UGR Curriculum Studies For Primary and Secondary Teachers IOL Dr. F.D.J Engelbrecht

TEXTBOOK and STUDY GUIDE
FOR
CURRICULUM STUDIES
For Primary and Secondary teachers
NQF LEVEL: 7
NQF CREDITS: 8
Acknowledgements:
Author
Dr. F. D. J. Engelbrecht
Picture editor
Trish Engelbrecht, U-Gro Consultancy
Instructional Layout / Editing / Design / Publishing

John Meinert Printers, Windhoek, Namibia
Copyright © 2014. Dr. F. D. J. Engelbrecht
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopied, recorded or otherwise without the prior permission of the author.
This Textbook / Study Guide is available at: Dr. F. Engelbrecht
U-Gro Consultancy
Box 80514, Windhoek
Email: u-gro@namibnet.com
Tel (061) 23 2387
Date of next revision: 2018

CONTENTS
Welcome………………………………………………………………………………………… . 9
Exit learning outcomes…………………………………………………………………………. 10
Study support in this module…………………………………………………………………… 11
Module assessment and quality assurance………………………………………………….. 14
Verbs’ thinking processes……………………………………………………………………… 14
Prescribed text books…………………………………………………………………………… 18
References in IOL centres……………………………………………………………………… 18

Plagiarism………………………………………………………………………………………… 18
UNIT 1: Discuss key features of curricula and quality education ...........….............. 20
1.1 Analyse ‘definitions of curriculum’ and reflect on the meaning of the differences
by referring to overall purposes of education and views on the nature of humans .. 23
1.2 Analyse additional curriculum concepts, e.g. curriculum components, curriculum
foundations, aims, objectives and learning outcomes, official and operational
curriculum, hidden curriculum, null curriculum, extra curriculum, learning areas,
syllabus and scheme of work, subject curriculum, curriculum design and
development …………………………………………………………………................ 25
1.3 Describe the focus and features of contemporary Curriculum Studies as a
discipline ……………………………………………………………………………….. 34
1.4 Identify international and Namibian contemporary issues of school and
tertiary curricula ………………………………………………………………………… 38
1.5 Discuss different perspectives on ‘quality education’ and indicate which
perspective is applied in Namibia ………………………………………………….. 42
1.6 Discuss different perspectives (traditional and wellness ones) regarding the
overall purposes of school education, including the purposes of the pre-primary
phase, the upper primary phase and the senior secondary phase and evaluate
the Namibian purposes for these phases………………………………………… 50
1.7 Evaluate the 5 orientations of Babin underpinning curriculum purposes and
determine your own Babin curriculum orientation: ……………………………… 76
 Development of cognitive processes
 Technology / technological / CBE
 Self-actualisation / humanistic
 Social reconstruction
 Academic rationalism / subject-based
1.8 Explain the Miller classification of orientations: transmission; transaction and
transformation …………………………………………………………………………… 86
1.9 Evaluate the contemporary ‘wellness’ holistic orientation and relate it to the
Babin and Miller orientations…………………………………………………………… 87
1.10 Discuss the contribution of Curriculum Studies as a discipline to professional
teacher development……………………………………………………………………. 88
1.11 Summary………………………………………………………………………...……….. 90
1.12 References……………………………………………………………………..……....... 92
UNIT 2: Analyse the historical progress of curriculum development science
2.1 Explain some basic curricula features of education up to 1600 ..………………… 101
2.2 Explain some basic curricula features of education between 1600-1900 ..……… 103
2.3 Analyse the progress of curriculum development science during 1900-1909 …… 116
2.4 Analyse the progress of curriculum development science during 1910-1919……. 117
2.7 Analyse the progress of curriculum development science during 1940-1949 …… 123
2.8 Analyse the progress of curriculum development science during 1950-1959 ……. 125
2.9 Analyse the progress of curriculum development science during 1960-1969…….. 129
2.11 Analyse the progress of curriculum development science during 1980-2000…… 135
2.12 Curriculum developments after 2000 ………………………………………………. 142
2.13 Discuss curriculum developments in Namibia after 1990 till 2014 .……………… 144
2.14 Discuss the curriculum development contribution of selected individuals
such as John Dewey, Franklin Bobbitt, Ralph Tyler, Allen Ornstein, and
William Spady…………………………………………………………………………. 160
2.15 Summary……………………………………………………………….………………. 184
2.16 References……………………………………………………………………………... 192
UNIT 3: Discuss the foundations / forces that influence curriculum

issues and trends ………………………………………………………… 196
3.1 Analyse the historical foundations that influenced curriculum issues and trends… 198
3.2 Discuss the philosophical foundations that influenced curriculum issues and trends 205
3.3 Discuss the psychological foundations that influenced curriculum issues
and trends ………………………………………………………………………………. 212
3.4 Evaluate the political, legal and economical foundations that influenced
curriculum issues and trends ……….……………………………………………...... 215
3.5 Analyse the social foundations that influenced curriculum issues and trends …. 222
3.6 Examine the relationship between curriculum ‘foundations’ and ‘orientations’
and curriculum ‘designs’……………………………………………………………… 227
3.7 Explain the role of political powers in curriculum design and implementation .… 228
3.8 Explain the roles of different stakeholders in curriculum design and implemen-
tation ………………………………………………………………….………………… 229
3.9 Analyse the role of educational leaders in curriculum design and implementation. 240
3.10 Discuss why curricula are changed and how this change could be managed …… 244
3.11 Summary…………………………………………………………………...……………. 249
3.12 References……………………………………………………………………………..... 250
UNIT 4: Evaluate the curriculum theory and practices of competency-

based education (CBE) and subject-based education (SBE) …………… 252
4.1 Describe concepts such as ‘competency and skill’ and the origin of CBE
curricula….. …………………………………………………………………………… 254
4.2 Describe the expansion of CBE programmes ……………………………………… 260
4.3 Evaluate the CBE model variations ………………………………………………… 262
4.4 Outline the features of CBE curricula in terms of: ………………………………… 263
 Philosophical perspectives
 A focus on specific outcomes
 Modular organisation of content
 Systematic design
 Teaching and learning perspectives
 Broad based assessment
 Detailed programme documents
 Recognition of prior learning
4.5 Explain the relationship between CBE and learner-centred education (LCE) … 279
4.6 Compare the features of a subject-based curriculum (SBC) with a CBE
curriculum ………………………………………………………………………….…. 280
4.7 Evaluate the features of CBE curricula and discuss their advantages and
disadvantages ………………………………………………………………………… 289
4.8 Evaluate the structure / format and terminology of NIED syllabi ………………… 308
4.9 Summary………………………………………………………………………………… 311
4.10 References……………………………………………………………………………… 313
UNIT 5: Discuss the steps in designing a CBE or SBE qualification …………… 322
5.1 Describe the typical phases of curriculum development …………………………. 324

