The Earth and Its Subsystems

Performance Standard
The learners shall be able to make a concept map and use it to explain how
the geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere are interconnected
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
• define the concept of a system; and
• recognize the Earth as a system composed of subsystems..
Together with the learners, label the different processes and phases of water
involved in the water cycle.
Use the following terms to complete the cycle:- condensation- precipitation- evaporation -
transpiration- infiltration- surface run-off

The term system is a set of interconnected components that are interacting to form a
unified whole.

The Earth system.

The arrows in the diagram indicate the interaction among the components.
• A closed system is a system in which there is only an exchange of heat or energy and no
exchange of matter. Our planetary environment, the Earth system, relies on the interactions
among a vast combination of factors that enable it to support life. The individual components of
a system, termed variables change by interacting with one another as parts of a functioning unit.
A change in one aspect of the Earth system affects a certain other parts. Systems can be
divided into subsystems, which are functioning units of a major system that demonstrate strong
internal connections
The Earth system is essentially a closed system. It receives energy from the sun
andreturns some of this energy to space.
Earth has four major subsystems
1. The ATMOSPHERE.
• The atmosphere is the thin gaseous layer that envelopes, shields, and insulates Earth.
Variations in atmospheric components and processes create the changing conditions that we
know as weather and climate.
• The present atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen (N), 21% oxygen (O2), 0.9% argon,
and trace amount of other gases.
• One of the most important processes by which the heat on the Earth's surface is redistributed
is through atmospheric circulation.
• There is also a constant exchange of heat and moisture between the atmosphere and the
hydrosphere through the hydrologic cycle.
• Warm air converges and rises to form low pressure zones. Low-pressure areas are associated
with increased precipitation. By contrast, cold air descends to form high pressure regions (dry
regions). .
It is held to earth by gravity and thins rapidly with altitude. About 99 % is concentrated in the
first 30 km, but a few traces remain as far as 10,000 km above the earth’s surface. It supports
life because animals need oxygen, and plants need both carbon dioxide and oxygen. It
supports life indirectly by regulating climate. Air acts both a blanket and a filter retaining heat at
night and shielding us from direct solar radiation during the day. Wind transports heat from the
equator toward the poles, cooling equatorial regions and warming temperate and polar zones.
Importance of the Atmosphere
1. Without the atmosphere, life cannot exist. Every multicellular organism needs oxygen to
survive. If oxygen abundance in the atmosphere were to drop below 44 % of its current
value, life on earth would perish. Too much oxygen is poisonous. If you breathe air that
has 55% or more oxygen, body metabolism is so rapid that essential molecules and
enzymes decompose and fires burn more rapidly and uncontrollably altering the
ecosystems on earth
2. It insulates Earth’s surface as winds distribute the Sun’s heat around the globe, so the
surface is not too cold nor too hot for life to exist.
3. Without the atmosphere, there would be no clouds, rain or winds.
4. The atmosphere carries sound; without air we would live in silence.
5. Without an atmosphere, airplanes and birds could not fly, wind would not transport
pollen and seeds, It would be fatal to use a parachute
6. Without an atmosphere, the sky would be black rather than blue, and there are no reds,
purples and the many colors of the rainbow that adds beauty to life . The gas molecules
and particles in the air interact with sunlight in a process called scattering, the diffusion
of various wavelength of light which gives us blue skies and beautiful red and orange
sunrises and sunsets. Therefore it is a must for us to take care of it
7. Atmosphere protect us from being bombarded by meteors. Most meteors burn up before
reaching Earth’s surface because of friction with the atmosphere and oxygen which
encourage burning.
8. Earth's atmosphere is a thin layer of air that forms a protective covering around the
planet.
9. Earth's atmosphere maintains a balance between the amount of heat absorbed from the
Sun and the amount of heat that escapes back into space.
10. It also protects life-forms from some of the Sun's harmful rays.
 Earth’s Early Atmosphere
The earth’s first atmosphere was indeed composed mostly of H and He but these gases
were probably driven off into space by the intense heat of the young planet. Earth's early
atmosphere, produced by erupting volcanoes, contained nitrogen and carbon dioxide, but little
oxygen. Then, more than 2 billion years ago, Earth's early organisms released oxygen into the
atmosphere as they made food with the aid of sunlight. Eventually, a layer rich in ozone (O3)
that protects Earth from the Sun's harmful rays formed in the upper atmosphere. This protective
layer eventually allowed green plants to flourish all over Earth, releasing even more oxygen
Composition of the atmosphere
The earth’s present-day atmosphere is a mixture of various gases-primarily nitrogen and
oxygen with small percentages of water vapour, argon and car dioxide and trace amount of
other elements and compounds. The composition of the atmosphere is changing in small but
important ways. For example, car exhaust emits gases into the air. Humans burn fuel for
energy Increasing energy use may increase the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere In
addition to gases, Earth's atmosphere contains small, solid particles such as dust, salt, and
pollen. The atmosphere also contains small liquid droplets other than water droplets in clouds
The atmosphere constantly moves these liquid droplets and solids from one region to another.
For example, the atmosphere above you may contain liquid droplets and solids from an erupting
volcano thousands of kilometers from your home
Permanent Gases
Gas Symbol Percent by volume
Nitrogen N2 78 %
Oxygen O2 21 %
Argon Ar 0.9 %
Neon Ne 0.0018%
Helium He 0.0005 %
Methane CH4 0.0001 %
Hydrogen H2 0.00005 %

