Respiration

 The process involved in the exchange of oxygen and

carbon dioxide between an organism and its environment
is called respiration.
 The respiratory system is important for respiration.
Respiration starts as you breathe in air into your lungs.
 Respiratory System is the network of organs and tissues
that help you breath, It includes your airways, lungs and
blood vessels
 The muscles that power your lungs are also part of the
respiratory system these parts work together to move
oxygen throughout the body and clean out waste gases
like carbon dioxide
 It is responsible for getting oxygen from the atmosphere
 The stages of respiration are well connected.
 Respiration is divided into two stages: breathing and
cellular respiration.
 Exchange of gases in the lungs happen within the alveoli
 Respiration has two major steps: breathing and gas
exchange. (Breathing has two phases: inhalation and
exhalation.)
 Nasal Cavity

 Nasal Cavity/Nostrils: serve as the opening to the

respiratory tract, also serves as the initial or first passage
of air that we breathe. It is a large air filled space above
and behind the nose in the middle of the face. Houses the
receptors, responsible for olfaction. (Function: to
humidify, warm, moisturize and filter air entering the
body before it reaches the lungs, and act as the conduit for
inspired air as well as protect the respiratory tract
thorough the use of mucociliary system.)
Pharynx Epiglottis/Glottis

Pharynx: connects mouth and nasal cavity to the

esophagus. It is the common passageway of both food
and air. The Trachea and esophagus comprises the
pharynx wherein trachea is the passage way of air that we
breathe after the nasal cavity while esophagus which is
part of the digestive system serves the passageway for
food
 Epiglottis: is a flap of cartilage that opens when breathing
and closes when swallowing. Flap of cartilage preventing
swallowed food to enter trachea. It is a cartilaginous fluff
on top of the glottis that prevents the food entering into
the trachea.
 Glottis: Slit like opening to the trachea. Glottis opened
into the trachea and is responsible for the production of
sound. This is why we are not allowed to talk while eating,
because the food might enter the trachea that will make
choke. Our body usually do coughing in order to release
the food.
 Larynx Trachea

 Larynx: also known as the voice box because the vocal

cords are located in the larynx, is involved in sound
production. It produces the sound because the vocal cords
control the size of the opening of the glottis, it controls
the amount of air that is needed in order to produce
sounds (In male larynx is really prominent we can identify
the location of our voice box since it is being protected by
a thyroid cartilage or knows as the Adam’s apple, it also
the reason why males has deeper voice than females)
 Trachea: also known as windpipe connects the larynx and
pharynx to the lungs. It has rings of cartilage in its wall
that keeps it open, it is also lined with cilia since nasal hair
cannot fully filter the air that gets inside our nasal cavity
so the trachea servers as another filter (In our body
 trachea is also in the same location with the esophagus
same location but it serves different function

Bronchi Lungs

 Bronchi are two air passageway tubes branching out from

the trachea that directs air to the lungs. They branch out
into smaller tubes known as bronchioles they are air
passages inside the lungs that branch off like tree limbs
from the bronchi. They also deliver air to tiny sucks called
alveoli where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchange. It
functions to carry air that is breath in through the
functional tissues of the lungs called alveoli
 Lungs: are the main organs for respiration where oxygen
is taken into and carbon dioxide is expelled out. It’s a pair
of spongy airfield organs located on either side of the
 chest. It is
also the
major
organ of
the
respiratory system and
divided into two lobes the left and the right lung. (Lung
are covered by a delicate membrane called Pleura, it is the
vital part of the respiratory tract whose role is to caution
the lungs and reduce any friction develop between the
lungs and the chest cavity. It consist of a two layered
membrane that covers each lung