5.2 Give an overview of the design steps of a programme/ qualification…………… 326
5.3 Discuss the following design steps of the Engelbrecht model in detail: ……….. 330
 Step 1: Conducting a situational analysis
 Step 2: Drafting a programme development timetable and action plan
 Step 3: Managing the change to a new educational philosophy
 Step 4: Finalising the title, level, duration and code of a qualification
 Step 5: Formulating the rationale
 Step 6: Formulating the exit outcomes of the programme
 Step 7: Compiling module descriptors / subject syllabi
 Step 8: Establishing the broad programme structure
 Step 9: Determining the admission requirements
 Step 10: Selecting the delivery mode
 Step 11: Developing the assessment regulations and instruments
 Step 12: Obtaining programme approval from key stakeholders
5.4 Discuss how the sequence and nature of the steps could change for SBE and
CBE designs …………………………………………………………………………. 340
5.5 Explain how the cognitive taxonomy of Bloom and Marzano et al. impact on
formulating outcomes and the overall standard of a programme ………………. 345
5.6 Discuss the different ways that curriculum content can be organised ……….... 351
5.7 Evaluate the role of curriculum design steps in promoting quality education …. 353
5.8 Analyse the curriculum development principles ………….. ……………………… 355
5.9 Evaluate the application of the design steps of a given example of a ‘Teacher
Qualification document’ …………………………………………………………….. 357
5.10 Analyse the format of a given module descriptor ………………………………. 359
5.11 Summary ……………………………………………………………………………. 363
5.12 References ………………………………………………………………………….. 364
UNIT 6: Analyse curriculum implementation steps ………………………. 370
6.1 Explain the importance of proper implementation steps to ensure effective

education …………………………………………………………………………… 370
6.2 Analyse the features of the following Engelbrecht implementation steps: …… 371
 Step 1: Leading and managing administrative changes
 Step 2: Establishing an instructional management system
 Step 3: Compiling bridging courses and material
 Step 4: Appraising the need for staff
 Step 5: Appraising the required physical facilities
 Step 6: Designing a timetable
 Step 7: Identifying required teaching-learning resources
 Step 8: Advertising to procure students and staff
 Step 9: Selecting staff and acquiring teaching-learning
resources
Step 10: Training staff in relevant theory and practices
 Step 11: Drawing up a budget
 Step 12: Piloting the programme
 Step 13: Continuous evaluation of the programme quality and
institutional environment
 Step 14: Certifying students
6.3 Discuss the possible changes to the sequence of the Engelbrecht
implementation steps …………………………………………………………….. 379
6.4 Summary …………………………………………………………………………… 381
6.5 References …………………………………………………………………………. 381
UNIT 7: Create a career education curriculum for Namibian secondary

schools ……………………………………………………………….. 389
7.1 Discuss the need and validity for differentiation in national curricula ……….. 389
7.2 Analyse the features of the former ‘technical education’ in Namibia and
the lessons learnt from that type of curriculum…………………………………. 395
7.3 Analyse the latest (2014) Namibian primary curriculum ………………………. 396
7.4 Analyse the latest (2014) Namibian junior secondary curriculum .…………… 399
7.5 Analyse the 2014 senior secondary curriculum ……..………………………… 404
7.6 Explain factors that could improve secondary education in Namibia…………. 407
7.7 Analyse the features of career oriented education in secondary schools
in various Countries, e.g. Netherland, Finland, Hong Kong, Korea,
Mexico, Norway, USA ……………………………………………………………… 409
7.8 Identify job standards already compiled in Namibia for use in career
oriented schools and identify other careers suitable for Namibian schools ….. 413
7.9 Create and discuss a curriculum for career education in Namibian
secondary schools and the consequences for not implementing such a
curriculum …………………………………………………………………………. 415
7.10 Propose recommendations for the design of a career education
system in Namibia …………………..……………………………………………. 424
7.11 Create an implementation plan for the career education curriculum ……….. 426
7.12 Summary ………………………………………………………………………….. 430
7.13 References ……………………………………………………………………….. 431
Welcome!
Welcome to this module of “Curriculum Studies”. If you are serious about becoming
a teacher, known for your excellent teaching, you will enjoy mastering this subject,
because it focuses not only on the theory (WHAT) of curriculum development, but
also on HOW to implement such theory. The content of this module is also aligned
with the relevant standards of the (2006) Namibian ‘National Professional Standards
for Teachers’.
This textbook is written in the same format as your other study guides but this ‘guide’
is serving as a textbook because it provides all the prescribed syllabus information,
and does not merely complement a textbook. The different Units in this module
introduce the essential theory and practical components that Namibian teachers
should master. The idea is that you should understand and be able to apply the
selected content of this module rather than memorizing facts. Further information
about Units’ content could be found in the references at the end of each Unit.
You should also realize that although Units address different issues, these
issues are not necessarily separated in the school reality. You should thus
integrate the knowledge of the different Units to achieve a holistic view of
curriculum practices.
The terminology of this module is in line with modern learner-centred and

competency-based perspectives. This is evident via terms like ‘exit learning
outcomes’, ‘module curriculum’, ‘instructional design’, ‘career education’ and so forth
as opposed to former terms such as goals, syllabi, lesson planning and technical
education. Furthermore, the competency-based approach reflects new perspectives
about the role of learners, the learning process, the role of teachers in education, the
way learners are motivated and disciplined and the way curricula are designed and
implemented.
The structure of this guide is such as to address some philosophical questions about
curricula such as curriculum orientations and holistic exit learning outcomes.
Furthermore, theoretical aspects involved in programme design such as CBE
(competency-based education), curriculum models and forces influencing curricula
and practical curriculum implementation issues such as exit learning outcomes,
resources and assessment policies are examined.
The qualification you enrolled for will be focusing on many aspects of different
disciplines of Education. For example: History of Education is part of Educational
Foundations and focuses on how education occurred during the previous centuries,
and how the child was viewed, how educators have perceived the goals of education
and curriculum practices of teaching and learning.
Psychology of Education underpins Learner Development and Learning which

investigates amongst other aspects functioning of the brain, learning theories,
characteristics of learners in different phases of their development, motivation, the
development of thinking skills as well as the development of emotions and morals.
Educational Management describes how national systems and schools should be
managed to ensure quality and effective education. Leadership and management
skills are identified and explained. Methods to manage communication, discipline,
motivation and so forth, are analyzed.
This module focuses on the study of theoretical and practical dimensions of

curriculum design and development. Students become empowered practitioners
in curriculum concepts, issues and processes. Stated more accurately, upon
completion of this module students should be able to:
Analyse and discuss issues of the curriculum as field of study; Explain the historical
development of curriculum science; Discuss the foundations / forces that influence
curriculum issues and trends; Evaluate the curriculum theory and practices of
competency-based education (CBE) and subject-based education (SBE); Discuss
the steps in designing a CBE or SBE qualification or programme; Discuss
curriculum implementation steps and create a career education curriculum for
Namibian secondary schools.
Decide whether you want to be a successful teacher or not. If your answer is

affirmative, this module will assist you to become one by understanding some of the
intricacies of curricula and empower you to shape the future of the nation via your
insight in programme design and implementation.
I trust you will find this course relevant and interesting. Furthermore, I trust that your
newly found understanding and skills will bring you joy and success in your work and
make you proud of your contribution to the development of the Namibian nation. I
wish you all the best with your studies and future work.
Dr. Frikkie Engelbrecht

