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Introduction
▪ The word Anatomy is derived from a Greek word:
Introduction “Anatome”
• Ana➔ apart or up
• Tome➔cutting
= Meaning cutting apart, divide or dissect.
Human Anatomy (Dissection derived from the Latin word dissecare)

▪ Therefore it is the study of structures of the body and their

relationship.
By:Yossef Teshome ▪ Their relationships revealed by dissection (cutting apart) &
imaging techniques
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Divisions of Anatomy
1. Gross ( macroscopic) Anatomy
Subdivision of Anatomy • Study of Human body/its parts without microscope
• It is studied by means of dissection of the body.

o Macroscopic (Gross) Anatomy ➢ Surface anatomy

o Microscopic Anatomy
o Developmental Anatomy
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✓ It is a subdivision of gross anatomy,
✓ It is the study of shapes and markings (called
landmarks) on the surface of the body that reveal the
underlying organs.
✓ This knowledge is used
✓ to identify the muscles that bulge beneath the skin
in weight lifters, and
✓ to locate blood vessels for placing catheters, feeling
pulses, and drawing blood by clinicians.
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Cont’
Cont’ 3. Developmental Anatomy
• Structural changes of an individual from fertilization to
2. Microscopic Anatomy
• Study of cell, tissue and organs adulthood. Includes :
using microscope o Embryology
o Postnatal development
• Cytology - study of cell

• Histology - study of tissue

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Cont’ Approach to Study Anatomy

4. Other divisions
Ultra structural Anatomy
• Ultramicroscopic study of structures too small to be
seen with a light microscope. ▪ The three main approaches to studying anatomy are:

Radiological Anatomy ✓ Regional

• Study of body using radiographs ( i.e. x-rays, CT Scan, ✓ Systemic, and
MRI )
• They provides useful information about normal ✓ Clinical (applied)
structures in living individuals, as affected by muscle tone,
body fluids and pressures, and gravity;
• Diagnostic radiology reveals the effects of trauma,
pathology, and aging on normal structures

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Approach to Study Anatomy

1. Regional approach
 Method of studying the body's structure by focusing attention Fig. Major parts of the body and regions
on a specific part (e.g., the head), region (the face), or of the lower limb.
subregion (the orbit);
 Examining the arrangement and relationships of the
various systemic structures (muscles, nerves, arteries, etc.)
within that part; and then continuing to study adjacent regions
in an ordered sequence
 All the major parts may be further subdivided into regions and
zones.
 Used mostly in DR & useful for physicians & surgeons

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Cont’
2. Systemic approach
▪ All the organs with related functions are studied together.
▪ For example, a study of the cardiovascular system looks
at the heart and all of the blood vessels in the body.
▪ This approach is best for relating structure to function.
▪ This approach continues for the whole body until every
system is covered
(i.e. the nervous system, the skeletal, muscular,
gastrointestinal, respiratory, lymphatic etc.)
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3. Clinical(Applied Anatomy)
 Relating anatomic structures and functions to the practice of
medicine or other health sciences.
 It incorporates the regional and systemic approaches to
studying anatomy and stresses clinical application
 Reverses the thought process of regional or
systemic anatomy
✓ Instead of, “The … nerve provides innervation to this
area of skin”
✓ “Numbness in this area indicates a lesion of which
nerve?”
N.B Each of these approaches has benefits and
deficiencies
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Levels of Organization

• Chemical/Molecular (simple)
• Cell
• Tissue
Levels of Structural Organization
• Organ
of Human Body
• Organ System
• Organism (complex)

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Levels of Organization

▪ Chemical/Molecular
✓Over a dozen different elements in the body
✓Four of them make up 99 percent of the body
• Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen
✓Major classes of compounds
• Water
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Lipids

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Levels of Organization Levels of Organization

▪ Cell
✓ The smallest living unit in the body
• Consists of organelles
▪ Tissue
✓ Groups of similar cells with a common function form tissue
✓ Tissues are precise organizations of similar cells that
perform specialized functions.
✓ Four type of tissue:
• Epithelial, Muscular, Nervous, and Connective tissue
▪ Organs
– Different tissue types that work together to perform
– specific, complex functions form an organ.
▪ Organ Systems
– The organ system level consists of related organs
that work together to coordinate activities and
achieve a common function.
– There are 11 organ systems in the human body.
▪ Organism
– All body systems doesn’t function independently
in a single living human being, the organism.
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Anatomic Position
▪ The standard reference
position of the body used to

