lines.on either ‘side of the direct image beyond the first order at higher angles. The wavelength of any desired fine in any order can be determined by using equation (2) if the angle of diffraction @ is measured, Procedure: 1, Set the telescope and collimator respectively for receiving and giving out parallel rays and align the collimator with the source Mount the grating on the prism table in such’a way that its surface is vertical and passes through the centre of the prism table and is perpendicular to the line joining two of its levelling screws. The grating in fact should be normal to the coming parallel rays from the collimator and the lines in it should be parallel to the vertical axis of the instrument and the slit. To achieve this proceed as follows: (@) Clamp the turntable. Bring the telescope opposite to the collimator, clamp it and set the point of intersection of cross-wires ip the middle of the width of the slit image with the help of its tangent screw. Take the reading of any one Vernier. Let it be $. 5 (b) Now open the telescope and turn it exactly through 90° i.e. till the reading of that Vernier becomes exactly ($ + 90°). Clamp it there. At this time the axis of the collimator and the telescope will be exactly at'90° to each other [Figure 5.2(a)] (©) Now mount the grating in its stand carefully on the prism table in such a ‘way thet ite'ruled surface lies at the centre of the prism table and is also perpendicular to the line joining two screws drawn on the table {see Figure 5.2(b)}. Then unclamp the turntable (without disturbing the position of the telescope) and rotate it till the ruled surface of the gratinig comes nearly at ‘45° to the axis of the collimator. This is tested by seeing a reflected image of the collimator slit in the clamped telescope. The turntable should be rotated till the reflected image of the collimator slit having same colour as770 AU. (¥), $790 trum, lator C. The parallel T, of spectrometer, jal to the grating, all f irrespective of the len focussed by the Jour as the original nt wavelengths. are diffracts “by least lion (1)]. Thus the jus wavelengths and pn either side of the st order spectrum. f the direct image desired tine in any of diffraction @ is ing and giving out that its surface is ism table and is "ws. The grating in the collimator and instrument and the polimatoy, clamp it idte of the width of the reading of any ize. tiff the reading Fe. At this time the It 90° to each other fom tablé in such a table and is also table [see Figure he position of the comes nearly at a reflected image urntable should be ing same.colour as 7 the original light is seen in the field of view. In general the image may be hanging up or down with respect to the horizontal cross-wire. This means that the plane of the grating is not vertical. The image should be made symmetrical with respect to the horizontal cross-wire by adjusting the serews E and F, the line joining which is perpendicular to the grating surface, Then clamp the turn table and use its tangent screws to bring the centre of the slit image at the point of intersection of cross-wire, When-this is achieved the grating surface will be vertical and also inclined at an angle of 45° to the incident paratiel beam. Take the reading of any one Vernier. Say it is v. : 1) Open the turntable and turn it from this position through 45° or 135°, as the case may be so that the ruled surface of the grating becomes normal to the incident beam and faces the observer. standing opposite to the collimator. Clamp it there, The teading of the turn table will be .(y. + 45°) of (w + 135°), ) Now unclamp the telescope, and bring it opposite to'the collimator where the zero order bright image of the collimator slit'will be seen symmetrically with respect to the cross-wires. Slowly rotate the telescope to the right and see the coloured lines of the first order spectrum; If they ‘are not symmetrical with respect to the horizontal cross-wire, it means that the rulings in the grating are not parallel to the main vertical axis of the spectrometer. Make these images symmetrical with respect to the horizontal ctoss-wires by using the third screw G carefully which lies in line with the surface of the grating. This adjustment should also be done on the second order spectrum and also on the first and second order spectra on the left side of the normal, If the slit is not vertical, it should be slowly rotated in own plane till the coloured image become wel} defined. (After these adjustments, the theoretical demands of the experiment are satisfied and the instrument is ready for measurement of angle of diffraction @.) Now turn the telescope to the right to bring the first order spectral lines in the field of view. Set the point of intersection of cross-wires in the middle of the width of the desired line (yellow line of shorter wave length i.e. that yellow line which is nearer to the normal on the grating) by using slow ‘motion screw. Take readings of both the Verniers. Next turn the telescope ‘two the Jeft of the direct image and make setting as before on the desired line, ote down the readings of the two Verniers.. The differences of the two weadings of the same Vernier gives 20: for the first order. From this ealculate 0; for n= 1. Repeat the experiment with same line in the second order and find 202 and Insece @; for n= 2, Fimally calculate the value of 4 by using equation (2) for each order and (Gee find the mean of the two values of A, This gives the correct value of ‘wavelength of the desired line in the spectrum of mercury light.Figue S2(ay 1! Figure $2 (6)(Observations: (A) Readings for setting of the grating normal to the incident beam and its rulings parallel to the main vertical axis of the spectrometer and the slit, aa ® Least count of the spectrometer Vernier scale =..0.".0! 6 = @) (Reading of the telescope set for direct image 6 =..3.55™ S$ 7 s GG _ Reading of telescope when turned through 90° i.e. (£90°)=,,..2 °° @) Reading of the turn table when the reflected image has been obtained on the point of intersection of cross -wires, () Readings of the turn table when turned through 135° or 45%, (y + 135°) or (yt 45°) = Readings for the determination of angle of diffraction 5-2 (b) Order of Position of telescope on | Postion of the telescope on the lef of directimage | the right of direct image Ms.| vs. | Tot | Ms. | vs. | Tout 7 o @) | 2220] 28 | Mean @; (for n= 1) =. ‘Mean 02 (for n = 2) =. €C)__ Number of lines per inch in the grating (N)= 15000 Caiculations: - 2.54%107m. ‘No.of lines per inch in grating Grating element (e+ d)a A ! t 2 3 J 4 4 Ht fl ee For first order For second order ‘Mean value of Result: The wavelength of the yellow line of shorter wavelength in the spectrum of mercury light is found to be AU, ‘Standard Value: 4= 5770 A.U. Percentage Error = ........