Exit learning outcomes of Curriculum Studies
It is important for a student to understand what a subject is all about, because this
gives your mind a framework to comprehend the different sections of a subject /
module. This overall or comprehensive exit learning outcome of ‘Curriculum Studies’
could be formulated as: Discuss curriculum concepts, the development of curriculum
science, curriculum foundations, design and implementation steps, evaluate
competency-based (CBE) and subject-based (SBE) curricula and propose a career
education curriculum for Namibia.
A comprehensive exit learning outcome can be broken down into exit learning
outcomes. An exit learning outcomes states the learning result expected to be
achieved by a student at the end of a module / subject. The different units or
chapters of this module address the following exit learning outcomes:
1. Discuss key features of curricula and quality education

2. Analyse the historical progress of curriculum development science
3. Discuss the foundations / forces that influence curriculum issues and
trends
4. Evaluate the curriculum theory and practices of competency-based
education (CBE) and subject-based education (SBE)
5. Discuss the steps in designing a CBE or SBE qualification or
programme
6. Analyse curriculum implementation steps
7. Create a career education curriculum for Namibian secondary schools
Study support in this module

The distance education student does not have the benefit of a face-to-face
experience with lecturers and students, therefore the print medium of good textbooks
/study guides attempt to simulate the live lecturing experience as best as can be
done.
The insights gained from learning and communication theories as well as brain
learning functions can be applied to produce study guides that support effective
learning. A few of these key insights applied in this textbook that promotes learning
are:
 A question activates the brain to think. All academic headings in texts can be
converted by students to the common sense w-questions, e.g. why, how,
when, where, who. The WHY and HOW questions represent higher levels of
thinking.
 If the value of the content to be studied is clear and important, the student is
more motivated to study it. Important content implies it is relevant for some
area of life, such as a job, relationships, money, leisure and so forth. Real life
examples in study guides serve to emphasize the value of content.
 The terminology used is explained as soon as they appear in the text since
words are the building blocks of our understanding and thinking. It promotes
understanding if pre- and post suffixes’ meanings and the etymological roots
are clarified. Glossaries in study guides are also helpful to highlight the
meanings of subject terminology.
 The brain is a super computer and can store the information of a lifetime, but
then the information must be structured. Headings, numbers and logical
sequencing of content in textbooks / study guides are thus of utmost
importance and should be noted by students.
 The brain also requires that information must be understood to be

remembered. Information studied by rote learning is not remembered for long
and can not be transferred to other areas of knowledge. ‘Understood’ means
knowing the meaning of a word, its relationship to a theme and subject, its
possible uses in other knowledge fields and its application in reality, realizing
the logic of the why and how features of things, events, processes so that one
can make comparisons and deductions about advantages and disadvantages.
Study guide content is not merely presented, but explained or discussed to
promote ‘understanding’ of it by the left brain. Deep understanding of issues
involves analyzing opposing views and then arguing both positive and
negative aspects to reach a conclusion.
 Visual diagrams, symbols and pictures in this study guide are making learning
easier for the right brain to understand and remember information conveyed in
this manner. Study guide icons must preferable be not more than 3 or 4 to
serve a helpful learning purpose.
 The right brain also responds positively to friendly faces and voices because
they represent caring emotions. The writing style of study guides therefore
imitate personal communication and caring for the learning of students, e.g. a
conversational, informal style where the student is referred to as ‘you’ not the
‘student’ and the writer is referred to as ‘I’ not the ‘author’. The use of bold and
italics in a text is like a ‘voice’ that changes tone to say ‘now this is important’
‘or ‘this is a key issue’. The use of punctuation is the pausing in one’s
‘speaking’ to emphasize certain aspects and slow down the ‘talking’. Likewise,
a small font size is like ‘talking to soft’ while a proper font size and adequate
white space on the page makes learning more comfortable. A page where the
right side is not justified is also more informal and represents natural talking.
Longer sentences might be more difficult to process and could slow down the
learning tempo, therefore shorter sentences are used.
 Higher levels of education require higher levels of thinking about facts and not
merely listing of some facts. Study guides/ textbooks must demonstrate and
explain what thinking steps are expected if verbs such as ‘explain, discuss or
evaluate’ are used in oral or exam questions. For example, the thinking steps
for discuss are ’give a clear and logical description of something, then argue
about the described features by pointing out positive and negative aspects
and arrive at a conclusion’.
 To be able to realize the outcomes (aims) of this module (subject), you must
integrate your own prior learning experiences and knowledge gained in all
educational modules of your enrolled qualification with the information in this
module. Constantly ask yourself how a particular topic is related to other
topics in this subject and other subjects and think of practical examples for
theories, because reality is a complex whole which is clarified by different
educational topics and modules.
 You will notice that each Unit commences with stated outcomes. Take a close
look at these outcomes. The verbs of these outcomes indicate both the
nature of the content as well as the level of thinking required per outcome.
The unit outcomes do not only focus your learning, but also indicate the
main focus of the assignments and examination questions. When you
prepare for tests or the examination you should formulate questions in line
with the outcomes and work out the answers in written format, be it essays or
mind maps. This way will enable you to achieve much better results than
memorizing page after page in the study guide without relating content to
particular questions.
 When you study, read all headings thoughtfully. Convert headings into
questions since the mind learns best when it has a question to address
as opposed to merely reading the content without linking it as an
answer to a question. Guess or reflect on what the possible answers
may be to a posed question before you start reading the content.
 Complete the provided learning activities and compare your answers to the
feedback provided for these activities. Sometimes this feedback guides your
possible thinking process to work out an answer and other times the feedback
provides how the answer should look like.
 Typically, vacation school sessions are offered with face-to-face lecturing.