Variable Gases
Gas Symbol Percent by Volume
Water vapor H2O 0 to 4
Carbon dioxide CO2 0.035
Ozone O3 0.000004
Carbon Monoxide CO 0.00002
Sulfur dioxide SO2 0.000001
Nitrogen dioxide NO2 0.000001
Particles(dust, pollen) 0.000001

Nitrogen- is essential to living things. Proteins and other complex chemical

substances in living things contain nitrogen. Most living things cannot obtain nitrogen
directly from the air. Instead, some bacteria convert nitrogen into substances called
nitrates that plants absorb from the soil to make protein. Animals must eat plants or
other animals to obtain protein
Oxygen-Plants and animals take oxygen directly from the air and use it to
release energy from food in a usable form. Without oxygen a fire will go out. Burning
uses oxygen rapidly. Steel in cars and other objects reacts slowly with oxygen to form
iron oxides or rust. Ozone is a form of oxygen that has three oxygen atoms in each
molecule instead of the usual two
 Carbon Dioxide- Is essential to plants in order to produce food. Animals give
off carbon dioxide as a waste product. When fuels such as coal and gasoline are
burned, they release carbon dioxide. Burning these fuels increases the amount of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Rising carbon dioxide levels may be raising Earth’s
temperature or global warming
Water vapour- in reality air is not dry because it contains water vapour. The
amount of water vapour in the air varies greatly from place to place and from time to
time. Air above the dessert or polar ice sheet may contain almost no water vapour. In
tropical rain forest as much as 5 % of the air may be water vapour. Water vapour plays
an important role in Earth’s weather. Clouds form when water water vapour condenses
out of air to form tiny droplets of liquid water or crystal of ice. If these droplets or crystals
become large enough, they can fall as rain or snow.
Ozone is a form of oxygen which absorbs UV radiation from the sun,
preventing most of it from reaching the earth. This radiation can cause sunburn and
skin cancer. Gases called chlorofluorocarbon( CFC’s) from spray cans and refrigerator
equipment drift high into the atmosphere and break down the ozone. Too little ozone in
the upper atmosphere is harmful but too much of it at the earth’s surface is also harmful.
Ozone is one of the ingredients of smog which damages peoples lungs and worsen
hearth disease. Factories make ozone to use for cleaning flour, oil, fabrics and water.
Particles- In real world, air also contains tiny solid and liquid particles of dust,
smoke, salt, and other chemicals