% Precautions: @ The-axes of the telescope and the collimator must intersect and be perpendicular to the main axis of the spectrometer passing through the centre of the prism table The telescope and the collimator must be set respectively for receiving and giving out parallel rays. The eyepiece must also be focussed at the cross-wires, ‘The surface of grating must be adjusted normal to the incident says and its ruling parallel to the main axis of the spectrometer. The slit should be as narrow as permifsible and should be adjusted parallel to the rulings in the grating, The faces of glass of the grating should under no circumstances be touched. It should always be handled by the edges only. The turntable should affect rotation of grating only and not by the prism table, While taking the readings of the telescope; the turntable should remain clamped. Both the Verniers should be read in otder to avoid the error due to non- coincidence-of the centre of the graduated circular scale and- the maid axis of rotation of spectrometerAU. length in the tersect and be ng through the for receiving focussed at the nt rays and its H be adjusted jumstances be ‘by the prism thould remain due to non- nd the main Experiment No. ‘Object: To determine the resistance per unit length of a Carey Foster's bridge wire ‘and to find the difference in the values of two nearly equal unknown resistances. Apparatus: A Carey Foster’s bridge, a Leclanche cell, a galvanometer, a one ohm “standard” resistance, a thick copper strip, a plug key, two resistance boxes and the ‘two given nearly equal unknown resistances. Description of the Apparatus: A Carey Foster’s bridge is a modified form of metre bridge designed to determine very accurately the difference of values of two wesistances having nearly equal values. In-the Carey Foster's bridge the “effective length” of the wire is increased without actually using a wire of more than the usual ‘exe metre length by introducing resistances in series with the wire, one at each end, ‘The Catey Foster's bridge is shown in Figure 6.1. A bne metre long wire (of smanganin/constantan) of uniform area of cross-section is fixed between two terminals MM and N on a wooden board, The terminals M and N are fixed tightly to two thick. ‘copper strips. Three more copper strip are fixed.in such a way that provides four gaps shown as (1), (2), (3) and (4), Two resistance boxes P and Q are connected in inner ‘gps (2), (3) and unknown resistance X and Y whose difference is to be found out, are ‘connected in the outer gaps (1), (4). Leclanche cell is connected between points A and ‘C while the galvanometer is connected between the points B and D through a jockey which can slide on wire MN. The position of the jokey can be read on the metre sale fixed parallel to the bridge wire, Theory: The connections in the Carey Foster's bridge as discusse® above with X in ‘Ge gap (1) and Y in the gap (4) will constitute a. Wheatstone bridge in which the saisiance boxes P and Q make the two ratio arms while the total resistance between ‘A.and D forms the resistance R and that between C and D forms the resistance S in (he formule: Pe as is the Wheatstone bridge relation for balanced bridge. If now p be the resistance per unit length of the bridge wire and a, B be the sesistances on two ends M and N respectively and null point is observed at /; cm from M then from the Wheatstone Bridge relation (1) we have: Po Xt Q ¥+p(loo-7)+2 100 cm is the total leigth of the bridge wire. @ @SEP (4) Cc Copper J@alvanometerPl_Ytphta _ Q X+p(0o-1,)+8 RH. of these equations. Thus we get: __X+ pl ta _Ytphta Y+pll0o-1)+B — X+p(l00-4)+h Now adding 1 to both sides we get: p—Xtalra - Y+ph+a Y¥+ p(loo-4)+2 X+p(l00-4)+ 8 X+Y+100p+a+f _X+¥+100p+a+p Y+pQ00-1)+B X+p(l00-4)+2 smust equate the denominator also. » ¥ + p(100-1) +B = X+ p(100-/) +8 X=Y=plleh) by interchanging the positions of X and Y. ‘equation (4) we get: 1-0=—(4)-4) CE If the positions of X and ¥ are interchanged (without disturbing the resistance ‘boxes P and Q) and the null point shifts to /.em from the same point M then: GB) Since the LH.S. of equations (2) and (3) are the same, we can equate the Since the numerators on the both sides of the above equation are equal, we a) It implies that the difference between the two resistances is simply equal to the resistance of the bridge wire between two null points. It also shows that the end resistances 0. and B do not matter in the Carey Foster's bridge as these get eliminated IfX isa 1 ohm standard resistance coil kept in left gap and Y is equal to zero ic, with a thick copper strip connected inthe right gap and the null point shifts from 4 to 4; on interchanging the 19 standard resistance and the copper strip, then fromProcedure: 1. Make connections as shown in Figure 6.1 2. Introduce some resistance, say 4 ohm, in the resistance box P. Adjust the| resistance in box Q to obtain the null deflection in the galvanometer at a few cm length of bridge wire from M, say at {= 5 em. Note down the value of resistance] ing Keep the resistance in P fixed and decrease the resistance in Q to such a value that the null point shifts by about 10 om. Note the values of position of the jockey and. the resistance in Q Repeat step (3) by changing Q to several other values till the null point reaches about 75 cm or so. Now interchange the’ positions of } ohm standard coil and the copper strip. Find the new length J, at null points for all the values of P and Q noted previously. Now to determine (X ~ Y) replace the 1 ohm standard coil and copper strip by unknown resistances X and Y and determine the lengths /; and /; at null points, as above, before and after interchanging X and Y. Observations and Calculations: (1) Determination of resistance per unit length Resistance in | Resistance in | Length of bridge wire for mull resistance box | resistance box | _point wit oper strip in P Q (ohm) (ohm) Right gap. 4 | Left gap, fem | em(2)Determination of the difference in the values of two nearly equal resistances: ‘box P. Adjust the ynometer at a few cm the value of resistance’ ‘Length of bridge wire for null |] (:-h) | XY pola wi = l-h) Xinief gap, | X insight gap, Y inight gn: | Yi , a b Resistance in | Resistance in resistance box’ | resistance box (otun) orm fom), (em) (em) _| ohm .Q to such a value that tition ofthe jockey and the swill point reaches the copper strip. Find noted previously. il and copper strip by an fy at cull points, as 1 2 ® a Result: ‘Standard Value: p= 5 ohm/m {In atypical C.F. Bridge in our Lab} Percentage Error: In the value of p= .......% Precautions: Mean (X ~ Y) =....ohm ‘The resistance per unit length of the given Carey Foster’s bridge wire p. is found to be ....ohm/m Difference between two given resistances (X ~ ¥)=....ohm “The connections should be neat, clean and tight. The plugs of resistance boxes should be cleaned before hand with sand paper and should be given twi: that they are tight in the gaps. ‘The cell circuit should be opened when the reading is not being taken in order to avoid unnecessary heating of the bridge wire and the resistances. The jockey should be pressed gently and momentarily. It should not be pressed hard and rubbed along the wire. The-difference in X and Y should not be more than the resistance of the bridge wire otherwise it will not be possible to find X~Y, A .