Basic Anatomical describe the position &

relations of various

Terminology
anatomical structures.
✓ All descriptions in human
anatomy are expressed in
relation to the anatomical
position
✓ By using anatomical position
any part of the body can be Lateral view
related to any other part
Anterior view Posterior view
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Anatomic Position Anatomical Planes

▪ A plane is an imaginary
The body is in the anatomical
surface that slices the body
position when
➢ Standing upright with feet into specific sections.

together ◼ The three major anatomical

➢ Hands by the side and face looking planes of reference are
forward
➢ Coronal,
➢ The eyes are 'open' and focused
➢ Transverse, and
on something in the distance and
➢ Sagittal planes.
Anterior view Posterior view
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Anatomical Planes Anatomical Planes

Sagittal Plane Coronal (Frontal) Plane
▪ It divides the body longitudinally into anterior & posterior
✓ Divide the body into right and left parts parts
✓ Parallel to sagittal suture of skull ▪ Situated in the direction of the coronal suture of the skull.

▪ Median sagittal (midsagittal, median plane or plane of Horizontal Plane

symmetry)➔ divides the body into equal right & left ▪ a transverse plane which runs horizontally at a right angle
to the vertical plane
sides
▪ It divides the body into upper & lower parts
▪ Parasagittal planes➔ planes parallel to it and divides the
Oblique Plane
body (organ) into unequal right & left sides
▪ Passes through the body at an angle b/n transverse, sagittal
or coronal plane
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Anatomical Planes
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Terms of Relationship and Comparison
 Medial is used to indicate that (in the anatomical
position) a structure, such as the 5th digit of the
hand (little finger), is nearer to the median plane of
the body than the other digits
 Lateral stipulates that a structure, such as the 1st
digit of the hand (thumb), is farther away from the
median plane
 External and internal mean farther from and
nearer to the center of an organ or cavity,
respectively, regardless of direction.
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Terms of Relationship and Comparison
 Various adjectives, arranged as pairs of opposites,
describe the relationship of parts of the body in the
anatomical position and compare the position of two
structures relative to each other
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Terms of Relationship and Comparison
 Posterior (dorsal) denotes the back surface of the
body or nearer to the back
 Anterior (ventral) denotes the front surface of the
body
 Caudal (L. cauda, tail) is a useful directional term
that means toward the tail region, represented in
humans by the coccyx, the small bone at the inferior
(caudal) end of the vertebral column
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Terms of Relationship and Comparison
 Inferior refers to a structure that is situated nearer
the sole of the foot
 Superior refers to a structure that is nearer the
vertex, the topmost point of the cranium
 Cranial relates to the cranium and is a useful
directional term, meaning toward the head.
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Terms of Relationship and Comparison
 Proximal and distal are used when contrasting
positions nearer to or farther from the attachment of
a limb or the central aspect of a linear structure,
respectively
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Terms of Relationship and Comparison
Combined terms describe intermediate positional
arrangements:
 Inferomedial means nearer to the feet and median
plane
 For example, the anterior parts of the ribs run
inferomedially
 Superolateral means nearer to the head and
farther from the median plane
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Terms of Relationship and Comparison
 Dorsum usually refers to the superior or
posterior (back) surface of any part that protrudes
anteriorly from the body, such as the dorsum of the
tongue, nose, penis, or foot
 It is also used to describe the back of the hand.
 The palm refers to the flat of the hand, exclusive
of the thumb and other fingers, and is the opposite
of the dorsum of the hand
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Terms of Laterality
 Bilateral: Paired structures having right and left
members (e.g., the kidneys)
 Unilateral: those structures occurring on one side
only (e.g., the spleen)
 Ipsilateral refers to something occurring on the same
side of the body as another structure;
 Contralateral: means occurring on the opposite side
of the body relative to another structure;
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Terms of Movement
 Flexion indicates bending or decreasing the angle
between the bones or parts of the body.
 Dorsiflexion describes flexion at the ankle joint, as
occurs when walking uphill or lifting the toes off the
ground.
 Plantarflexion turns the foot or toes toward the
plantar surface (e.g., when standing on your toes)
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Terms of Movement
 Various terms describe movements of the limbs and
other parts of the body
 While most movements occur at joints where two or
more bones or cartilages articulate with one another
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Terms of Movement
 Extension indicates straightening or increasing the
angle between the bones or parts of the body
 Extension usually occurs in a posterior direction, but
extension of the knee joint occurs in an anterior
direction
 Extension of a limb or part beyond the normal limit-
hyperextension (overextension) can cause injury
 Except for the thumb, from the anatomical position,
flexion and extension are movements in the sagittal
plane
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Terms of Movement
Flexion
Terms of Movement
• Bending a joint or decreasing the angle
between two bones
 Abduction means moving away from the median plane in
Extension
• Straightening a joint or increasing the angle the frontal plane (e.g., when moving an upper limb away from
between two bones
Hyperextension the side of the body)
• Excessive extension of the parts at a joint
beyond anatomical position  In abduction of the digits (fingers or toes), the term means
spreading them apart - moving the other fingers away from
the neutrally positioned 3rd (middle) finger or moving the
other toes away from the neutrally positioned 2nd toe