These might be replaced in future with interactive video conferencing
technology sessions. The attendance of all contact and practical training
opportunities that are organized by IOL is compulsory.
 The dates for handing in assignments are provided well in advance so that
students can plan their time appropriately. Student with special circumstances
struggling to meet deadlines should contact IOL in time.
 Students can also visit IOL resource centres across Namibia and contact the
identified lecturers / tutors on specified hours per day. You are encouraged to
engage in ‘learning circles’ because talking to other students about topics or
questions will enhance your understanding of issues.
 Don’t forget to review the units you have studied every now and then, until the
facts and insights are internalized. Then you will have made them part of your
own knowledge which you will then not easily forget. Internalized knowledge
changes your attitudes and behaviour. That is why quality education causes
growth in people.
Module assessment policy and quality assurance

 Continuous assessment per semester module consists of one assignment of 100
marks for modules of 8 credits.
 A 50% semester / continuous assessment mark is required for admission to
examinations.
 Where practical work is applicable, a 60% pass is required and such work could
account for 50% of the continuous assessment mark.
 The duration of the examination for 8 credits is one x 2 hour written examination
of 100 marks.
 A final pass mark of 50% is required, calculated by 60% of the examination mark
and 40% of the semester / continuous assessment mark. A sub-minimum of 50%
must be attained in the examination.
 The setting and marking of examination papers are moderated.
Verbs’ thinking processes
Higher education requires higher levels of thinking. Stating the facts does not qualify
as a ‘higher level of thinking’. Instead, one needs to ‘say something about the basic
facts’. This ‘say something’ means ‘thinking about’ facts, such as discuss, evaluate,
create, propose or criticise. If students do not understand this when answering
examination questions, they commonly loose up to 30% on their scores. For
example, to ‘discuss’ something means that one should firstly describe something in
a logical sequence, then argue about features by referring to their advantages and
disadvantages and finally arrive at a conclusion for the argument. To ‘discuss’ is thus
requiring a higher level of thinking about issues than to ‘describe’ which merely state
the basic facts / features.
In education the oral and written verbs in statements and questions are thus playing
a very important role in teaching, learning and assessment because the verb
indicates the level of thinking required to answer a question. Teachers should
recognise to teach on a particular prescribed level if they are going to assess a topic
on that particular verb level. The level of thinking involves how to think and this ‘how
to think’ involves steps and processes of thinking.
Bloom developed levels of thinking, called a cognitive taxonomy, and particular verbs
are appropriate to elicit thinking at a particular level of the cognitive taxonomy. You
should also realize that the highest level verbs encompass the thinking processes of
the lower verbs, for example, to discuss something involves a basic description upon
which the ‘discussing-thinking’ is based. Unit 5.5 describes the cognitive taxonomy of
Bloom and indicates how the thinking processes of Blooms’ verbs forms part of core
thinking skills we use to process information.
The following list of verbs clarifies the thinking processes they require. Study it
carefully to ensure you perform well in the higher order level of thinking.
Table 1.1: Meanings of and thinking required by verbs
VERB THINKING REQUIRED AS STANDARDS / LEVELS OF

LEARNING
Analyse Examine information in detail to discover the main ideas/

components/ patterns or relationships. Show why they are
important and how components are related and what theories
they reflect.
Calculate A numerical answer from given figures or information is required

– the process or method leading to the answer must be shown.
Comment Describe something and discuss briefly by giving the positive

and negative points.
Indicate both similarities / resemblances and differences of

Compare phenomena, regarding particular criteria. Draw a conclusion
about the similarities and differences, emphasising similarities.
Very often a table format is used to compare phenomena. A
description of one phenomenon after the other is not a
comparison.
Contrast Show how things are different or opposite regarding particular
criteria. Look only for differences, not for similarities too as in
the case for ‘compare’.
Criticise Give a reasoned judgement of something after careful weighing

of facts, information or perspectives. Provide positive and
negative points – do not only emphasise the negative side.
Draw a conclusion.
Deduce Use the information provided, e.g. reference to a law, principle

or context, to come to a conclusion after reasoning about it.
Define Give the precise, brief meaning of something, often referring to

etymological roots of concepts. Indicate what features are
included and excluded.
Demonstrate
Perform the necessary operations, show by example.
Provide detailed features of an issue or stages of a process in a

Describe logical sequence, using numbers and headings and proper
sentences. It is not necessary to discuss the subject by referring
to arguments for and against.
Determine Use the information given to work out the answer.
Discuss Give a clear description and then argue about features by

pointing out positive and negative features, arriving at a
conclusion.
Distinguish Describe two phenomena / things according to relevant criteria.

Differentiate Point out clearly the differences between the two sets. Same
as contrast.
Estimate Provide a reasoned projection or hypothesis; an evaluation of

dimensions; the impact of something or the numerical
calculation of something.
Evaluate Determine the value / worth / quality / success of something

according to certain criteria.
Explain Describe something and indicate relationships between things,
making clear the why (reasons) and how (examples) of
features.
Find A general term that means calculate, determine or measure.
Identify Recognise and name / list features.
Illustrate Describe by giving examples or making drawings.
Interpret Describe something, explain the meaning, significance or

impact of it or explain the meaning of graphic information.
Investigate Identify detailed features of something / problem systematically

/examine and discuss them according to a given directive, drawing a
conclusion.
List / state Present a list of names, facts, objects, etc. in a certain order.
Outline Give an overview of, or indicate the main features of something

in a concise and systematic manner.
Make a logical deduction either from your own knowledge or

Predict from the information given and suggest what may happen,
based on the available information.
Relate Indicate and describe the relationship / connections between

variables.
Give a brief account of the essence of a matter through the

Summarise main ideas – no details or examples – focussing on connections
and meaning.
Write Specify structured headings or unstructured essay and specify

essay level as discuss, evaluate or compare, etc.
(Adapted from: Study methods, UCT; Quia verb definitions, 2004; CUE action verbs,
2004; Definitions of behavioural verbs, 2004).
The Namibian National Qualification Framework (NQF) informally rates the
following verbs as representative of particular NQF levels:
Level 4 verbs = outline, describe, list