‘Object: To study the variation of resistance of a semiconductor with temperature and then to determine the energy gap of a semiconductor. Apparatus: Given semiconductor (thermistor), Post Office Box, oil bath surrounded ‘with water bath, a thermometer and an electric heater or stove. ‘Theory: The resistance of s semiconductor at temperature T K is given by Ey Rr=Aewp | ot where A is a constant and k is the Boltzmann constant (= 1.38 x 107° J/K). Taking log ofboth sides, we have inne mas(zt) kT This equation can also be written as which is of the form that is the equation of a straight line, Hence if a graph is plotted with in Rr on Y axis and e on X axis it must be a straight line whose slope should be given by E, Slope =(—Fs_ - (saz) Slope x (2000)is given by: f, oil bath surrounded 10 J/K). Taking log X axis it must be a Figue 74 (Block diagram) Q@) Figure 741 (Circult, diagram) °°Procedure: 1. Make connections as shown in the Figure 7.1 by inserting the given semi conductor in the unknown arm of the P.O. box First find the resistance of the given semi-conductor at room temperature (without heating). For this purpose, set the ratio P : Q :: 10: 10 and find the value of Rj when the bridge is balanced. Now heat the thermistor dipped in oil by heating the oil bath with the help of] water bath. Similarly measure the resistance of the thermistor at the highest temperature (say) 90° C) and then at various lower temperatures while cooling in steps of about 5° C’ down to nearly room temperature, Now draw a graph between /n Rr and e (as shown in Figure 7.2) and find the| slope of the graph to calculate E, using equation (2). Observations: “Temperature of thermistor Resistance °C K Ry (ohm) s. No. Calculations: E,= Slope x (2000 k) = 2000 x 1:38 x 10? x NM ji E 8 x 10 x 5 joule = 2.76x10. | NM Toxo" MY= 0.1725 x NM ev erting the given semi- 7 ev ron temperature (without and find the value of R il bath with the help of| highest temperature (say’ ing.in steps of about 5° C Figure 7.2) and find the. MRy 10° Figure 7-2 Result: The energy gap for the given semi-conductor (thermistor) is ‘SHendard Value: B, = 0.48 eV Percentage Error: = % Precautions: : @ All connections should be neat, clean and tight @ ~— While making measurement press the cell key K; first and then the galvanometer key Kz. While releasing the keys use the reverse order. @ Oil bath should be stirred at regular intervals and the bulb of the thermometer should be very close to the semi-conductor in the oil bath. The oil bath should not be heated directly on stove/heater.as it may cause accident due to direct burning of the oil, It is therefore advisable to heat the ‘il bath indirectly by placing it in a hot water bath which may be heated on stove/heater. The four resistances P, Q, R and $ should be of the same order. ev aExperiment No Object: To determine the coefficient of thermal conductivity of rubber in the form of tube, ‘Apparatus: The given rubber tubing, a boiler for steam yeneration, a calorimeter, a thermometer, a wooden screen, a beaker, a stop-watch, a physical balance with weight box, a measuring cylinder and a screw gauge, Description of the Apparatus: The whole set up of the apparatus is shown in Figure 8.1. It consists of steam generator (boiler) and a calorimeter of about 500 cc in which a sufficient length of uniform walled rubber tubing can be coiled. To facilitate the measurement of the length of the tube lying under water in the calorimeter two marks are made on the tube by tying thread loops at the points where it enters and leaves the water. Steam coming from the boiler circulates through the rubber tube lying in the calorimeter and is then carried away in a beaker containing water. where it is condensed. Heat is conducted to the water in the calorimeter through the thickness of the walls of the tube. The temperature of water consequently rises and is tead by a sensitive thermometer. A wooden screen is placed between the boiler and the calorimeter so that direct radiant heat may not reach the calorimeter. Theory: Ifthe steam is passed through a uniform-walled rubber tube of internal and external radii r1 and rz respectively, heat flows radially from inner surface to the outer surface through the walls of the tube. The isothermal surfaces of the rubber tube are cylindrical. If we consider a thin cylindrical shell of radii r and (r + dr) and if d@ be ‘the difference of temperature between these surfaces in the steady state then from the usual equation for thermal conductivity ie. Q= a the amount of heat Q flowing per second from its inner to outer surface will be given by - Qa Kerry 2 0) where / is the length of the tube inside the water thus making the area of the conducting surface as (2nr/), The negative sign shows that as r increases @ decreases. ‘Thus total amount of heat flowing through the entire thickness of the tube is obtained by integrating equation (1) for the limits of r from r= r1 to r = m2 ahd @ from. @ = 0; to @=@; for the inner and outer surfaces respectively. Thus we getlof rubber in the form of ion, a calorimeter, a fet a physical balance apparatus is shown in eter of about 500 co in be coiled. To facilitate in the calorimeter two hits where it enters and hrough the rubber tube Intaining water where it i through the thickness rises and is read by a bn the boiler and the jeter. ber tube of internal and er surface to the outer of the rubber tube are (4 (r + dr) and if d0 be Hy state then from the the amount of heat Q by Q ing the area of the jireases @ decreases, lickness of the tube is 1 tor =r2 and @ from 8 we getThis heat transmitted by rubber is taken up by the calorimeter, stirrer and water, consequently their temperature rises, say from ®3 to 4. If W be the water equivalent of the calorimeter'and M be the mass of water taken, then the amount of| heat gained by them in t seconds is given by ‘Heat gained = (M + W) (4-63) Therefore, heat gained per second will be = (M+W)(-0) t ‘And it must be equal to Q. Here tis the time’in seconds for which the heat is allowed to flow in the calorimeter. Therefore, equating it to Q in equation (2) we get =~ ee +W)(@-4) tl * fi (m+w)@, -0,)in| The temperature @ of the outer surface of the tube in contact with water is not # constant quantity, but it continuously changes, So, its value may be taken to be equal to the mean temperature of water ie. 0, * @+0) wewyee,-am(") 4) K: aamada sw), 2a") k=‘Take a calorimeter of large capacity and weigh it along with its stirrer with the help of a balance. Fill about two third of it with water measured with a graduated optinder. Pa a Pet a wooden screen in between the boiler and the calorimeter. Take the given sbber tube and coil its middle portion. Make two marks by tying’ loops of thread, ‘om the coiled portion at a suitable distance apart (say 20 cm) and measure this fe calorimeter, stirer and’ eaance T between them Now ip ths Tenge T ofthe tube in the water of the to s. If W be the water [MP calorimeter. Connect one end of the rubber tube to the nozzle of the delivery tube laken, then the amount of fie oF the boiler (steam generator) so that a steady current of steam be passed through it. Put the other end of the tube in a beaker containing water taking care not to get bers, Allow the steam to pass through the tube for a few minutes so that inner surface of the tube attains the steam temperature and sfeam comes out of the other end of the ‘we. Now note down the initial temperdture 8; of water in the calorimeter and ema heretualy ser ne SOP We ‘Keeping the calorimeter’s water/continuously stirred, allow the steam to flow in fe tube. When the temy re of water'rises by about 8-10 degrees above 03 the stop-watch and,ifimediately note down the final temperature, Oy of water” im the calorimeter ie thermometer. Then find the time from the stop-watch during which the temperature of water rose from @s to Os. ‘X Measure carefully the external diameter of the tube at several points along two ‘mutually perpendicular directions by means of a screw gauge without pressing the ‘tube and hence find r2. To find the internal radius r), take a sample piece from the same rubber tube nearly 10 cm long and immerse it in a measuring cylinder containing water and note the volume V displaced by it. If L be the length of this piece, then @Q) Inds for which the heat is in equation (2) we get @) : Ven-gh © ‘Since all the quantities except ry, are known in equation (6), the value of rs can be cakalated. . Note the barometric height and find out the temperature of steam 6; from the gsven table, Finally calculate the value of K using equation (4) or (5). rations: * ntact with water is not may be taken to be s we have @ Determination of 6, 85,4, Fand t: hdass of Calorinieter + stirrer, m=.....0.8 ceecco kg ess M of of water poured in the calorimeter em=..,...kg Istial temperature of water 6s just when the stop watch is switched on = . Final temperature of water, @4= :........