Layers of the Atmosphere

Troposphere-(0-17 km) the layer of air closest to Earth, where we live in. All of
the water vapour and clouds exist in this layer and almost all weather occurs here. It
extends to a height of 16 km over equatorial region and 8 km over polar region. It is the
thinnest atmosphere layer but contains 90% of the atmosphere’s mass and almost all of
its water vapour and clouds. The temperature decreases steadily ( 6°C per kilometre)
with increasing altitude. Air gets colder and thinner as you go higher. Weather changes
occur in this region. At the top of the troposphere temperature averages a freezing -
50°C. The top boundary of the troposphere is the tropopause, the layer at which the
temperature stops falling.
Stratosphere- ( 17-50 km) is above the troposphere which reaches a height of
50 km. It is clear and dry and the ozone layer is near the top of the stratosphere. Ozone
is made of oxygen. An ozone molecule is made up of three oxygen atoms bound
together. The ozone layer contains a high concentration of ozone and shields you from
the Sun's harmful energy
Ultraviolet radiation from the sun is absorbed by the ozone layer ( the gas that acts as
filter of UV rays from reaching us) in the stratosphere. This causes temperature to rise
from -50 °C to 0°C at the top. Ultraviolet radiation is one of the many types of energy
that come to Earth from the Sun. Evidence exists that some air pollutants are destroying
the ozone layer. Blame has fallen on chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), chemical
compounds used in some refrigerators, air conditioners, and aerosol sprays, and in the
production of some foam packaging. Chlorofluorocarbon molecules destroy ozone.
When a chlorine atom from a chlorofluorocarbon molecule comes near a molecule of
ozone, the ozone molecule breaks apart. One of the oxygen atoms combines with the
chlorine atom, and the rest form a regular, two-atom molecule. These compounds don't
absorb ultraviolet radiation the way ozone can. In addition, the original chlorine atom can
continue to break apart thousands of ozone molecules. The result is that more ultraviolet
radiation reaches Earth's surface. The destruction of ozone molecules by CFCs seems
to cause a seasonal reduction in ozone over Antarctica called the ozone hole. Every
 year beginning in late August or early September the amount of ozone in the
atmosphere over Antarctica begins to decrease. By October, the ozone concentration
reaches its lowest values and then begins to increase again. By December, the ozone
hole disappears
Pilots often fly in the stratosphere to avoid disturbances in the troposphere.
Mesosphere- (50- 80 km) is above the stratosphere which extends upward to
about 80 km. Gases here absorb very little of sun’s radiation so that temperature
decreases again from about 0°C at the bottom to about - 90°C at the top. At the
mesopause, the temperature is lower than anywhere else in the atmosphere -the
coldest layer.
Thermosphere-( 80 -400 + km) is above the mesosphere that extends upward
to 500 km. It has so little air that temperature variations in this layer have very little
significance. The thermosphere is named for its high temperatures. This is the thickest
atmospheric layer and is found between 85 km and 500 km above Earth
Ionosphere-Within the mesosphere and thermosphere is a layer of electrically
charged particles called the ionosphere (I AH nuh sfihr) is an ion-rich region within the
thermosphere and uppermost mesosphere. The ionosphere allows radio waves to travel
across the country to another city. During the day, energy from the Sun interacts with the
particles in the ionosphere, causing them to absorb AM radio frequencies. At night,
without solar energy, AM radio transmissions reflect off the ionosphere, allowing radio
transmissions to be received at greater distances.
The ions are produced from the interactions between high-frequency solar
radiation and atoms in the atmosphere. The incoming solar rays strip electrons from O2
and N2 producing large concentrations of ions. Ionization is greatest in the upper part
where density is low and solar radiation is high. Ions cast a faint glow that prevents
moonless nights from becoming stark black. Near the earth’s magnetic poles, fiery light
displays called auroras occur as the solar winds stirs up the ionosphere which are
particularly spectacular during times of solar flares. We receive radio waves back on the
earth through this layer. AM radio waves bounce off the ions in the ionosphere and back
to the earth. This reflection of waves carry radio messages to great distances. The
ionosphere does not reflect the short waves in television transmission however
communication satellites are now being used.
Exosphere- outermost layer, is above 500 km. The space shuttle orbits Earth in
the exosphere. The exosphere has so few molecules that the wings of the shuttle are
useless. In the exosphere, the spacecraft relies on bursts from small rocket thrusters to
move around. Here, the thinning atmosphere gradually yields to the radiation belts and
magnetic fields of interplanetary space. The exosphere begins from top of the
ionosphere to about 24,000 km out. Beyond this layer lies outer space
The magnetosphere is the name given to a vast doughnut-shaped zone of charged particles
(protons and electrons trapped in the magnetic field of the earth) surrounding the earth from an
altitude of about 600 miles to 40,000. This was discovered by Dr.James A. Van Allen. He
observed that the charged particles are concentrated in two belts called the Van Allen radiation
belts.