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Terms of Movement Terms of Movement

 Adduction means moving toward the median plane in a
frontal plane (e.g., when moving an upper limb toward the side Adduction
 Moving a body part towards the
of the body) midline of the body
 In adduction of the digits, the term means reapproximating
the spread fingers or toes or moving the other digits toward Abduction
 Moving a body part away from the
the neutral position of the 3rd finger or 2nd toe midline of the body

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Terms of Movement Terms of Movement

 Circumduction is a circular movement that is a combination  Rotation involves turning or revolving a part of the body
of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction occurring in around its longitudinal axis, such as turning one's head to face
such a way that the distal end of the part moves in a circle sideways

 Medial rotation (internal rotation) brings the anterior

 Circumduction can occur at any joint at which all the above-
surface of a limb closer to the median plane, whereas
mentioned movements are possible (e.g., the hip joint).
 Lateral rotation (external rotation) takes the anterior
surface away from the median plane

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Terms of Movement Terms of Movement

 Pronation is the rotational movement of the
ROTATION
 Turning on a single axis
forearm and hand so that the palm of the hand faces
posteriorly and its dorsum faces anteriorly

 Supination is the rotational movement of the

CIRCUMDUCTION forearm and hand that swings the radius laterally
 Circular motion at the hip or around its longitudinal axis so that the dorsum of
shoulder the hand faces posteriorly and the palm faces
anteriorly (i.e., moving them into the anatomical
position).

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Movements Terms of Movement

PRONATION  Opposition is the movement by which the pad of the
• Turning the arm or foot
1st digit (thumb) is brought to another digit pad
downward  Reposition describes the movement of the 1st digit
• (palm or sole of the foot - down) from the position of opposition back to its anatomical
• Prone position.
SUPINATION  Protrusion is a movement anteriorly (forward) as in
• Turning the arm or foot upward protruding the mandible (chin), lips, or tongue
• (palm or sole of the foot - up)  Retrusion is a movement posteriorly (backward), as
• Supine
in retruding the mandible, lips, or tongue

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Terms of Movement
Terms of Movement
RETRACTION
• Moving a part backward  Elevation raises or moves a part superiorly, as in
elevating the shoulders when shrugging, the upper lid
PROTRACTION when opening the eye, or the tongue when pushing it
• Moving a part forward up against the palate

ELEVATION
• Raising a part  Depression lowers or moves a part inferiorly, as in
depressing the shoulders when standing at ease, the
DEPRESSION upper lid when closing the eye, or pulling the tongue
• Lowering a part away from the palate.

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Terms of Movement Terms of Movement

 Eversion moves the sole of the foot away from the
median plane (turning the sole laterally)
 When the foot is fully everted it is also dorsiflexed
 Inversion moves the sole of the foot toward the
median plane (facing the sole medially)
Dorsiflexion - Bending the foot in the direction of
the dorsum (superior surface).
Plantarflexion - Bending the foot in the direction
of the plantar surface (sole).

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Cont’ Body Cavities and Membranes

• Body cavities are spaces within the body that
help protect, separate, and support internal
organs.
• The various body cavities are separated from
one another by bones, muscles, ligaments, and
other structures.
▪ Two main categories of body cavity are:
▪ Dorsal body cavities (cranial cavity & vertebral
canal)
▪ Ventral body cavities

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Body Cavities
The ventral body cavity
and Membranes
▪ The ventral body cavity (coelom) is divided by the
 The posterior aspect of the
body has two enclosed diaphragm muscle into 2 parts:
cavities 1. A superior thoracic cavity
 A cranial cavity is 2. Inferior abdominopelvic cavity (peritoneal cavity)
formed by the
cranium and houses
the brain.
 A vertebral canal is
formed by the
individual bones of the
vertebral column and
contains the spinal
cord.