°C 6)“4 (v) Time interval during which the temperature of water rose from 05 to Q4,t = (vi) Length of the tube between two marks, /= .......0m = m (vii) Barometric height = mm of Hg (vii) Steam temperature 8} = .........°C [As seen from the table} (B) Readings for determination of rz Least count of the screw gauge = Zero'emor(ifany) 2 = Zero correction = w2=.. Diameter along 4 direction Mean observed diameter = ‘Mean corrected diameter @) Length of the sample piece (from the same tube) dropped’ in the measuring cylinder, L = ....em (ii) Volume of water displaced, V = ......0€ Calculations: (i) Water equivalent of the calorimeter with stirrer, w = (mass x specific heat of the material of calorimeter ) = m x 0.093 = ......Keal/°C Gi) Extgrnal radius, re * ......0m......m - » vy" Gii) Internal radius, r= G : 3) Fee Gmbse from 83 t0 0s, =..,see| eves pel 23026M +W)(0, =a 3 Re OI + 'the screw gauge = ania - iM J hor ifany) 2 = ol & vcs Keal sec” mt °C porrection = 2... FB mesuit: the coefficient of thermal conductivity of ‘rubber is found to Mean dlameer erent lect 10 x 10 Keal sec" m"t °C [For a typical rubber in our Lab.) | Percentage Error = ..........% Precautions: © The calorimeter should be of large capacity, say about 500 or 600 cc so that sufficiently long portion of the tube may be immersed in the water contained init. © __ The rubber tube should be of uniform area of cross-section ) The calorimeter should be protected from losing heat by putting. it in a wooden box packed with non-conducting material _@) Measure r; and rz carefully and avoid backlash error in the use of a screw =. pauge. ©) A sensitive thermometer reading to at least 1/5" of a degree should be used for the measurement of temperature. The rise in temperature should not be more than 10°C above 6s, otherwise the radiation losses will be higher and we are not accounting for it. €) The rubber tubing containing steam should be handled carefully with a handkerchief so that no steam burns are received. diameter =..........0m bpped in the measuring 8 x specific heat of theExperiment No. Object : To determine e/m of electrons by J J Thompson’s method. Apparatus: Helmholtz coils, electron beam tube, power supply unit for the electron ‘beam tube, batteries (4 V) for Helmholtz coils, a rheostat (~40 ohm), an ammeter (range 100 mA), a voltmeter (0-30 V) and a key. Formula : For J.J. Thompson method the value of e/m is given as: ¥.V im = —E— om Bia ‘The magnetic field B produced by Helmholtz coils is given by: 8y,NI Be Vi2sR Ye : deflection due to electric field. V ; electric potential difference applied between the deflecting plates to produce a deflection Ye on the screen Ho: permeability of free space = 4% x 107 weber/amp. m N: number of tums is each of the Helmholtz pair of coils. I: electric current inthe Helmholtz coils. R: radius of each coil 4 length of the deflecting plates in the electron beam tube, 4: distance between the two deflecting plates. ¢ L: distance of the screen from the centre of the deflecting plates. Data for a typical tube in our Lab. : f=2em L=170m 4 ( 4 4 2 i 4 ’ 4 a d=0.4m N= 1500 R=8cmLet an electron of mass m; charge e and having a velocity vs horizontally enter edeciric field E existing vertically between the two deflecting plates A and B as in Figure 9.1. As the electron enters in the electric field, a force eE acts on it Is (towards + ve plate) and the electron reaches a point P(x, y) after a time t, ‘the point of entry O. as origin, Then according to the equation of motion (s = + ro along Y-axis we must have ly unit for the electron moron ~ ohm), an ammeter ere was m0 initial velocity along y-axis “and the acceleration a, due to electric is eE/m) along X-axis we must have a nt + 0 (4) there is no acceleration due to any force along X-axis a=) ining equations (3) and (4) we get @ 6 wich shows that the trajectory (path) of the electron in the electric field will be pmbolic. In the absence of any field, the electron beam will strike the screen at Q but electric field is applied the beam strikes at Q”. Thus total deflection QQ” on screen is given by ha the deflecting plates Yer yit ys yt is the deflection due to electric field just when the beam comes out of the ing plates at P', and yz is the deflection due to the geometry of the apparatus. lamp. m lof coils, fam abe haa plates, by Ba M yon y2 due to straight path P' Q" is obtained from the right angle triangle '& which gives: “lB,‘ ‘ 4 ‘ ‘ ' ' d { ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ () If now a magnetic field B is applied hérizontally in direction perpendicular t. the electron velocity v, it will provide a downward force of evyB due to magnet field. By properly adjusting the magnitude of B it is possible to bring the deflect spot back to Q. It will happen only if |upward force on electron due to electric field| = |downward force due to magnetic field]| eE=evy,B co) The. electric field E may be calculated from — ad 1) Bet g where V is potential difference applied between the deflecting plates which are d distance apart. Using equations (10) and (11) in equation (9) we getrection perpendicular to eV, due to’ magnetic fo bring the decd Figure: SA pe due to magnetic field| (19) ql plates which are d Power Supbly snDaoy 1B : Qe 2 By ©I'the magnetic field is produced by a pair of Helmholtz coils then the value of magnetic field is given by Procedure: 1. Make the connections as shown in Figure 9.2 and set the axis of the electron beam} tube is in the magnetic meric Switch on the power supply and wait for two minutes till you get a greenish spot ‘on the fluorescent screen of the electron beam tube due to the impinging electrons. Now. use the “Intensity” and “Focus” control knobs on the power supply box to} ‘get a sharp and bright spot on the screen, ifthe spot is away from the centre of th screen bring it at the centre using "X-Shift” knob, Note down the initial position of the spot on the scale marked on the screen, Let it be Y. Now apply & suitable potential difference between the deflecting plates so that there is an upward deflection of the spot on the screen (say) about 3-5 mm. (Ifthe deflection is not upwards reverse the polarity by the switch provided on the box). Note down this position of the spot. Let it be Y" and hence find Ye = Y"" - Y’ ‘Also note down the value of potential difference V applied between the deflecting] plates by means of the Voltmeter. Now pass suitable current through the Helmholtz coils in such a direction that the deflected spot starts coming down, Adjust the current by the potential divider so that the deflected spot comes back to the initial position Y' ie. the deflection produced by the électric field ix annulled by the magnetic field. Note down this value of current | and. use it to calculate B produced due to the Helmholtz coils. Repeat the above parts of the experiment 5 times for. different values of Yr in suiteble increasing steps Now again make the applied voltage V= 0 and. reverse the polarity of the deflecting plates on power supply box. Now produce a deflection Y,. due to electric field in the downward direttion and repeat similar experiments as from steps | to $ for $ different values of Yv, Calculate the vaue of e/m from each set of readings and réport the mean value of | elem as final result Observation and Calculations Length of the electric deflecting plates /= em Distance between the deflecting plates d em Distance of the screen from the centre of the plates L.