Pollutants – are harmful substances in the air, water or soil. Some air pollution occurs
naturally, but much of it is caused by human activities. Most air pollution is the result of
burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, gasoline, and diesel fuel.
Sources of Air Pollution (United States)
1. Transportation- 49 %
2. Fuel burned In factories and power plants-28 %
3. Evaporation of volatiles- 13 %
 4. Solid waste disposal – 3 %
5. Miscellaneous -7%
Types of Pollutants (United States)
1. Carbon Monoxide – 50 %
2. Sulfur Oxides – 16 %
3. Volatiles – 15 %
4. Nitrogen Oxides- 14 %
5. Particulates – 5 %
. Fossil fuels contain impurities and combustion is usually incomplete forming other
harmful products. Products of incomplete combustion include hydrocarbons such as
benzene and methane. Benzene is carcinogenic and methane is a green house gas.
Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, releases carbon monoxide, which is colorless and
odourless yet very toxic. Coal and petroleum contain impurities like sulphur which when
burn will form SO2 and SO3. Coal-fired electric generators are the primary source of
SO2. Fossil fuels also contain nitrogen which when burn produce NO and NO2. Nitrogen
dioxide is a reddish-brown gas with a strong odor. Automobile exhaust is the primary
source of nitrogen oxide pollution.
The nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and other air pollutants then react with each
other in the presence of sunlight to form a mix of ozone and other chemicals
called photochemical smog. The ozone in photochemical smog irritates breathing
passages, harms plants, and damages rubber, paint, and some plastics
Another result of air pollution is acid rain. Acid rain forms when nitrogen oxides and
sulphur oxides combine with water in the air to form nitric acid and sulphuric acid.
Rain, sleet, snow, fog and even dry particles carry these two acids from the air to
trees,lakes and buildings. Rain is naturally slightly acidic, but rain that contains more
acid than normal is known as acid rain. Acid rain damage the surfaces of buildings and
statues. It harms lakes and ponds by making the water so acidic that plants ,
amphibians, fish and insects can no longer survive in it.
Properties of Air
1. Air has mass
2. Density- amount of mass in a given volume of air. More molecules in a given
volume means greater density
3. Pressure- the force pushing on an area or surface. A denser substance has more
mass per unit volume than a less dense one, so denser air exerts more pressure
than less dense air.
Air pressure is the result of the weight of a column of air pushing down on an
area.
Energy Balance in the Atmosphere
The Sun is the source of most of the energy on Earth. Before it reaches Earth's
surface, energy from the Sun must pass through the atmosphere. Because some layers
contain gases that easily absorb the Sun's energy while other layers do not, the various
layers have different temperatures. Molecules that make up air in the troposphere are
warmed mostly by heat from Earth's surface. The Sun warms Earth's surface, which
then warms the air above it. Molecules of ozone in the stratosphere absorb some of the
Sun's energy. Energy absorbed by ozone molecules raises the temperature. Because
more ozone molecules are in the upper portion of the stratosphere, the temperature in
this layer rises with increasing altitude. The temperature in the mesosphere decreases
with altitude. The thermosphere and exosphere are the first layers to receive the Sun's
rays. Few molecules are in these layers, but each molecule has a great deal of energy.
Temperatures here are high.
 Heat is a major factor in the weather. The movement of heat in the atmosphere
causes temperatures to change, winds to blow, and rain to fall. Heat is energy that flows
from an object with a higher temperature to an object with a lower temperatureEnergy
from the Sun reaches Earth's surface and heats it. Heat then is transferred through the
atmosphere in three ways—radiation, conduction, and convection. Energy from the
Sun reaches Earth in the form of radiant energy, or radiation. Radiation is energy that is
transferred in the form of rays or waves. Earth radiates some of the energy it absorbs
from the Sun back toward space. Conduction is the transfer of energy that occurs when
molecules bump into one another. Molecules in warmer objects move faster than
molecules in cooler objects. When objects are in contact, energy is transferred from
warmer objects to cooler objects. Earth’s surface conducts energy directly to the
atmosphere. As air moves over warm land or water, molecules in air are heated by direct
contact. Convection is the transfer of heat by the flow of material. How does this
happen? Convection circulates heat throughout the atmosphere. When air is warmed,
the molecules in it move apart and the air becomes less dense. Air pressure decreases
because fewer molecules are in the same space. In cold air, molecules move closer
together. The air becomes more dense and air pressure increases. Cooler, denser air
sinks while warmer, less dense air rises, forming a convection current.
Nearly all the energy in Earth’s atmosphere comes from the sun that travels to earth as
electromagnetic waves. Most of the energy from the sun reaches Earth in the form of
visible light and infrared radiation, and a small amount of ultraviolet radiation. Visible
light is a mixture of all colors that you see in the rainbow. Infrared radiation is a form of
energy with wavelengths that are longer than red light. It is not visible but can be felt as
heat. Ultraviolet radiation has wavelength that are shorter than violet light that can
cause sunburns, skin cancer and eye damage.
Before the sun’s rays can reach the earth’s surface they pass through the atmosphere.
Some of the energy from the sun is absorbed within the atmosphere. Some energy is
reflected back into space by clouds, particles, and Earth's surface. Some is absorbed by
the atmosphere or by land and water on Earth's surface.
Water vapour and carbon dioxide absorb some infrared, the ozone layer absorbs most of
the ultraviolet rays. Clouds, dust and other gases also absorbs energy from the sun.
Some of the sun’s rays are reflected. Clouds in the atmosphere act like mirrors,
reflecting some solar energy back into space. Dust particles and molecules of gases in
the atmosphere reflect light from the sun in all directions. Reflection of light in all
directions is called scattering. Gas molecules scatter short wavelength of visible light
(blue and violet) more than long wavelengths (red and orange). Scattered light is
therefore bluer than ordinary sunlight, which is why the daytime sky looks blue. When
the sun is rising or setting, light from the sun passes through a greater thickness of the
atmosphere than when the sun is higher in the sky. The blue end of the spectrum is
removed by scattering before it reaches our eyes and the remaining light from the sun
contains mostly red and orange light.
When Earth’s surface is heated, it radiates some of the energy back into the
atmosphere as infrared radiation. This is terrestrial radiation. It is terrestrial
radiation rather than solar radiation that directly warms the lower atmosphere. Most of
these radiation are absorbed by water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane and other
gases in air. These gases form a “blanket” around Earth that holds heat in the
atmosphere, the process called greenhouse effect which plays a significant role in
global warming. Gases released primarily by volcanic eruptions, burning of fossil
fuels(coal, oil and gas) and from agricultural and manufacturing industries add carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. Of all the greenhouse gases,
water vapour plays the largest role in confining the Earth’s heat. Warming the earth will
 cause polar ice caps to melt, raising sea level and flooding low-lying coastal lands.
Warming will also change rainfall patterns, seriously affecting agricultural industries.