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Body Cavities and Membranes The ventral body cavity

The Thoracic Cavity
 The right and left sides of the thoracic cavity contain the lungs;
they are lined by a two-layered serous membrane called
the pleura.
 The outer layer is the parietal pleura; it lines the internal
surface of the thoracic wall
 The inner layer is the visceral pleura; it covers the
external surface of the lung
 The narrow, moist, potential space between them is called
the pleural cavity

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The ventral body cavity

Body Cavities and Membranes
 The median space in the
thoracic cavity is called
the mediastinum.
 It contains
✓ heart,
✓ thymus,
✓ esophagus,
✓ trachea, and
✓ major blood vessels that
connect to the heart.

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Body Cavities and Membranes Body Cavities and Membranes

 The abdominopelvic
cavity consists of
 an abdominal cavity
and a pelvic cavity.

 Within the mediastinum, the heart is enclosed by a

two-layered serous membrane called the pericardium.
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Subdivisions of abdominal cavity

Quadrants
 For general clinical descriptions, clinicians use 4 quadrants
defined by 2 planes

➢ Transumbilical plane: passing through umbilicus and disc

between L3 and L4 vertebrae

➢ Median plane: longitudinal plane dividing the body into

right and left halves

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Quadrants of abdomen
Subdivisions of abdominal cavity
 Clinicians subdivide abdominal cavity into 9 regions to locate
abdominal organs or pain sites
Delineated by 4 planes
 Two horizontal
 Subcostal plane: passing through inferior border of 10th costal
cartilage
 Transtubercular plane: passing through iliac tubercles and body
of L5 vertebra.
 Two vertical
 Midclavicular planes (Rt &Lt): passing from midpoints of
clavicles to mid inguinal points.

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Regions of abdomen

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Body Cavities and Membranes Body Cavities and Membranes

• Membranes are flat sheets of pliable tissue that cover or line • The mucous membrane or mucosa lines a body cavity that
a part of the body. opens directly to the exterior.
• Mucous membranes line the entire digestive, respiratory, and
• The majority of membranes consist of an epithelial layer and
reproductive tracts, and much of the urinary tract.
an underlying connective tissue layer and are called epithelial
membranes. • They consist of a lining layer of epithelium and an underlying
layer of connective tissue
• Eg:
• The mucous membranes,
• The serous membranes, and
• The cutaneous membrane, or skin.
• Another type of membrane is non epithelial membrane
• Eg:
• The synovial membrane
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Body Cavities and Membranes

• A serous membrane or serosa lines a body cavity that does
Body Cavities and Membranes
not open directly to the exterior (thoracic or abdominal  Both the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities are
cavities), and it covers the organs that are within the cavity. lined with thin serous membranes,
• Serous membranes consist of areolar connective tissue ✓Pericardium: heart
covered by mesothelium ✓Pleura: lungs
• The mesothelium of a serous membrane secretes serous fluid. ✓Peritoneum: abdomen
 which are composed of two layers:
 A parietal layer lines the internal surface of the body wall.
 A visceral layer covers the external surface of organs
(viscera) within the cavity.
 Between the parietal and visceral layers of the serous
membrane is a thin serous cavity, containing a lubricating
film of serous fluid.

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Body Cavities and Membranes

Body Cavities and Membranes
 Constant movement of the
 The peritoneum is a
organs causes friction.
moist, two-layered
serous membrane that
 The serous fluid reduces
friction and helps the organs lines the abdominopelvic
cavity.
move smoothly against both
one another and the body .
wall.

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Summary
Body Cavities and Membranes
• The cutaneous membrane or skin covers the entire surface of
the body and consists of a superficial portion called the
epidermis and a deeper portion called the dermis.

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Anatomical Variations
▪ Although anatomy books describe the structure of the body
observed in most people (i.e. the most common pattern).

▪ Students should expect anatomical variations: e.g

▪ Bones - basic shape and surface structure.
▪ Muscle- size, shape, and form of attachment.
▪ Vessels and nerves - in the method of division
(the greatest variation occurs in veins) Thank you
▪ Apart from racial and sexual differences, humans exhibit
considerable genetic variation.

▪ Approximately 3% of newborns show one or more significant

congenital anomalies
▪ It is important to know how such variations may influence
physical examination, diagnosis, and treatment
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