Level 5 verbs = explain, clarify, summarise
Level 6 verbs = discuss, review, apply,
Level 7 verbs = analyse, examine, discuss
Level 8 verbs = evaluate, create, solve problems
You will recognise that the verbs above cover mainly the different levels of
Bloom’s cognitive taxonomy. Remember that the highest level verbs
encompass the meaning of the lower verbs, for example, to evaluate
something involves knowledge, understanding, analysis of ideas, and the
judging according to criteria. Verbs associated with the affective and
psychomotor domains of learning include the following:
Affective verbs: look, show, discuss, appreciate, evaluate, value, display, practice.
Psychomotor verbs: draw a mind map, write a job application letter, design an
overhead transparency, collect materials to do an experiment, interview someone in
a occupation of your choice, find printed materials on the topic of…, demonstrate
how to do…, role play how you would thank someone for a party. It is clear that
psychomotor verbs are performance verbs that requires the application of ideas.
Prescribed textbook(s)
As an academic scholar you should read any relevant text or consult any relevant
source that you come into contact with, that will inform you about this subject. Talk
to teachers and learners, visit the IOL Reference Centres, take part in vacation
school sessions and so forth. At the end of each Unit there are references that can
be consulted for further reading. There is however no additional prescribed textbook
apart from this textbook which is written in the format of a study guide.
References in IOL centres
There will be relevant curriculum studies books in the IOL resource centres.
Remember also that prescribed books for Educational Management and Classroom
Teaching and Management are all supplementary to curriculum studies.
Plagiarism
The verb ‘plagiarize’ means ‘to steal, borrow, thieve or crib’ (Collins Pocket
Reference English Thesaurus, 1993). In the academic context plagiarism would then
imply a form of stealing ‘knowledge, ideas or perspectives’ in the form of copying it
from others without acknowledging the source of those ideas. Copying text or
ideas from other students or from sources (for instance the study guide, prescribed
material or directly from the Internet) is not allowed unless you recognize the
source. This ‘copying’ includes paraphrasing ideas of authors or use it as a direct
quote. It is also unacceptable to do somebody else’s work, to lend your work
to them or to make your work available to them to copy.
It is recommended that direct quotes must be used sparingly and that they must be
explained in your own words if used in your assignments. The aim of the
assignments is not the reproduction of existing material, but to ascertain whether you
have the ability to integrate existing texts, add your own interpretation and/or critique
to the views and offer a new or creative perspective to existing perspectives or
theories.
You should be aware that committing plagiarism is such a serious offense that
your mark for work submitted will be nullified. That means admission to write
the examination will be lost and further disciplinary steps may be taken by IOL.
Icons used in this study guide
Objectives / learning outcomes
Read and study
Learning activities
Feedback on learning activities

UNIT 1
___________________________________________________________________
Discuss key features of curricula and quality education
Contents
Introduction
Learning outcomes
Learning activities to promote insight
1.1 Analyse ‘definitions of curriculum’ and reflect on the meaning of the
differences by referring to overall purposes of education and views on the
nature of humans ………………………………………………………………. 23
1.2 Analyse additional curriculum concepts, e.g. curriculum components,
curriculum foundations, aims, objectives and learning outcomes, official
and operational curriculum, hidden curriculum, null curriculum, extra
curriculum, learning areas, syllabus and scheme of work, subject
curriculum, curriculum design and development ………………................ 25
1.3 Describe the focus and features of contemporary Curriculum Studies as
a discipline …………………………………………………………………….. 34
1.4 Identify international and Namibian contemporary issues of school and
tertiary curricula ……………………………………………….……………… 38
1.5 Discuss different perspectives on ‘quality education’ and indicate which
perspective is applied in Namibia………………………… ………………... 42
1.6 Discuss different perspectives (traditional and wellness ones) regarding
the overall purposes of school education, including the purposes of the
pre-primary phase, the upper primary phase and the senior secondary
phase and evaluate the Namibian purposes for these phases…………. 50
1.7 Evaluate the 5 orientations of Babin underpinning curriculum purposes
and determine your own Babin curriculum orientation: ……………….. 76
 Development of cognitive processes
 Technology / technological / CBE
 Self-actualisation / humanistic
 Social reconstruction
 Academic rationalism / subject-based
1.8 Explain the Miller classification of orientations: transmission; transaction
and transformation…………………………………………………………… 86
1.9 Evaluate the contemporary ‘wellness’ holistic orientation and relate it to
the Babin and Miller orientations ………………………………………….. 87
1.10 Discuss the contribution of Curriculum Studies as a discipline to
professional teacher development ………………………………………… 88
1.11 Summary …………………………………………………………...………… 90
1.12 References ………………………………………………………..……......... 92
Introduction
This Unit draws upon a wide range of literature and personal experience as teacher
and lecturer in order to clarify key curriculum concepts, to describe features of the
curriculum orientations, to elaborate on definitions of quality education and the
contribution of the subject Curriculum Studies to the professional development of
teachers.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit, you are expected to be able to:
1.1 Analyse definitions of the concept curriculum.

1.2 Analyse additional concepts related to ‘curriculum’.
1.3 Describe the focus of contemporary Curriculum Studies.
1.4 Identify contemporary issues of school and tertiary curricula.
1.5 Discuss different perspectives on quality education.
1.6 Discuss the overall purposes of the school education phases.
1.7 Evaluate the 5 curriculum orientations of Babin.
1.8 Explain the Miller curriculum orientations.
1.9 Evaluate the holistic wellness orientation and relate it to the orientations of
Babin and Miller.
1.10 Discuss the contribution of the subject Curriculum Studies to the professional
development of teachers.
1. Analyse and relate curriculum concepts.

2. Analyse key contemporary issues of school and tertiary curricula.
3. Discuss different perspectives on quality education.
4. Evaluate the curriculum orientations of Babin and Miller and relate it to the
wellness aims of education.
5. What is the value for teachers to study the subject Curriculum Studies?
1.1 Analyse ‘definitions of curriculum’ and reflect on the meaning
of the differences by referring to overall purposes of education
and views on the nature of humans
Since education is a purposeful effort, some plan is needed to guide this effort. The
term ‘curriculum’ refers to this ‘plan’ or ‘educational track’ that students follow as part
of, and in preparation for life (Carl, 1995:31). A curriculum as an educational track
consist typically of components such as purposes, content, teaching-learning
experiences and assessment (Posner, 1992:13). The term ‘programme’ is also used
by some authors as a synonym for curriculum (Boone, 1985:2; Jarvis, 1983:212;
Gravett and Geyser, 2004:147). Let us explore a variety of the definitions before we
summarise the general acceptable characteristics of a curriculum.
According to Carl (2002:35) the Latin concept ‘curro’ refers to ‘a race’, ‘a track’ or a
‘racetrack’. In education, the term curriculum refers to the ‘educational track’ that
learners and students follow in educational institutions. Sometimes this ‘curriculum
track’ is also referred to as a ‘course’ or a ‘programme’.
Stenhouse (1982:4) provides three definitions of different authors and then his own
definition. Curriculum is (I) ’all of the planned experiences provided by the school to
assist pupils in attaining the designated learning outcomes to the best of their
abilities’ (Neagley and Evans 1967); (2) Curriculum is the planned composite effort
of any school to guide pupil learning toward pre-determined learning outcomes
(Inlow, 1966). (3) Curriculum is a structured series of intended learning outcomes
(Johnson, 1967). For Stenhouse (1982:4-5) himself, (4) a curriculum is an attempt
to communicate the essential principles and features of an educational proposal in
such a form that it is open to critical scrutiny and capable of effective translation into
practice. Stenhouse adds new features to the ‘planned outcomes and experiences’
namely, essential ‘principles and features’ as well as ‘effective implementation’
planning. His curriculum would then incorporate applying principles for selecting
content, sequencing content, principles underpinning good teaching, effective
teaching methods, principles for evaluating the progress of learners and teachers,
guidelines for the implementation of the curriculum, contextual factors that might
influence teaching and learning and the formulation of the overall purposes of the
curriculum. Can you see that the curriculum as an ‘education track or framework’
includes both a ‘design framework’ and ‘implementation framework’.
Marks, et al., sees the curriculum as ‘the sum total of the means by which a student
is guided in attaining the intellectual and moral discipline requisite to the role of an
intelligent citizen in a free society’. Tunmer describes the curriculum as the ‘whole
spectrum of compulsory and optional activities which are formally planned for
learners’ (Carl, 2002:35).
Schubert (1986) characterizes the curriculum as follows:
 The curriculum is content.
 The curriculum is a programme of planned activities and experiences.
 The curriculum is specific learning results.
 The curriculum is the transfer / reproduction of the culture of a community.
 The curriculum is a set of pre-determined concepts and tasks.
 The curriculum is an agenda for social reconstruction where values and skills
are required for community improvement.
 The curriculum is a track for developing personal talents and abilities, thus a
track for self-actualisation (Carl, 2002:36).
Oliva (1988) characterizes the curriculum as follows:

 Curriculum is the content which is taught in a school.
 Curriculum is a set of subjects.
 Curriculum is a number of courses following on each other.
 Curriculum is a study programme followed by a learner.
 Curriculum is a package of material.
 Curriculum is a set of behavioural objectives.
 Curriculum is everything which takes place within a school, including co-
curricular activities, guidance and interpersonal relationships.
 Curriculum is the learning experiences of learners in a school.
 Curriculum is everything planned by the staff.
(Carl, 2002:37).
The initial view of a curriculum is one of a formally planned educational track that
includes clear aims, content, methods and evaluation. This is a narrow definition of a
curriculum which views the curriculum as a product. Carl (2002:36-37) points out that
Schubert (1986) and Oliva’s (1988) views of the curriculum extend beyond the
formally planned track components (aims, content, methods and evaluation) to
include everything that takes place within an institution, the possible resources and
materials, teaching and assessment principles, instructional management and what
an individual learner experiences. This broader definition acknowledges the sum
total of the means by which a learner is influenced and would therefore include extra-
curricular activities (e.g. in sport and culture) and the influence of the hidden
curriculum, e.g. the school environment, atmosphere, interactions and rules. The
broader definition is viewing therefore the curriculum rather as a process than a
mere product. This process perspective incorporates thus the implementation of the
designed curriculum while it also focuses on the development of a learner rather
than on the transmitting of content or the achieving of narrow outcomes as final
product. The ‘process view’ of curriculum with a focus on the holistic development of
people as expected ‘end of education’ applies to our modern learner-centred and
competency-based approach.
All the different features of a curriculum above highlight the fact that a curriculum is a
complex thing: it is both a documented plan and an implemented practice; a product
and a process; content and learning activities; subjects and experiences; teaching
methods, principles and resources; formal learning situations and informal extra-
curriculum and social situations; learning and assessment principles and practices
and so forth.
If you reflect on the reason behind the differences in the definitions of the term
‘curriculum’ it becomes clear that there are two main causes for the differences:
views on the ‘nature of humans’ and the ‘overall expected purposes / ends’ of
education (Saylor, Alexander and Lewis, 1981:3; Posner, 1992:4). Of course ones
personal experiences and the scientific education and psychology knowledge
available influence our views too of what our human nature is like and what
education should be all about. But primarily, ones views on human nature is
influenced by your philosophy of life that in turn is rooted in ones central belief, which
is a spiritual belief, for example Christianity. Your central belief will also influence
your view on the overall purpose of education, because this overall purpose relates
to your view of human nature. Unit 2 explores the holistic wellness aims of education
and the types of central beliefs.
Learning activity 10 Minutes

______________________________________________________________
Formulate a short definition of a ‘curriculum’.
Feedback on learning activity

___________________________________________________________________
There are many ways to define ‘curriculum’ as long as you include the key
dimensions of curriculum. My definition would be: A ‘curriculum’ is a document
clarifying the sum total of the planned and hidden learning outcomes with
relation to set standards of knowledge, skills and values which develop human
nature holistically.
1.2 Analyse additional curriculum concepts
Curriculum components
The above features of a curriculum already indicated that a curriculum as a planned

educational track has different components such as purposes or aims, content,
teaching-learning experiences or methods and assessment. The McMurry brothers,
Charles and Frank, emphasised around 1910 that a curriculum should have
components such aims, subject matter and instructional methods, all carefully
selected and organised (McNeil, 1990:372-375). In 1949 Ralph Tyler wrote a book
‘Basic principles of curriculum and instruction’ which was regarded as a sound
contribution to the development of curriculum studies as a science. His four
questions also relate to curriculum design components and highlight a fourth
component, namely, assessment, e.g.
1) What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?

2) What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these
purposes?
3) How can these educational experiences be effectively organised?
4) How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
(McNeil, 1990:388).
Can you see the importance of being aware of the curriculum components when you
start planning in order to design a new curriculum. You should understand what
elements are incorporated under each component and in which sequence
components should be planned. The next concept indicates what major factors
influence the nature of the components of a curriculum.
Curriculum foundations
Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and Vocke (2011) provide a comprehensive discussion of

the important factors or forces that influence the nature of curriculum components.
What factors would you identify as having a crucial influence on a curriculum? These
factors impact so powerfully on a curriculum that they are referred to as the
‘foundations’ of a curriculum. Ornstein, Levine, et al. (2011) identify the following
foundations of a curriculum:
 Historical foundations
 Philosophical foundations
 Political foundations
 Economic foundations
 Legal foundations
 Social foundations
Do you think there are some foundations missing? At a first glance, one could ask if
‘leadership and management’ and psychological insight into ‘learner development
and learning’ should not be amongst the foundations. Ornstein, Levine, et al. (2011)
do address these two categories to some extent. ‘Leadership and management’
factors in a national school system are dealt with by them under their ‘Political,
Economic and Legal foundations’ chapters, while various factors such as race,
gender and youth behaviour, relating to ‘learner development and learning’ are
addressed under their chapters on ‘Social Foundations’. For now it suffices that you
take note of what curriculum foundations mean. Unit 3 will analyse in detail how
philosophical ideas, historical and political circumstances, educational and
psychological research and other foundations influenced the aims and nature of
curricula over time.
Aims, objectives and learning outcomes
Do you remember that one of the curriculum components were identified as