2. The LITHOSPHERE.
Geologists cannot observe Earth’s interior directly because of extreme conditions. The
deepest mine in the world, a gold mine in South Africa reaches a depth of 3.8 kms only.
Geologists use an indirect method of studying the earth’s interior, they use seismic waves
produced by earthquakes. As one descends into the earth’s surface temperature and
pressure increase. For every 40 m that one descends, the temperature rises 1°C.
Some principles necessary for understanding the behaviour of seismic waves
1. A wave radiates outward in concentric spheres and at constant velocity
2. Seismic waves travel at different velocities in different types of rocks, varying with the
rigidity and density of that rock
3. When waves pass from one material to another, they refracts(bend) and sometimes
reflect(bounces back)
4. P waves are compressional waves and can travel through gases, liquids, and solids. S
waves are shear waves and travel only through solids
The lithosphere includes the rocks of the crust and mantle, the metallic liquid outer core,
and the solid metallic inner core. It is far the largest of the four spheres, extending 6,370 km
from the surface to the center of the earth. It is surrounded by the hydrosphere, the biosphere
and the atmosphere
It consists of three major layers:
a. Core- the dense, metallic, innermost region of Earth’s geosphere, consisting
mainly of iron and nickel. The outer core is molten but the inner core is solid
b. Mantle- the rocky, mostly solid layer of Earth’s geosphere lying beneath the
crust and above the core. The mantle extends from the base of the crust to a
depth of about 2,900 km
c. Crust- the outermost layer of Earth’s geosphere, about 7 to 70 km thick and
composed of relative low density silicate rock
The Crust
 The crust, the outermost layer, is rigid and very thin compared with the other two.
 Beneath the oceans, the crust varies little in thickness, generally extending only to about
5 km.
 The thickness of the crust beneath continents is much more variable but averages about
30 km; under large mountain ranges
 Like the shell of an egg, the Earth's crust is brittle and can break
 The temperatures of the crust vary from air temperature on top to about 1600 degrees
Fahrenheit (870 degrees Celsius) in the deepest parts of the crust.
 Continental Crust
 The continental crust is composed mostly of granite.
 Continental crust is about 35 km thick. Continental crust below 15km is plastic.
 Under mountains, crust can be much thicker.
Oceanic Crust
 The oceanic crust consists of a volcanic lava rock called basalt.
 Oceanic crust is elastic-brittle all the way through.
 Basaltic rocks of the ocean plates are much denser and heavier than the granitic rock of
the continental plates.
 Because of this the continents ride on the denser oceanic plates
  Crustal columns usually have the same total mass: they float like blocks of wood in the
liquid-like mantle.
 Lithosphere and Asthenosphere
 The crust and the upper layer of the mantle together make up a zone of rigid, brittle rock
called the Lithosphere.
 The layer below the rigid lithosphere is a zone of asphalt-like consistency called the
Asthenosphere.
 The asthenosphere is the part of the mantle that flows and moves the plates of the
Earth.
 Lithosphere is solid and includes the crust and the rigid, outermost part of the mantle.
 The Moho (Mohorovicic Discontinuity) is the boundary between crust and mantle.
 Mantle
 The mantle is a thick section that has a peridotite (olivine + pyroxene) composition.
Part of it is squishy and oozes (the asthenosphere) The asthenosphere consists of a
weak , plastic rock with partly molten characteristics where magma may form. The average
temperature is about 1,800°C. The strong, hard lithosphere lies and float on top of the soft,
weak asthenosphere. This concept of floating lithosphere is important to our understanding of
plate tectonics and earth’s internal processes.
 The outer 100 km is rather rigid and bound to the crust.
 It is 2900 km thick and makes up most of the earth's volume, and has density ranging
from 3.3 to 5.5 at the bottom due to compression and phase changes.
 It is the largest layer of the Earth, 1800 miles thick.
 The mantle is composed of very hot, dense rock.
 This layer of rock even flows like asphalt under a heavy weight.
 This flow is due to great temperature differences from the bottom to the top of the
mantle.
 The movement of the mantle is the reason that the plates of the Earth move! The
temperature of the mantle varies from 1600 degrees Fahrenheit at the top to about
4000 degrees Fahrenheit near the bottom!
Convection Currents
 The mantle is made of much denser, thicker material, because of this the plates "float"
on it like oil floats on water.
 Many geologists believe that the mantle "flows" because of convection currents. 
 Convection currents are caused by the very hot material at the deepest part of the
mantle rising, then cooling, sinking again and then heating, rising and repeating the
cycle over and over.
The Core

 The core of the Earth is like a ball of very hot metals (4000 degrees F. to 9000 degrees
F.).
 The core is made largely of iron with nickel, sulfur, and possibly other elements.
 The outer part is liquid (outer core).
 The inner part is solid (inner core).
 The density is around 10 to 13 g/cc.
  It is 2250 km thick, but accounts for much mass.
 The outer core is so hot that the metals in it are all in the liquid state.
 The outer core is located about 1800 miles beneath the crust and is about 1400 miles
thick. The outer core is composed of the melted metals nickel and iron.
The dense, metallic, innermost region of earth’s geosphere, consisting mainly of iron and
nickel. The outer core is molten but the inner core is solid.
The Earth’s Magnetic Field

 Earth’s magnetic field is created by the rotation of the

outer fluid core around the solid inner core.
 This creates an electrical current
 Generates an electromagnetic Field.
 Similar to a bar magnet with a positive and negative
end
 Earth’s magnetic field plays a vital role in the
development of Plate tectonics theory
 Identification of a process that allows for Sea Floor
Spreading.
 Earth’s magnetic field interacts with solar particles, forcing them to the north or south
pole, creating the Aurora Borealis