= Number of tums in each pair of H.H. coils = Radius of HH. coils R=......cmpaola coils then the value of (13) jhe axis of the electron beam| to the impinging electrons. the power supply box to away from the lete down the Y¥. be you get a greenish spot| 18e of the I position deflecting plates so that (say) about 3-5 mm. (If the ch provided on the box), hence find Ye = Y"- Y" between the deflecting in such a direction that the by the potential divider so lion Y" i.e. the deflection ic field. Note down this to the Helmholtz coils. different values of Yin prerse the polarity of the downward direction and ent values of Yr. Teport the mean value of e © e - © om Gal position! P.D. | Defected | Denection | Currentin | Magnetic] Caleviaics ‘of ticun- | Applied | position of the HH col [fea B due to value of en deficted spa between the the spot duc necessary to| the HH coil | of lectron ‘on the seroen | denecting | oelectic | =¢y"-y') | anmutthe | gay ae plate field deflection |p = Sée: v wv i VaR nm eee mn | (may Cou Mean e/m eoul kg (Using equations (1) and (2) and the values for the geometry of the tube and the H.H. ‘eaids, calculate the value‘of e/m for each observation separately and find out the mean walue. ) Results: By J J. Thompson's method the value of e/m for electron is found: to be coullkg, ‘Standard Value = 1.76 x 10"", coul / kg, Percentage Error =..........% Precautions. All connections should be neat, clean and tight. The axis of the electron beam tube must be in the N-S direction to avoid the effect of horizontal component of earth magnetic field ‘The ammeter, voltmeter and other current carrying conductors should be kept away from the electron beam tube ‘A key must be used in the.main circuit of the battery in-order to avoid unnecessary dissipation of power. A direction reversing key may also be included in the output of the potential divider 50 as reverse the direction current through the HH cai The terminals marked 1500-1500 ofthe two coils must be connected together 30 that the current in both the coils of HH coils is in the same direction as seen from one side, This will ensure B2 Experiment No. Object: To determine the wavelength of sodium light using Fresnel's biprism, ‘Apparatus: A biprism, an optical bench with its uprights, a micrometer eyepiece, & convex lens of about 20 emt focal length, sodium lamp, a reading lens sprit level and a rod of known length for bench correction. Description of the Apparatus: A typical apparatus is shown in Figure 10.1. It consists of the following parts: (a) Biprism: A biprism is an optical device made to obtain two virtual coherent sources to produce sustained interference pattern, As the name implies it consists of a combination of two right angled prisms (of very small refracting angles) placed base to base. In actual practice the biprism is made from a single glass plate by cutting, grinding and polishing, so that it is a single prism with one of its angle about 179 degrees and the other two about 30 minutes each. (0) Optical Bench: It consists of @ strong solid cast iron frame about 175 om in length and supported on fout levelling screws. It is provided with four uprights one for holding the slit, the other for the biprism, the third for a convex lens and the fourth for A icrometer eyepiece. The uprights are capable of motion along and perpendicular to the axis of the bench by means of proper knobs. Also the height of things mounted on these uprights can be adjusted and they can be roteted about horizontal and vertical axes. The position of uprights can be read on & calibrated scale fixed along the bench. ‘Theory: When a beam of monochromatic light coming from a fine vertical slit S illuminated by sodium lamp falls on the biprism mounted with its edge B vertical, i divides the incident cylindrical wave front into two portions. Those light rays which pass through the prism ABD of the biprism bend towards its base BD on transmission through it and appear to come from a virtual slit Si while those which pass through the other prism CBD bend towards its base BD and appear to come from the virtual slit Sp. Thus the two virtual images S; and Sz formed by the biprism act as two coherent sources, The beams of the light in the cones NSiQ and PS:O appear to diverge from S1 and S2 and superimpose on each other in the region of overlapping on ‘the other side of the biprism and produce interference fringes. These may be obtained on a screen of seen through an eyepiece in the portion NO as shown in Figure 10.2, Ifthe wavelength of light illuminating the slit S is & and the distance between S1 and Sz is 2d and the distance between the slit § and screen is D then the fringe ‘width (distance between two consecutive bright or dark fringes) is given by:resne!'sbiprism, micrometer eyepiece, ing lens, spirit level and wn in Figure 10.1. It a two virtual coherent implies it consists of a ing angles) placed base glass plate by cutting, of its angle about 179 © Fringes about 175 om in length four uprights one for lens and the fourth for and perpendicular to ‘of things mounted on ‘horizontal and vertical ced along the bench, distance between. i D then the fringe ‘piven by:‘Thus by measuring X , 2d and D, the wavelength 2 can b¢ calculated. Procedure: ‘The actual experiment consists of three parts: (a) Making contrasting interference fringes. (b) Removal of lateral shift. (©) Measurement of 2d, X, D and bench error, In order to perform this experiment proceed as follows: ‘Level the optical bench with the help of levelling screws and spirit level Focus the eyepiece on the cross-wires and make one of the.cross-wires vertical by| mere observation. Set the point of intersection of the cfoss-wires and the position| of its pillar in the middle of the width of the optical bench i.e, they should read zero on their lateral scales respectively. Move the eyepiece to'the upright carrying the-slit aind adjust them to the same height. (The slit upright is already fixed in the middle of the width of the optical bench). Illuminate the slit with sodium light and make it vertical with the heip of the tangent screw which provides its rotation in its own plane about an axis parallel to the length of the bench, Clamp this upright nearest to the sodium lamp-say at zero mark of the main scale’of the bench for convenience, Note down this position and make the slit very fine. . Mount the biprisin with its edge approximately vertical on its. proper, upright following the slit in such a way that its edge occupies the position of vertical diameter of the circular opening, Adjust it to the same height as the slit and the eyepiece. Bring its pillar also in the middle of the width of the bench. Clamp this upright closest to the slit upright (about 15-20 cm