Alveoli Rib Cage

 Alveoli: are tiny sac-like structures present at the end of

bronchioles. It is the end point of the respiratory system.
It has very thin walls and also server as the site for
respiration.
o Alveolus Gas Exchange – the alveoli are where
the lungs and the blood exchange oxygen and
 carbon dioxide during the process of breathing
in and breathing out. The alveoli are surrounded
by tiny blood vessels called capillaries. The
alveoli and capillaries both have very thin walls
which allow the oxygen to pass from the alveoli
to the blood the capillaries then connect to the
larger blood vessels called veins which bring the
oxygenated blood form the lungs to the heart
 Rib Cage: The rib Cage is the arrangement of ribs attached
to the vertebral volume and sternum in the thorax of
most vertebrates heart and lungs from external injury

Diaphragm

 Diaphragm: is a dome-shaped muscle at the bottom of the

lungs that expands or contracts when breathing. The
muscle that helps us In the process of breathing is what
we call the diaphragm. The diaphragm is 18 skeletal
muscles that sits at the base of the chest and separates
the abdomen from the chest. It contracts and flattens
when you inhale this creates a vacuum effect that pulls air
into the lungs when u exhale the diaphragm relaxes and
the air is pushed out of the lungs
Respiration
 To sustain life the body must produce sufficient energy;
Energy is produced by burning molecules in food which is
done by the process of oxidation where by food molecules
are combined with oxygen.
 Oxidation involves carbon and hydrogen being combined
with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water the
consumption of oxygen and the production of carbon
dioxide are thus indispensible to life
 It follows that the human body must have an organ
system designed to eliminate carbon dioxide from the
circulating blood and absorb oxygen from the atmosphere
at the rate rapid enough for the body need even during
peak exercise
  The respiratory system enables oxygen to enter the body
and carbon dioxide to leave the body.
 Respiration is a chemical reaction that happens in all
living cells. It is the that energy is released from glucose so
that all other chemical processes needed for life can
happen
 Respiration has three different types (External, Internal
and Cellular respiration).
 Respiration is a process in which food is broken down in
the cells with the help of oxygen to release energy. Cells
get oxygen though breathing
Pathway of Air
1. It Start at the nose and mouth and continues to the air way
and the lungs. Air enters the respiratory system through
the nasal cavity, and passes down the throat or pharynx,
and through the voice box also known as larynx
2. The entrance to the larynx is covered by a small flab of
tissue called epiglottis that automatically closes during
swallowing
3. The windpipe or trachea is the largest airway, the trachea
branches into two smaller airways the left and right bronchi
which lead to the two lungs
4. Each lung is divided into sections or loops three in the right
lung and two in the left lung.
5. The left lung is a little smaller than the right lung because it
shares space in the left side of the chest with the heart
6. The bronchi themselves may times into smaller airways
ending in the narrowest airways called the bronchioles
7. Thousands of small air sacs or alveoli are at the end of each
bronchiole within the alveolar walls is a dense network of
tiny blood vessels called capillaries
8. The extremely thin barrier between the alveoli and
capillaries allow oxygen to move from the alveoli into the
blood and allows carbon dioxide to move from the blood
into the capillaries
Types of Respiration

 External respiration occurs in the nasal level where

oxygen in getting in the nasal cavity and carbon dioxide is
breathing out. This is called external respiration because
it involves at interaction with the environment. In other
words external respiration is sometimes given used with
the word breathing
 Internal Respiration occurs internally or inside of the
body, when the oxygen from the air reaches the lungs it
gets transported into the blood similarly carbon dioxide
from the blood is given out of the lungs until it reaches the
nasal area then the oxygen will travel to our body and will
receive by the body cells while the carbon dioxide in the
 body cells will transfer towards the blood cells this
exchange of gas that occurs in the lung, blood, and body
cells are called internal respiration
 Cellular Respiration it is restricted within the cells only
wherein oxygen is used to break down food molecules in
the cells sometimes there is confusion about cellular and
internal respiration but now the difference is very clear
 Breathing

Breathing:
 Breathing is the process of moving air into and out of the
lungs to facilitate gas exchange with the internal
environment mostly by bringing in oxygen and flushing
out carbon dioxide.
 Breathing is part of respiration, breathing is a smaller
process connected to a larger process which is respiration
 The mechanism of breathing involves two main processes
inspiration and expiration.
o Inspiration Occurs when the diaphragm and the
external intercostal muscles contract when
o Expiration occurs when the diaphragm and the
intercostal muscles relax
 It is just a part of a more complex process of respirations.
Respiration that involves gas exchange in the respiratory
system can be divided two major steps:
Breathing
 Inhalataion
 Exhalation

Gas Exchange
 between air and blood in the lungs

Breathing is the movement of air into and out of the lungs.