3. THE HYDROSPHERE
The hydrosphere includes all of Earth’s water, which circulates among oceans, lakes, rivers,
continents, glaciers, and the atmosphere. Oceans cover 71 percent of Earth and contain 97.5
percent of its water. Ocean currents transport heat across vast distances, altering global
climate.
Earth’s Water % composition
Oceans 97.5
Glaciers 1.8
Ground water 0.63
Streams, rivers and lakes 0.01
Atmosphere 0.001
Oceans cover 71 percent of the earth and contain 97.5 percent of its water. Only 3%
of Earth's water is fresh: two-thirds are in the form of ice, and the remaining one-third is present
in streams, lakes, and groundwater.
Ocean currents transport heat across vast distances, altering global climate. About 1.8 percent
of earth’s water is frozen in glaciers. It covers about 10 percent of Earth’s land surface today.
Only about 0.64 percent of earth’s total water exists on the continents as a liquid. Lakes, rivers,
and clear sparkling streams are the most visible reservoirs of continental water but they
constitute only 0.01 percent of Earth’s water. In contrast, ground water which saturates rock
and soil of upper few km of the geosphere accounts for 0.63 percent of earth’s water. Only
0.001 percent exists in the atmosphere which affects both the weather and climate of our
planet.
The oceans are important sinks for CO2 through direct exchange with the atmosphere
and
indirectly through the weathering of rocks.Heat is absorbed and redistributed on the surface of
the Earth through ocean circulation.
Isolated and complex ecosystems thrive in the deep sea floor at depths beyond the reach of
sunlight. The base of the food chain for such ecosystems is called chemosynthetic organisms.
Instead of sunlight, these organisms use energy from hydrothermal vents or methane seeps
(methane seeping through rocks and sediments) to produce simple sugars. Through the
process of weathering and erosion, the hydrologic cycle is another important process
contributing to the shaping and reshaping of the surface of the Earth. This is an important link
among the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and lithosphere that the learners should be able to
identify themselves.
The World’s Oceans
71% of the Earth’s surface is covered by water. The oceans contain 97% of the earth’s
water. All the oceans and seas are actually one continuous body of water.
Oceanographers are scientists who study the ocean and its processes.
Importance of Oceans
Oceans affect all living things—even those far from the shore. Oceans provide a place
for many organisms to live.
How were the oceans formed?
When Earth was still a young planet, many active volcanoes existed. As they erupted,
lava, ash, and gases were released from deep within the Earth. One of these gases was
water vapor. Over millions of years, the water vapor cooled enough to condense and
form clouds. Then torrential rains began to fall from the clouds. Eventually, much of the
land was covered by water that formed
Oceans
The oceans are the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, and Arctic. The Pacific Ocean is the largest
ocean.The area and volume of the Pacific Ocean are greater than the Atlantic and Indian
combined.
Properties of Ocean Water
Ocean water is a mixture of gases and solids dissolved in pure water. Oceanographers
believe oceans contain all the natural elements on Earth. 85 of 90 have been found in
the ocean.
Major Elements in the Ocean
Ocean water is 96% pure water. Chlorine (1.9) and sodium (1.1) make up the next
largest concentration of elements.
Sodium chloride is table salt. Salinity describes the amount of dissolved salt in the
ocean. Salinity is expressed in parts per thousand. The most abundant gases in ocean
water are nitrogen, carbon dioxide and oxygen.
The amounts of these elements vary with depth. They are more abundant at the ocean’s
surface where sunlight causes more plant life.
Temperature of Ocean Water
Warm water holds less dissolved gas than cold water.When ocean water is cold, like in
polar regions, it sinks and carries oxygen rich water to the ocean depths.As a result, fish
and other animals can live in deep parts of the ocean.
Movement of Water
Upwelling is the upward movement of cold water from the ocean depths Upwelling
brings up tiny ocean organisms, minerals, and other nutrients from the deeper layers of
the water; without upwelling the surface of the ocean would be nutrient deficient
El Nino
El Nino is an abnormal climate event that occurs every 2-7 years in the Pacific Ocean,
causing changes in the winds, currents, and weather patterns. El Nino interrupts up the
 pattern of upwelling. Without nutrients provided by upwelling, fish and other organisms
cannot find food.Fish and other organisms die and weather patterns are disturbed.
The Ocean Floor
 The ocean floor has higher mountains, deeper canyons, and larger flatter plains.
Earthquakes occur more often. The rocks are very different. The crust is thinner. The
continental shelf is the gradually sloping end of a continent that extends under the
ocean.The ocean covering the continental shelf can be as deep as 350 m. Large
mineral, oil and natural gas deposits are found here. At the edge of the continental shelf,
the ocean floor plunges steeply 4 to 5 kilometers. The continental slope extends from
the outer edge of the continental shelf down to the ocean floor. Large, flat areas on the
ocean floor are called abyssal plains. The abyssal plains- are larger in the Atlantic and
Indian than in the Pacific due to the deposition of sediments by large rivers.The Pacific
Ocean has large cracks that trap sediments and result in smaller abyssal plains. Abyssal
plains are close to the continent and are made of mud, sand and silt. Farther out on the
abyssal plains, some of them contain the remains of tiny organisms that form ooze.
Where ocean life is not abundant, the floor of the ocean is covered with red clay.
Seamounts are underwater volcanic mountains that rise more than 100 meters above
the ocean floor. Most have been found in the Pacific Ocean. Some seamounts reach
above the surface of the water to form islands, like the Azores in the Atlantic and the
Hawaiian islands in the Pacific. Guyots are flat-topped seamounts. Trenches are the
deepest parts of the ocean found along the edge of the ocean floor. The Mariana
Trench in the Pacific Ocean contains the deepest spot (1100 meters) on Earth known as
Challenger Deep. A mid-ocean ridge is the area in an ocean basin where new ocean
floor is formed. The mid-ocean ridges form an almost continuous mountain belt that
extends from the Arctic Ocean down through the middle of the Atlantic Ocean around
Africa into the Indian Ocean and across the Pacific Ocean. In the Atlantic it is called the
mid-Atlantic Ridge and in the Pacific, the Pacific-Antarctica Ridge.
Ocean Life Zones
The plant and animal life in the ocean is affected by several factors. One factor is the
amount of sunlight that penetrates the ocean. Another factor is the temperature of the
ocean water. Water pressure is also a factor.
Major Groups of Ocean Life
Plants and animals in the ocean are classified into three major groups based on their
habits and the depth of the water in which they live. The three major groups are
plankton, nekton and benthos. Plankton float at or near the surface where sunlight
can penetrate. Most of the plankton are very small, such as algae. These organisms drift
with the currents or tides. Plankton are the main food for many larger organisms. They
account for most of the organisms in the ocean. Jellyfish, which float on the ocean
surface, is one example of plankton. Whales, seals, dolphins, squid octopuses,
barracuda and other fish are all nekton. Nekton are free-swimming organisms that feed
on other nekton as well as on plankton .Many have adaptations enabling them to
function at depths that have great pressure and no light. Organisms that live on the
ocean floor are benthos. Crabs, and lobster are just a few examples of benthos. The
deep bottom environments are sparsely populated with benthos. Some benthos are
plants that live on the ocean floor in shallow waters where sun can penetrate. A starfish
 is an example of benthos