apart). Now take the micrometer eyepiece away from the biprism and placing yout eye in between them look at the slit through the biprism. Owing to refraction through the biprism twa vertical images of the slit will be seen, Move the eye across the bench wheiv one of the images will appear to cross the edge of the biprism from one side to the other. Ifthe refracting edge of the biprism is parallel to the slit, the image as a whole will appear to cross the edge simultaneously. Otherwise when adjustment is faulty, either the top or the bottom of the slit image will cross the edge firs. ‘Adjust the biprism by rotating it in proper direction in its own plane with the help of its tangent screw to affect this sudden transition of the whole length of the slit image. When this is achieved, the slit and the edge of the biprism are parallel and we must get fringes in the field of view of the micrometer eyepiece. Now bring the micrometer eyepiece very close to the biprism upright and try to” find the fringes in its field of view. If necessary, the micrometer eyepiece may be mioved laterally by the proper screw to get the fringes in'the field of view. In ‘general the fringes will be blurred. To make them more distinct, first make the slitcan be calculated, pees the cross-wires vertical by Fossovires andthe positon h ie. they should read| adjust them to the same| f the width of the optical I with the help of the about an axis parallel to kal on its proper upright js the position of vertical height as the slit and the of the bench. Clamp this mand placing your eye in to refraction through the the eye across the bench the biprism from one side fl to the slit, the image as herwise wher adjustment wit cross the edge first own plane with the help whole length of the biprism are parallel and eyepiece. pprism upright and ary to rometer eyepiece may be in'the field of view. In stinct,fitst-make the slit direction till very distinct bright and dark’fringes'are obtained. " of lateral shift: Now, set the vertical cross-wires (or the point of ion of cross-wires) atthe middle of the central bright fringe and move, the cqalled laveral shift and is due to the fact that the line joining the slit and edge’ of ‘the biprism (i.e. the axis of experiment) is not parallel to the axis of the bench Before making any measurements this lateral shift must be removed. To remove lateral shift fix the vertical cross-wire in the middie of any bright «= dark fringe (preferably the central fringe). Now move the eye-piece through a ‘gxrtain distance away from the biprism and see how many fringes have crossed direction. Now looking through the eyepiece smove the biprism upright laterally; in a direction opposite to the shift of fringes s0 to bring the same central fringe on the vertical cross-wire. Now, move the ‘eyepiece towards the biprism, A lateral shift in the opposite direction will be eheerved. Move the eyepiece upright laterally to bring the vertical cross-wire on tte central fringe, Again move the eyepiece upright away from the biprism and ‘adjust the biprism upright screw o bring the central fringe on the vertical cross- ‘wie. Then move the eyepiece’ towards the’ biprism and adjust the screw of ‘exepiece upright to bring the vertical cross-wire on the central fringe. In this way _ Repeat this adjustment, 5 or’7 times, till it is found, that the Vertical cross-wire always remains on the same bright fringe’ on’ which it is set irrespective of its “Sposition on the bench. This ensures that the axis of experiment has. beodine parallel to the axis of the bench, Measurement of 2d: Clamp the eye piece upright.at a distance greater than four fiemes the focal length of the given lens (f=20 om), say at 85 cm-or so. Mount:the tess on the upright lying between the biprism and the eyepiece and adjust its Ttecaght to be the same. Bring it close to the eyepiece. The fringes will appear to “terre come very close to each other. Adjust the centre of the lens by lateral and up ' down movement so that the fringes “are syinimetrical with respect, to the al and vertical ‘cross-wires. Now, rove the lens away from the eyepiece ys looking through it) to such a position where it forms two real images of two virtual sources S; and S2 in the field of view. Clamp the lens at this and bring the vertical 'cioss-wire to the left of the left image by the fer screw of the eyepiece. Then moving the cross- wire from Jef (o right con the left image and take the reading on the lateral scale of the eye-piece the circular graduated drum scale (taking the'zero on the extreme left side ic. ing at the lower marked scale). Then, move the vertical cross-wire in the same and set it on the right image and similarly read its position. The of these two readings gives the distance between these images. Let it be Mow move the convex lens still away from the eyepiece. to. such a position it again forms two distinct images of $; and S2 in the field of view. These will be more separated than ‘the’ previously obtained ones. Sintilarly the distance between these two images. Let it be da. Then “2d = d,d,because we are. using. displacement method for which the magnifications in the two cases are inverse of each other. In the first case the. magnification my = a and’iti ‘the second case the imagiification ma = £2 : 2° 2d 1 Since m= — m; or} ad = fads @ 10, Measurement of X: Now remove the lens. The fringes will be distinctly visible in the field'of view. Move the vertical cross-wire to the left of the extreme left fringe, When it is beyond the extreme lef fringe, move it from left to right and cross over a few fringes and then set it in the middle of a well-defined bright fringe. Take the readings of the micrometer main scale and drum scale, Then fix it fon the ext bright fringe to the right and again take the readings. So on, and so forth, yo on taking readings by setting the vertical cross-wire on successive bright fringes moving the screw always from left to right tll large number (even number, say 20) of readings have been obtained. Calculate the mean value of fringe-width with these readings using the ‘half table’ method. Measurement of D: Read the positions of the uprights, carrying the slit and the eyepiece. The difference of these readings gives D. Now, to correct D for bench error, take a rod. Measure its actual length by laying it along the main scale. Let it be *a* m. Thien remove the biprism mounting arvangement and set one end of the ‘od in contact with the slit and bring the eye-piece upright close to the other end of the rod tll this end coincides with the plane of the cross-wires. Find the difference (of the positions of the slit and the eyepiece uprights. Let is be "b",m. Then bench error is (b-a). Assign proper sign to this quantity This must be subtracted with proper sign from the observed Value of D to get its corrected value. Finally calculate the value of A using equations (1). Observations. (A)Readings for di and dy GW)» Pitch of the screw of micrometer = (ii)» . No. of divisions:on the drum scale =....... (iii). Least count of the micrometer =in the ‘case the 37 Mean (B) Readings for X Fringe Micrometer eading forthe | Dilference | Micrometer reding forthe | Difference | fist seting of thelens,on | gy | second setting ofthe lens on |g, 1 image | 2™image pi 1 image | 2™image aa mm... 10% Mean da = x10? m Micrometerreading | No.of [Micrometer eading | Separation of 10 Gringes ie. | fringe = oy oy 10 X =(-X) ‘min mu 4 1 2, 3. 4 5 6 1 8. 