Inhalation
As a person breathes in, the diaphragm contracts, Contraction
of the diaphragm increases the size of the pressuree chest and
induces the decrease in air pressure within the lungs. This
difference in air pressure between the lungs and the
atmosphere causes air to rush into the lungs.
Exhalation
As a person breathes out, the diaphragm relaxes. The
relaxation of the diaphragm decreases the size of the chest
leading to the increase in air pressure in the lungs. The higher
pressure in the lungs compared to the atmosphere pushes air
to rush out of the lungs.
The gas exchange between air and the blood specifically
happens in the alveoli within the lungs. The mechanism behind
the exchange of gasses between the air and the blood in the
capillaries is diffusion. Diffusion is the movement of gases from
a higher concentration to a lower concentration.

 During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts, and the chest

expands.
 During exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes, and the chest
contracts.
 Gas exchange is governed by diffusion.
 Diffusion is the movement of gases from a higher
concentration to a lower concentration.
Steps for a Healthy respiratory system
- Increase your walking – how fast or how slowly you normally
walk may predict how long you’ll live. Walking also help to
exercise you lung.
- Maintain a healthy weight – Excess weight puts more stress
on your muscles, making them work harder and less
efficiently.
- Stay Hydrated – Drinking plenty of water every day helps
maintain a healthy weight and gives a thin consistency to the
mucus lining your airways and lungs
- Do not Smoke – Smoking damages lung and respiratory health
by including inflammation. It is important to quit smoking and
avoid having smokers lungs as you age
- Protect yourself against pollution – wearing a face mask will
act as a protective barrier to your respiratory system on those
days when pollution is high. Monitor pollution is HIGH.
Monitor pollution levels for your city and act accordingly
- Reduce alcohol Intake – Alcohol dehydrates your body and its
consumption weakens the immune system, making you prone
to respiratory disease
- Learn Yoga breathing Techniques – This not only helps your
lung function better but it can also bring on a sense of calm.
This can be quite renewing, and is excellent exercise for your
lungs. Over time, It can help increase your lung capacity
- Don’t Stress
Circulatory System
- It is a fluid-filled network of tubes through which material
move between the environment and the cells of a
multicellular animal/Organism.
Functions of Circulatory System
- Transportation: It transport gasses, nutrients, hormones
to our body, and it also eliminates waste product
- Regulation: It regulates and sustains the body
temperature, pressure and acidity to maintain our body in
homeostasis
- Protection: It helps us fighting foreign substances that
gets inside our body and it also hit our wounds through
blood clotting
Major Parts in Circulatory System
Heart – continuously pump and circulated the blood all
throughout the body using the blood vessel as the transport
system
Blood Vessels – arteries that caries oxygenated blood away
from the heart and veins that carry the oxygenated blood back
to the heart
Blood – that carries oxygen and nutrients to be delivered to
the rest of the body and waste products to be eliminated
Parts of the human heart
- Superior vena cava/Inferior vena Cava are blood vessels
that provides as the entrance of the oxygenated blood
towards the heart and is received by the right atria then
pass through the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle then
to the pulmonary arteries going to the lungs to be
oxygenated again then it will return to the heart using the
pulmonary veins it will be received by the left atria
passing mitral valve then left ventricle the oxygenated
blood will now be delivered to the rest of the body
through the aorta
Parts of The circulatory Systems

- Heart – is composed of strong cardiac muscle tissues that

continuously contract and relax to pump blood all
throughout the body. Cardiac muscles are only found in
the heart and mix up the bulk of the heart’s mass. The
heart beats powerfully and continuously throughout an
entire lifetime without any rest so cardiac muscles has
able to have incredible high contractile strength and
endurance
 There are four major chambers (Two atria, and
two ventricles) These chambers highly coordinate
in pumping blood that must deliver oxygen to the
tissues and take carbon dioxide for disposal
 - Blood Vessels