‘purposes, aims and objectives’ Such ‘aims and objectives’ were and still are
acceptable terms used for indicating broader and more specific and short term
targets in education respectively. These concepts are part of the teacher-centred
paradigm in education. This was the case until the competency-based paradigm
promoted the terms ‘exit learning outcomes’ and ‘learning outcomes’ as alternative
terms for ‘aims and objectives’ (Burke, 1995:56). Nowadays the learner-centred
paradigm also applies the term outcomes rather than aims or objectives, which are
perceived as belonging to the former teacher-centred era and paradigm. The writing
of a competency-based outcome should, in essence, answer the question of ‘what
should the student achieve’ (Otter in Burke, 1995:276). For Spady (1994a:51-52)
different types of outcomes stipulate these required learning results. Firstly, the long
term outcomes need to develop internalised performance abilities that really matter
to students beyond schooling and are referred to as ‘culminating outcomes’ or ‘exit
outcomes’. A second category of outcomes is ‘enabling outcomes’ (referred to as
‘learning outcomes’ in Namibia) that are the key building blocks of the exit outcomes
depend, as in the case with aims and objectives. Spady’s third kind of outcome,
‘discrete outcomes’ that cover ‘nice to know’ content (Spady, 1994a:52) has not
taken root in education and is an unnecessary distinction, since ‘learning outcomes’
would incorporate them.
Outcomes thus express the intended education ‘competence’ and ‘competencies’

and as such should capture respectively the ability, attitudes, as well as knowledge,
skills dimensions within identified roles and areas of competence (Mansfield in
Burke, 1989:27; Harris, et al. 1995:21). The distinction between ‘exit learning
outcomes’ and ‘learning outcomes’ is however crucial and needs to be addressed in
a curriculum design framework. If it is accepted that exit outcomes are basically
equivalent to the former goals or aims as broad statements of intent, then the
formulation of exit outcomes are also similar to the formulation of aims. The verbs
used in the formulation of exit or learning outcomes specify the level of thinking or
performance. The verbs are thus connected to the breadth and width / scope and
depth of the outcomes of the curriculum that are in turn connected to qualification
levels and credits. Although it might not always be possible for outcomes to neatly
capture some social or psychological dimensions of educational outcomes perfectly,
they become the foundation for decisions about selecting content, instruction and
assessment. Examples of exit programme outcomes are portrayed in Table 1.2:
Table 1.2: Examples of exit learning outcomes of a programme
B. Ed honours teachers should be able to:

- Discuss and apply general features regarding research and research types,
how to gather and analyse data and compile a research proposal.
- Evaluate and apply theories and practices of school management and
leadership.
- Analyse and apply thinking and emotional intelligent skills to teaching and
everyday situations.
Exit and learning outcomes are informative about graduates’ educational levels to
both prospecting students and employers. They are also a tool for the management
of assessment. They identify course levels, prerequisites and standards clearly
which allow better accreditation and evaluation of programme quality. Specified
outcomes guide the selection of content and sequencing of courses or modules.
Close analysis of exit and learning outcomes leads to easier detection of under- or
overspecialisation and depicts an overview of built-in generic skills such as
communication and problem solving (Otter in Burke, 1995:282-283). Thus, despite
criticism against an outcomes model, the advantages of the move away from woolly
aims towards explicit exit and learning outcomes in education, are clear.
The official and operational curriculum
A nationally designed and officially approved and prescribed curriculum which

includes the aims, learning areas, subjects, content, policy documents for
administration, teaching and assessment, lists of specified prescribed resources and
support documents, is known as the ‘official curriculum’. Hoadley and Jansen
(2011:45) refers to the official curriculum also as the ‘intended’ or ‘prescribed’
curriculum. In reality it occurs that different schools and teachers deviate from the
official prescribed content depth or time allocation, administration procedures,
assessment or teaching policies due to various factors such as lack of resources,
poor qualifications or de-motivated attitudes of learners and teachers. Deviations
from the prescribed curriculum design and implementation is referred to as the
‘operational curriculum’ or ‘enacted curriculum’ because it indicates ‘the actual
curriculum in operation or in practice’.
Hidden curriculum
A broader definition of ‘curriculum’ includes the hidden curriculum. Some authors