Seas
A sea is one of the largest bodies of salt water, less than an ocean, found on the earth’s
surface.The Mediterranean, Arctic and Black Sea are really part of the Atlantic Ocean.
4. The BIOSPHERE
The biosphere is the set of all life forms on Earth. It covers all ecosystems—from the
soil to the rainforest, from mangroves to coral reefs, and from the plankton-rich ocean
surface to the deep sea. For the majority of life on Earth, the base of the food chain
comprises photosynthetic
organisms. During photosynthesis, CO2 is sequestered from the atmosphere, while oxygen
is released as a by product. The biosphere is a CO2 sink, and therefore, an important part of
the carbon cycle. The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon i s transferred among the
atmosphere, oceans, soil, and living organisms. Sunlight is not necessary for life. The
biosphere is the set of all life forms on Earth. It covers all ecosystems—from the soil to the
rainforest, from mangroves to coral reefs,

Layers of the Earth

Layer Composition Depth Properties

Crust Oceanic crust Basalt 4 to 7 km Cool, hard
and strong
Continental Granite 20 to 70 km Cool, hard,
crust and strong

Lithosphere The crust and Varies; the 75 to 125 km Cool, hard,

the crust and the and strong
Uppermost mantle have
portion of the different
mantle compositions
Mantle(excluding Asthenosphere Plastic, Extends to Hot, weak,
the uppermost ultramafic 350 km and 1% or 2%
portion, which is rock, mainly melted
part peridotite,
throughout
entire mantle;
mineralogy
Remainder of varies with Extends Hot, under
upper mantle depth from 350 t0 great
 660 km pressure and
mechanically
strong

Lower mantle Extends High pressure

from 660 to forms
2900 km minerals
different from
those of the
upper mantle

Core Outer core Iron and Extends Liquid

nickel from 2,900
to 5,150 km
Inner core Extends solid
Iron and from5,150
nickel km to the
center of
earth

ENRICHMENT
1.The impact of man to the environment has become so massive that scientists are proposing
the addition of man or the ‘anthroposphere’ to the Earth system. Write an essay not exceeding
200 words on how man has altered the atmosphere, biosphere,hydrosphere, lithosphere, and
as a consequence, the Earth System as whole.

2.What are the factors that make a planet habitable?