9. \ mm mm x 10" (©) Readings for determination of D ) Least count of the Vernier |= em Gii) Position of the eyepiece upright from where X is measured = ....cm ))Position of the slit upright = o.r.re.6M (iv) Length’of the rod (a) =... cm (¥) Difference of the readings of the uprights of the slit-and eye-piece ‘when they are kept in contact with the ends of the rad. (6), = ....0am58 Calculation: Observed value of D sent CO Ex] Bench error (b-a) at eens 6M — *., Corrected value of D = [observed value — (bea) em) ‘ovjec eee = ad, F cosseetiette two 2 ~ wires. Mean value of X pe q2d his dif ack ence peo constan ; circle, | Result: The wavelength of sodium lig abebessteteetsfei Al AB, 50 Standard Value “2 = 5893 AU. reslstay ‘operatis Percentage Error = .......% Theon Precautions: of pote! (i) The bed of the bench should be properly levelled with the help of levelling screws then by ‘nd spirt level, It should also le in line with the centre of the sodium lamp. we a ‘The slit should be made narrow as far as permissible otherwise fringes will be the errd blurred; it must be made parallel to the vertical cross-wire of the eyepiece Fal The edge of the biprism should be made exactly parallel to the vertical slit by betweet fotating it in its own plane with the help of its tangent screw, otherwise well- (called defined fringes will not be observed. betweet ‘The axis of experiment must be made parallel to the axis of the bench by through removing laters) shift otherwise two images of di and d measurements will not willbe be obtained in the eyepiece and the value of X found will also not be correct. Once set, the position of biptism and’ slit uprights must not be disturbed wh through out the experiment otherwise 2d will change. the mat ‘The lens used should be of small focal length say 20 em. Care must be taken section | to see that the Jens has the same axis as the axis of experiment. ‘While psinig micrometer screw, backlash error must be avoided. While measuring X, the cross-wire should be set in the middle of the width of successive bright ffinges only, ‘The slit and the biprism should be covered with a black curtaint (if possible) to If th stop reflected light form the biprism upright from reaching the eyepiece. — Bench correction must be applied ‘by subtracting the. bench error from ‘observed D with proper sign. : potentaExperiment No. jf-a) : Jo) t: To calibrate the given voltmeter with the help of a potentiometer. ‘Ppparatus: A dial type students’ potentiometer, the given voltmeter, a galvanometer, wo 2 volt batteries, two rheostats, a standard cell, two one way keys and connecting wires, Bescription of the Apparatus: A students’ potentiometer is shown in Figure 11.1, different from multi-wire type potentiometer and is more sensitive without any {bss in its’ accuracy. It ‘consists of a, number of resistance coils (of manganin or ‘eonstantan wird) connected in series with each other and arranged in the form of a icle. The starting point of the first coil is connected in series with the resistance wire vA, ‘AB, 50 cm in length. The value of resistance of each coil is separately equal to the resistance of the wire’AB anid any number of these coils cn 'be connected to AB by ‘operating the kriob O. : ‘Theory: The calibration of a voltmeter with a potentiometer means the measurement ‘of potential difference between any two points in a circuit first by the voltmeter and of levelling screws then by a standardised potentiometer. As the potentiometer does not draw any current sodium lamp. from the circuit at null deflection position, the value of potential difference measured mae by it can be taken to be correct. The disagreement between the two values will give rise fringes willbe th ero in the voltmeter reading eve ma ee If a battery B, of constant e.m£ (and negligible internal resistance) be connected vertical slit by Hf between the two ends A and B of a long potentiometer wire through a rheostat Ry otherwise well- (called the main circuit) as shown in Figure. 11.2, a part of its potential will. drop / between A’and B and:rest across the theostat. If / be the constant current flowing ds of the bench by [| through this wire due to the main battery, then the potential drop between A and fements will not fg will be ‘ot be correct. Vapi Rap Q@ not be disturbed where Rag is the resistance of the wire AB. Suppose p is the specific resistance of the material of the potentiometer wire, /aa its total length and A the area of cross- Eare mut be nen section of the wire then t. | a2 led. Raps St @ file of the width of Vig =P @) A iin i posible) to If the current i flowing throuigh the wire is constant and the material and area of * evepiece, cross-section are uniform throughout the wire, then 2 = K, a constant, called the bench error from A potential gradient«2 ‘Thus Ke= 4) From equations (3) and (4) we get Vas =K Ja This implies that there will be a regular fall of potential between A and B proportional to the length of the wire. The fall of potential per unit length of the potentiometer wire due to main battery is called the potential gradient and is denoted by symbol K. The potential gradient can be changed by changing the current in the main circuit If now an auxiliary circuit is made by connecting a standard,cell S, of e.m.f E; in such a way that its positive terminal is. connected to the end A and negative terminal through’ a galvanometer to the Jockey J, (capable of sliding on the potentiometer wire), then a current will flow through the galvanometer in the direction SAJ,GS if the voltage drop across the length AJ of the wire due to main battery B, is lower than the emf. of the standard cell S. On the other hand, if the jockey touches the wire at another point J; such that the potential difference across the length AJ, of the wire due to the main battery By is higher than the e.m.f. of the standard cell, then the current will flow in the direction ASGJ,A and the galvanometer will show a deflection in opposite direction, However, if we can find a point J-on:the potentiometer wire suct that the potential difference between’A and J due to the main battery B» is equal to the e.m.f of the standard cell S, then no current will flow through the galvanometer and it will show no deflection. This point J is called null- point. Under this condition the potential difference Vay is equal to thé e.m.f. of the standard cell. Hence E:=Kh where /; is the length of the potentiometer wire between A and J (null point), erefore, the potential gradient can be determined experimentally by using the formula () Now if the standard cell is replaced by the portion MP of a rheostat MN through whole of which a steady current is maintained (the higher potential point M is being connected to the end A of the potentiometer wire) and the jockey be moved to get a null point say at a distance /; from A, then the potential difference between point M and P of the theostat (used as potential divider) as measured by the potentiometer will be given by (see Figure 11.3) VeKh © where K is the potential gradient already known form equation (5).galvanometer in the the wire due to main the other hand, if the difference across the than the e.f of the and the galvanometer find a point Jon the and J due to the main No current will flow Point J is called null- to the emf. of the {auld point), mentally by using (8) of a theostat MN potential point M is Jockey be moved to between point ‘by the potentiometersa ea te or ae eee ars Aetkmater Rebating V9 — Fige 4-4Thus the true potential difference V between any two points M and P of the ary circuit can. be, measured by the potentiometer. If the potential difference n the same two points M and P-as measured by the voltmeter (to be calibrated) -¥", then the error in the voltmeter reading is (V'-V). The correction being opposite ign to the error will therefore be given by correction = - (V!