Different Types of Blood Vessels

 Arteries – deliver oxygen-rich blood to the cells
away from the heart as arteries penetrate the
organs they decrease in diameter and become
arterioles
 Veins – return oxygen poor blood from the cells
back to the heart as the veins go inward the organs
they decrease in diameter and become venules.
 Capillaries – are small blood vessels that connect
arteries and veins. These can penetrate the inner
portion of different organs and facilitate the
transfer of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and dissolved
substances in and out of your blood.
(Your blood vessels could circle the globe though blood vessels
are relatively small the network is long. If they were laid out in
a line they would measure more than 60, 000 miles in length)
- Blood – The blood of an average person has to four to six
liters of blood, blood is responsible for transporting
materials and for immune defends, The major
components of blood can be divided into the extracellular
fluid and the formed elements

 Extracellular fluid – plasma is the fluid part of the

blood it hold the blood cells in suspension and
makes up 55% of the bloods volume
 Red/White Blood Cells Hemoglobin/Oxy-Deoxyhemoglobin

 Formed Elements
o The Red Blood cells it is the most abundant
cells in the blood nearly 40% of the bloods
volume is red blood cells
o Hemoglobin – an iron containing protein in
RBC. It is the one responsible for attracting the
oxygen that is available in our lungs when
haemoglobin is loaded with oxygen, it can be
referred to as oxyhemoglobin. It is
characterized by a bright red color.
Deoxyhemoglobin is the form of hemoglobin
without oxygen that is purple to bluish color.
o White Blood Cells – Immunity cells involved in
protecting the body against infectious agents
and foreign bodies
Types of White Blood Cells
 Netrophils – respond to bacterial and fungal
infections
 Basophils – aid in allergic reactions
 Eosinophils – help in controlling parasitic
infection and allergic reaction
 Lymphocytes are for Viral infection and
adaptive imunity
 Monocytes are for chronic infections and part
of the innate immunity
 Platelets – responsible for blood clotting


Blood Cirulation
- The Cardio Vascular System is composed of two circulatory
Parts

o Systemic Circulation – the circuit through the rest of

the body to provide oxygenated blood. Carries away
waste (Left Ventricle, Aorta, Organs and Body Parts,
Superior Vena Cava, Right Atriums)
o Pulmonary Circulation – the circuit through the lungs
where blood is oxygenated. Eliminates Carbon
Dioxide (Right Ventricle, Pulmonary Arteries,
Capillaries in the Lungs, Pulmonary Veins, Left Atrium)
- The right and left sides of the heart work together

- In the right side of the heart, blood enters the heart

though two large veins, the inferior and superior vena cava
emptying oxygen poor blood from the body into the right
atrium of the heart
- As the atrium contracts, blood flows from your right
atrium into your right ventricle through the open tricuspid
valve,
- When the ventricle is full the tricuspid valve shuts, this
prevents blood from flowing backward into the atria while
ventricular contracts
- As the ventricle contracts blood leaves the heart
throughout the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery
and to the lungs where it is oxygenated that oxygen poor
or carbon dioxide containing blood goes through the
pulmonary artery to the lungs where carbon dioxide is
exchanged for oxygen
- While for the left side of the heart the pulmonary vein
empties oxygen rich blood from the lungs into the left
atrium of the heart
- As the atrium contracts blood flows from the left atrium
into your left ventricle through the open Mitral Valve.
When the ventricle is full the mitral valve shuts this
prevents blood from flowing backward into the atrium
while the ventricle contracts.
- As the ventricle Contracts oxygen and rich blood leaves
the heart through the aortic valve into the aorta into the
arteries and eventually into vein to complete the blood
circulation in your body
A type of biological inheritance that follows the principle
originally proposed by gregor mendel during the year 1865 to
1866
Gregor Mendel
- he is an Austrian monk and also known as the father of
genetics
- (Genetics is the science which deals with how genes
control the biological characteristics of an organism)
- He discovered the fundamental laws of inheritance he
deduced that the genes come in pairs and are inherited as
distinct units. (One from each parent) (He experiment in
Peas)
- He track the segregation of parental genes and their
appearance in the offspring as dominant or recessive traits
- He used the pea plant to observed the traits that can be
inherited from a parent pea plant, just like flower color,
seed color, seed shape, pod color pad shape and power
position
 Mendelian Inheritance
- The inheritance of a trait determined by a factor of the
gene which is passed from parents to offspring and is held
to determine some traits and characteristics.
- There are times when the inherited trait may be not
observable in an organism but could be observed in a
future generations any organism is a by-product of both its
genetic makeup and the environment