. Life, in general can tolerate a wide range of temperature conditions. The temperature range
that allows water to exist in the liquid state is the over-riding factor.
• planets should have sufficient size to hold a significant atmosphere. The composition of the
atmosphere, specifically the amount of green house gases, influences the planet surface
temperature.
• the amount of solar radiation that a planet receives is primarily a function of distance from the
sun. Sunlight is essential for photosynthesis but some organism are able to extract energy
from other sources (chemosynthetic organisms).
• a system that will be able to constantly supply nutrients to organisms is important to sustain
life. On Earth, nutrients are cycled through the hydrologic cycle and plate tectonics (volcanism)
• Internal heat drives plate tectonics. The ability of a planet to maintain internal heat is related
to size.

Factors Not Enough of Just Right Too Much of the Situation in the Solar
that the Factor Factor System
make a
Planet
Habitable
Temperatu Low Life seems to At about 125oC, Surface: only the
re temperatures be protein and Earth’s surface is in
influences cause chemicals limited to a carbohydrate this temperature
how to react slowly, temperature molecules, and the range. Sub-surface:
quickly which interferes range of - genetic material the interior of the
atoms with the reactions 15oC (e.g., DNA and solid planets and
and necessary for life. to 115oC. In RNA) start to break moons may be in this
molecules It can also cause this apart. Also, high temperature range.
move. the freezing of range, liquid temperatures
water, making water can cause the quick
liquid water still evaporation of
unavailable. exist under water.
certain
conditions.
Atmospher Small planets Earth & Venus atmosphere Of the solid planets &
e and moons have Venus is 100 times thicker moons, only
insufficient are the right than Earth’s. It is Earth,Venus, & Titan
gravity to hold an size to hold a made have significant
atmosphere. The sufficient- almost entirely of atmospheres. Mars’
gas molecules sized greenhouse atmosphere is about
escape to space, atmosphere. gasses, making the 1/100th that of
leaving the Earth’s surface too hot for Earth’s, too small for
planet or moon atmosphere life. The four giant significant insulation
without an is planets are or shielding.
insulating blanket about 100 completely made
or a protective miles thick. It of gas.
shield. keeps
the surface
warm &
protects
it from
radiation
& small- to
medium-
sized
meteorites.
Energy When there is too With a light energy is a Surface: The inner
little sunlight steady input problem if it makes planets get too much
or too few of the of either a planet too hot or sunlight for life. The
chemicals that light or if there are too outer planets get too
provide energy chemical many harmful little.
to cells, such as energy, cells rays,such as Sub-surface: Most
iron or sulfur, can run the ultraviolet. solid planets & moons
organisms die. chemical Too many energy have energy-rich
reactions rich chemicals is chemicals.
necessary not a problem
for
life.
Nutrients Without All solid Too many nutrients Surface: Earth has a
Used to chemicals to planets are not a problem. water cycle, an
build makeproteins & & moons However, too atmosphere, and
and carbohydrates, have active a circulation volcanoes to circulate
maintain organisms cannot the same system, such as nutrients. Venus,
 an grow. Planets general the Titan, Io, and Mars
organism’s without systems chemical constant volcanism have nutrients and
body to deliver makeup, so on Jupiter’s moon, ways to circulate
nutrients to its nutrients are Io, or the churning them to organisms.
organisms (e.g., present. atmospheres of the Sub-surface: Any
a Those gas planets, planet or moon with
water cycle or with a water interferes with an sub-surface water or
volcanic activity) cycle or organism’s ability molten rock can
cannot support volcanic to get enough circulate and
life. Also, when activity can nutrients replenish nutrients for
nutrients are transport and organisms
spread so thin replenish the
that they are hard chemicals
to obtain, such as required by
on a gas planet, living
life cannot exist. organisms.

Ecosystem
The study of the relationship between organisms and their environments is the science
of ecology. The word ecosystem refers to a community of organisms and the relationships of
those organisms to each other and their environment. An ecosystem is dynamic in that its
various parts are always changing. Ecosystems are an important aspect of natural
environments which are affected by the interaction of many processes and components
Earth’s most critical characteristics is that it is a life-support system. On Earth, natural
processes produce an adequate supply of oxygen; the sun interacts with the atmosphere,
oceans, and land to maintain tolerable temperatures; and photosynthesis or other processes
provide food supplies for living things. If a critical part of life-support system is significantly
changed or fails to operate properly, living organisms may no longer be able to survive.
How systems Work
The Earth and its subsystems “work” by the movement (or transfer) of matter and energy
and the processes involved with these transfers. For example, sunlight (energy) warms
(process) a body of water (matter) and the water evaporates(process) into the atmosphere.
Later, the water condenses (process) back into a liquid and the rain(matter) falls (process) on
the land and runs off (process) downslope back to the sea.
Most Earth subsystems are open systems because both energy and matter move freely
across subsystem boundaries as inputs and outputs. A stream system is an excellent illustration
of an open system. Matter and energy in the form of soil particles, rock fragments, solar energy,
and precipitation enter the stream, and water and sediments leave the stream where it empties
into the ocean or some other body of water.
A closed system is one which no substantial amount of matter crosses its boundaries,
although energy can go in and out. Planet Earth is essentially a closed system. Except for the
meteorites that reach the Earth’s surface, the escape of atmospheric gas molecules to space,
and a few moon rocks brought back by astronauts, the Earth system is essentially closed to the
input or output of matter.