-V) =(V - V") sBbis experiment essentially consists of two parts- West - Siandardisiuion of poidtitidmeter, which means fixing suitable value of osential yradient (say 0,001 volt/cm) and measuring it by using a standard cell in the smiiliary circuit No.1 . Second - Measurement of potential differénce between two points of the rheostat in fhe auxiliary circuit No.2 first by means of a voltmeter (V’) and then by ‘means of the potentiometer (V) and finally finding the value of the correction (V ~ V’) for different values of V" im To do these proceeds as follows: 1. Make connections as showin in Figure’ 11.1 taking care of proper polarities of the batteries and the standard cadmium cel To standardize the potentiometer ie. to set a known standard value of potential gradient K continue as follows Read the value of e.m.£ Eo of the given standard cell at 20°C. Convert it to the value E) at the room temperature by the formula given with the cell. Let the value of Ey at room temperature be 1.0182 volt. Now. to get a standard value of potential gradient K = 0.001-volt/om, this e.m.f has to be balanced at a total length of /, = E 0.00) 1.0182 x 1000 = 1018.2 em. To get this much length fix the knob O at 20-coils and put the jockey at 18.2 cm. Put the standard cadmium cell § of auxiliary circuit No.1 to ‘operate into the main circuit by putting the selector switch at E;. Close the key ki of the main cireuit and adjust the sliding contact of rheostat Ry of the main circuit tll the galvanometer shows null deflection for the jockey at 18.2 cm for the given example, AL this position, the length /; between A and J (balance point) is given by (20 x 50 + 18.2) cm =1018.2 om. This is because each coil has a resistance equal.to that of the 50 cm length of the potentiometer wire. Thus the potential gradient will be given by 1000 x Ey. Hence multiply E; by 1000. In the given example we get hi = = 10" volt/em = 0.001 voltiemThe rarige switch must be kept at X 4 and the sliding contact of main circuit’ rheostat must not be disturbed through out the experiment now. Connect the auxiliary circuit No.2 by putting the selector switch at Ez and| clasing the keys Kz and Ks. Adjust the variable point P of the theostat so that the voltmeter reading shows 0.) volt (say). Note down this reading in the table.’ Then take off the key Ks and measure the potential difference between M and P with the help of the potentiometer by changing the position of knob on the coils and the Jockey J on the slide wire till the null- point is obtained. Note the number of coils and position of the jockey on the wire. Calculate the equivalent length /2 (number of coils x 50 cm + position of Jockey) and multiply it by the potential gradient to find the correct Potential difference between points M and P, (V'= Ki) Determine the correction (V - V’) and assign proper sign (+ or -) to it, By changing the position of the variable point:P, repeat procedures (3) and (4) in steps of 0.1 volt till the voltmeter reading reaches to 1.0 volt. Plot a point-to-point calibration curve by taking voltmeter reading V’ on X- axis and the correction (V - V‘) on Y-axis as shown in Figure 11.4. Observations and Calculations: (i), Readings for finding the potential gradient ‘emf; ofthe | Length of the potentiometer wire corresponding Poteitial Gradient standied col at tothe en. of the standard call KeEyh ‘room rey laces Number | Position ofthe] Equivalent emperate of coils} Jockey at mul point | Uongth ¢ (om) (em) (volwem) 10°of main circuit's switch at Ez and the rheostat so this reading in ial difference changing the ‘ill the null- on the + position the correct ia. Readings for calibration of the voltmeter Value of | ‘correction (V- V') (volt) Result: The calibration curve obtained by plotting the corrections against the correspoi ig voltmeter readings for the given volimeter is attached herewi Precautions: w ti), ity (iv) w (wi) Co) ‘The e.m.f. of battery B, used in the main circuit should be constant and more than that of standard cell, Ascertain: the voltage ‘before inserting it inthe circuit (it must be 2 volts for a fully charged accumulator). All connections should be neat, clean and tight. All the positive terminals should be connected at the same point of the potentiometer (the high potential points must be connected to the red terminals at “Battery”, “E,” and “E,” ‘g8ps in the actual students’ potentiometer) In order to avoid unnecessary heating in different parts of the circuit, the plugs of the keys should be taken off while not taking the readings. ‘Standardization of the wire should be checked after few readings. The key Ks of the voltmeter must be opened while measuring the potential difference across MP by the potentiometer otherwise the potentiometer will not give the correct value, The jockey should not be kept pressed on the wire for a very long time. Also it should not be moved along the wire while kept pressed otherwise the wire will be unevenly worn out and the uniformity of its cross-section will be impaired. This will result into a change in the value of the potential gradient. During the eatly stages of locating the balance point the galvanometer should be kept shunted with # low resistance wire, so that excessive currents through the galvanometer are-avoided. Exact position of the null point should be determined with the shunt removed,Experiment No... ‘Object: To draw the graph between the thermo e.m.f. generated and the temperature difference of the two junctions of a copper constantan thermo-couple. Apparatus: A copper constantan thermo-couple, a students) potentiometer with range multiplier of X.01, an accumulator, a sensitive galvanometer two one way Keys, 8 theostar, two sensitive thermometers, 4 standard cadmium cell, an electric heater or stove and connection wires. Theory: When the junction of two dissimilar metals are_keptat_different- cxpeates, curent noun at thermoelectric curent lows ound the circuit. In ‘case OF Copper-constantan junctions the Current Hows fron ¢opper'to constantan through the cold junction as showri in Figure 12.1(a). The value of the thermo e.m.f. generated depends upon the metals constituting the thermo-couple and the temperature difference of the two junctions. it is usually of the order of milli-volts. Figure 12,1(b) shows the variation of thermo, e.m.f. as a function of temperature, The thermo e.m.f. increases if the temperature of the hot junction is increased and reaches @ maximum value at a characteristic temperature Ts, known as the neutral temperature, Beyond that, the emf. begins to decrease and drops t0-zero till’ temperature Ti , called the temperature of inversion is reached. If the temperature is further increased the e.m.f. changes its sign. The curve so obtained is.a parabola and ‘can be represented by an equation of the form e = at + bt? where a.and b are constants for a particular thermo-couple. copper ts inetion Jotin —sanakantan “Temperature > a Ste t2.4 (a) 42.4 Ob)Figue 12.2 (a) Block diagram hh copper Spper ht ‘Sunction Junsttion Figure 12:2 (b) Cireuit diagram