Gene - can exist in different forms across organisms these

different forms are known as alleles, (It’s the exact fixed
position on the chromosomes that contains a particular gene is
known as a lucus.)
o Dominant Allele: The allele that masks the presence of
another type of allele
o Recessive Allele: The allele in which expression is maked
A diploid Organism either inherits two copies of the same
allele or one copy of two different alleles from their parents.
Homozygous: wherein the alleles for a gene are identical.
When using letters, it can be written as RR o rr. This is an
alternative term to the true-breeding condition
Heterozygous: a condition wherein the alleles for a gene are
not identical. When using letters, it can be represents as Rr.

Phenotype: refers to the observable physical properties of an

organism this includes the organism’s appearance,
development and behaviour.
An organism phenotype is determined by a its genotype
Genotype: is the set of genes the organisms carries as well as
by the environmental influences upon these genes
The gene is locates in the locus of the chromosomes that
carries specific allele it can be eye colour gene, hair colour gene
or any othe types of allele and this gene will call a secific trait or
phenotype.

Mendelian Inheritance
- Based on his findings the genetic crosses, mendel
proposed the laws
o Law of dominance – a dominant trait exist when a
dominant allele masks the expression of the recessive
allele. (A recessive trait exist if the dominant allele is
no present and has a pair of recessive alleles)
 Individual with homozygous (TT or tt =)
genotypes may exhibit dominant or
recessive trait
 Individuals with heterozygous (Tt) pair of
alleles will only exhibit the dominant trait
o Law of Segregation – In the experiments, Crossed
parent plants have one tall allele (T) that dominates
the short allele (t) causing it to grow tall (Tt) To get
the short plants (tt) from these parents, the alleles
from the short and tall plants should separate,
otherwise this generation of short plants is not
possible
 During gametegenesis, the alles for a gene
separate, Each gamete then has equal
chances of being obtained by a gamete.

o Law of Independent Assortment – Mendel’s work on

several cross breeds, he observe that the heoght of
the plant (T), color (Y), and shape (R) of the seeds had
no effect in the inheritance of one another. Different
traits are inherited dependently
Monohybrid Cross
Testcross is performed to determine the genotype of an
individual with the trait is dominant (The concerned Individual
is crossed to one with the trait is recessive)

Punnet Square – In a testcross, the results are shown in a box

known as punnet square. It was devised by a geneticist
Reginald Punnet. This individuals to be crossed
Steps in Solving Monohybrid Cross
1. Identify the Trait
2. Identify the dominant form of the trait
3. Assign a letter for the allele.
4. Determine the genotype of parents
5. Set up the punnet square
6. Determine the genotypic Ratio
7. Determine the phenotypic ratio
Steps in Solving Dihydric Cross
1. Figure out the genotypes if the parents
2. Figure out what kind of gametes the parent can produce
(FOIL METHID)
3. Set up a punnet square for your cross, One set gametes go
across the top and the other, down the column
4. Fill in the offspring inside the table
5. Figure out the genotypic, and phenotypic ratios
These Laws describe the inheritance of trait linked to single
genes on chromosomes in the nucleus (Incomplete Dominance,
Sex-linked Traits, Multiple alleles).

Incomplete Dominance
- Counterpart of Mendelian Inheritance. It is any pattern of
inheritance in which traits do no segregate in accordance
with mendel’s laws.
- One allele doesn’t completely mask the other – resulting
somewhere in between (The dominat allele didn’t
completely mass or cover the other allele that result in the
combination of alleles)
Sex-Linked Inheritance
- Chromosomal sex – is determined at the time of
ferilizaation a chromosome from the sprem cell either x or
y fuses with the x chrmosome in the egg cell
- Traits carries on the X chromosome (23rd pair in humans)

- The X chromosomes has many genes on it while the Y

chromosomes has very few genew on it
- Most known sex-linked traits are X linked because the X
chromosomes is much lareger and carried genes than the
Y chromosomes
 - Sex Determination – the sex of an individual is determined
by the sex chromosomes contributed to the zygote by the
sperm and the egg. the sex chromosomes for female is xx
while xy for male
o If the X Chrmosomes of the sperm fused with the X
chromosome of the egg cell the offspring will become
female.
o If the Y chromosome of the sperm fused with the X
chromosome of the egg cell the offspring will be male

I human Karotype each cells noramlly contains 23

chromosomes for a total of 46, 22 of these pairs are called
autosomes or body cells which look the same in both males and
females, While the 23rd pair is the sex chromosomes which
differe between males and females
Sex Chromosomes – The x and y chromosomes also known as
the sex chromosomes determine the biological sex of an
individual
- Female inherit an x chromosomes from the father for a xx
gentype while males ingerit a y chromsomes from the
father for a xy genotype
- Mothers only pass n x chromosomes therefore tha males
will decides to determine the sex of the baby
- The X chrmosomes in humans span more than 153 million case
pairs the building material of DNA, It also represent about 800
protein coding genes compared y chromosomes containing about
70 genes out of 20,000 to 25,000 total genes in the human
genome

o X Chromosomes – all human eggs contain the X

chromosomes, The X chromosomes contains genes
that code for all aspects of femaleness and genes that
are unrealted to gender like (Vision/Immunity).
o Y Chromosomes – is much smaller than the X. It
carries a small number of genes, most of which are
for male charactheristics. The Y chromosomes
contains a male determining gene or called the sry
gene that causes testes to form in the embryo and
results in the development of external and internal
male genetalia
Males are at much greater risk for inheriting Sex-disorders (like
Baldness, Hemophilia – blood doent clot properly, and Color
Blindness) because they only inherit one X, so if they has X has
the allele for the disorder, they will become affected
Holandric Genes – genes that are carried on the Y
chromosomes are called holandric genes, it can only passed by
males onto their sons they code for maleness but sometimes
cause Rare canditions like hypertrichosis spinae and color
blindness
Multiple Alleles
- There are more than two alleles for a gene present in a
population (Example: blood type consits of two domninat
and one recessive allele options.)

ABO Blood Typing

- ABO blood group system the classification of human blood
based on the inerited properties of red blood cells or
erthrocytes as determined by the pressence or absence of
the antigens A and B which are carried on the surface of
the red blood cells.
- ABO blood group system the classification of human blood
based on the inerited properties of red blood cells or
erthrocytes as determined by the pressence or absence of
the antigens A and B which are carried on the surface of
the red blood cells.
- Blood Type A and B have two possible genotypes –
homozygous and heterzygous
- Blood type AB and O only have one genotype of each
 Antigens are molecules capable of stimulating an immune
response each anigen has ditinct surface feature or epitopes
resulting in specific responses antibodies or immunoglobulins
are y-shaped proteins produced by b cells of the immune
system in response to exposure to antigens The immune
systems forms antibodies against whichever ABO blood
group antigens are not found on the individuals red blood
cells This the group A individual will have anti 0 b antibodies
and group b individual will have anti- a antibodies on the
blood plasma

Agglutination – a reation in which

partices (RBC or Bacteria)
Suspended in a liquid collect into clumps and which occurs as a
serlogic response to a specific antibody

They are mixed with antibodies against type A and B blood

Multiple Alleles- Rabbit Fur Color