refers to the hidden curriculum as the ‘covert’ or implicit’ curriculum. ‘Covert or
implicit’ then means that although some education outcomes are not spelled out,
they are recognised as important outcomes and are often developed informally
outside the classroom (Hoadley and Jansen, 2011:50). The hidden curriculum refers
to the impact of the whole school environment and all school activities. The school
environment includes the democratic or authoritarian management style, the
attitudes towards learners, the values adhered to, the rules for appropriate behaviour
in the school, the involvement of learners in taking decisions and carrying
responsibilities, e.g. prefects, the guidance and modelling regarding sex roles,
gender roles, racial discrimination, cooperation, democratic attitudes and behaviour,
assertive communication and so forth. Even the experiences related to sport and
cultural events as part of the school environment could be viewed as part of the
hidden curriculum. The hidden curriculum comprises thus the informal and
unplanned experiences for learning about the above appropriate roles, behaviour,
values and communication.
Although several advantages of the hidden curriculum are spelled out above, there
could also be disadvantages related to it. The hidden curriculum might model
outdated and questionable values, roles or behaviour due to uncritically accepted
traditions and habits in schools. Secondly, if the school management and teachers
are not analysing their hidden curriculum or are unaware of the hidden messages of
the hidden curriculum, they may not recognise negative influences of their school
environment. Thirdly, the messages of the hidden curriculum are learnt
unconsciously and this informally learnt roles, values and behaviour could have
lasting influences on learners which is counterproductive to aims of acceptance,
fairness, democratic attitudes, support of others, productivity, unprejudiced, and so
forth (Hoadley and Jansen, 2011:54). Managers of excellent schools should reflect
upon the hidden messages of their hidden curriculum and align efforts and resources
to maximise the positive influence of their school environment.
Null curriculum
Eisner pointed out in 1985 that there are several subjects that could be included in a
school curriculum, such as ‘parenting, law, psychology or dance’ but instead the ‘big
four’ subjects, namely, ‘English, Social Studies, Mathematics and Science’ dominate
the curriculum. These subjects that are not included in the school curriculum are
referred to as the ‘null curriculum’. Educators and curriculum designers should take
note of the null curriculum and question the orientation or assumption that excludes
certain subjects from a school curriculum (Posner, 1992:11).
Extra curriculum
The ‘extra curriculum’ refers to the extra-mural (outside the classroom) curricular
events and activities as planned experiences apart from the planned subjects, their
teaching and assessment. The modern broad definition of the school ‘curriculum’
actually includes the extra-mural curriculum, but you should know the meaning of the
term if you come across it. The extra–curriculum plays an important role in
developing values, behaviour, attitudes and understanding of social and emotional
dimensions of ourselves and other people (Adapted from Posner, 1992:11). The
extra-curricular environment also creates experiences suitable for developing
organisational, thinking and leadership skills. Learners learn from copying the
models of coaches and peers, learn to obey rules and learn self-discipline via the
training programmes of sport and cultural activities. Cultural events or sport tours or
tournaments offer opportunities to make moral decisions and deal with a range of
positive and negative emotions, for instance dealing with winning or loosing. The
difference between the hidden curriculum and the extra-curriculum with regard to the
extra-curricular experiences, is that the extra curriculum comprises a planned
programme of events like tournaments and performances. The personal experiences
of learners connected to these planned events are informal, natural experiences
which can be seen as part of the hidden curriculum. The extra-curriculum is just as
important, if not more important, as the official curriculum, because it develops our
human nature dimension better than the subject content develops our human nature.
Learning areas
The content of a curriculum is mostly organised into subjects. As the subject fields
expanded due to the knowledge explosion, the curriculum became fuller and finally
overloaded. A plan for reducing the subjects and the content for particular school
grades and phases were designed and the forming of ‘learning areas’ was created. A
secondary learner should now take Natural Science, which combine Physical
Science and Life Science. Likewise Social Studies reduce History and Geography to
one subject. In Namibia the learning areas for pre-primary till grade three are:
Languages, Mathematics, Environmental Studies, Arts, Physical education and
Religious and moral education. The Namibian learning areas for grade 7-9 in
predominant academic stream schools are: Languages, Mathematics, Natural
Science, Social Studies, Information and Communication Technology, Commerce,
Arts and Life Orientation. In grade 7-9 schools with a career-oriented stream there is
a learning area of ‘career oriented subjects’ which include amongst others, Building
Construction, Basic Electricity / Electronics and Hospitality and Tourism subjects
(NIED, 2011). South Africa has 8 similar learning areas for grade 1-9, for example,
Mathematics, Languages, Economics and Management sciences, Natural Sciences,
Social Sciences, Arts and Culture, Technology and Life Orientation (Carl, 2002:44).
Syllabus and scheme of work
The curriculum as a broad educational track comprises amongst other things many
subjects. The nature and focus of each subject is spelled out in a document that is
called a ‘syllabus’. Nowadays the syllabus document clarifies the overall reason or
rationale for including a subject in a particular phase or grade; the aims for teaching
and learning the subject are stated; particular skills to be developed are identified;
how the subject contributes to cross-curricular aims; approaches to its teaching and
learning are proposed; detailed, sequenced learning content is described according
to its theme, topic and learning outcomes; assessment types, methods, forms, test
and examination guidelines and the promotion policy are provided; and the meaning
of verbs typically applied in a subject. All these features are incorporated in the
Namibian school syllabi.
Teachers use the detailed specified content in a syllabus to compile a document that
guides their teaching schedule of a particular subject over a year. This schedule is
called a ‘scheme of work’ and matches the amount of content to be covered with the
time / periods available after national holidays and school holidays are deducted
from the normal school days per year. The ‘scheme of work’ commonly divides the
syllabus content / learning outcomes into periods per week for each week of a
trimester or quaterly term. Most effective schemes of work indicate the main learning
activities and materials involved. This is very helpful to plan ahead how to teach and
what resources are needed. Your supervisor can also assess your scheme of work
and suggest alternative ideas more accurately if you provide such details of learning
activities and materials to be used. Schemes of work produced by experienced
teachers are very useful for beginning teachers or for teachers who are required to
teach subjects outside their training. Some schemes of work even include the
assessment types and questions (in a separate column) that will test the mastery
level of the outcomes achieved. I think that clearly stated outcomes and learning
activities will portrait the nature of the assessment adequately, but the national
system may require the separate assessment details. The main aim of a ‘scheme of
work’ is to be an instructional management tool which matches the amount of
content to be covered with the time / periods available and indicate key factors about
resources, learning activities, assessment questions and reflective ideas for
improvement of instruction. The scheme of work is not meant to include all the detail
of lesson planning of each lesson. Lesson planning documents take note of ideas in
the scheme of work and provide further details envisaged for an effective lesson.
One possible format for a scheme of work as an instructional management tool could
be as follows:
SCHEME OF WORK EXAMPLE
Subject: _____________________________________ Hours per week _____

Grade: ______________________ Year: _________ Total of periods ____
School: _________________________________________________________
HOD: _________________________________________________________
Teacher: ________________________________________________________
Term 1 Duration: (e.g. 16 January - 16 March) Periods: = 105 periods @3 per pw
Period no, Syllabus learning outcomes , learning Assessment questions

Day & Date activities and materials / resources
Theme1: 1.1 a) Identify 3 foods ob-
1. Mon 16/1 a) Learners identify agricultural foods tained from animals
obtained from animals and plants from and 3 from plants.
pictures. b) Give 3 reasons why the
b) They explain the importance of food production of food is
production. important.
c) They identify in pairs 3 ways of c) Name 3 ways of
preserving food. preserving food.
d) Homework: Write a paragraph about 3
advantages of preserving food and give
2 examples of preserved food.
2. Wed 18/1 T1: 1.1
3. Fri 20/1 T1: 1.2
Notes for future improvements regarding the week’s lessons:

E.g. Let learners clarify the term ‘agriculture’ first.
Cut pictures of food from newspapers and magazines and file it in subject file.
Ask learners to collect relevant pictures too.
(Content taken from the Elementary Agriculture, grade 5, Namibian syllabus)
Note 1: The ‘Theme1: 1.1’ in the learning outcomes column refers to the syllabus
numbering of the themes of the syllabus and the ‘1.1 or 1.2’ refers to the
number of the topics of the theme. These syllabus reference numbers are
important for yourself or your supervisors to monitor the completeness and
the accuracy of your scheme of work.
Note 2: Remember, a scheme of work is a helpful planning document that indicates

what content will be taught and what will be the key learning activities and
materials. The scheme of work is not meant to incorporate complete lesson
planning of each lesson. The learning outcomes, learning activities and
materials are integrated as it will be happening in the classroom. It is artificial
and worthless to specify outcomes, learning activities and materials in
separate columns without indicating how they interact in practice. The verb
of the learning activities must match the verbs of the outcomes in the
syllabus. After the description of the learning activities the homework could
also be spelled out where applicable.
Note 3: Although the example above is in a ‘portrait format’, it is mostly better to use
a ‘landscape format’. You can find various examples of schemes of work on
the Internet.
Subject curriculum
The broad curriculum includes many subjects, which are each described by means
of its syllabus. The syllabus for each subject is carefully compiled in terms of the
level of development of the learners in a particular grade as well as the logical
sequence of the subject content across grades. That is why it is appropriate to have
on curriculum design or development panels subject experts as well as learner
development experts. Because learning is cumulative the subject content of each
subject must link logically with the previous and consecutive grade. For example,
the syllabus subject knowledge of Geography from grade 1 till grade 12 forms the
subject curriculum for Geography. This subject curriculum includes then the syllabus
content organisation of a particular subject for the lower and upper primary phase or
junior and secondary phase (Carl, 2002:41).
Curriculum design and development
According to the Collins Pocket Reference English Thesaurus (1993:375) the verb
‘to plan’ could mean ‘to prepare, to outline, to envisage, to devise, or to design’. The
verb ‘to design’ means ‘to draft, outline, plan, delineate, to invent, to conceive to
make, to create, to propose or to fabricate’(Collins Pocket Reference English
Thesaurus, 1993:121). To design a curriculum would then mean to conceive and
plan it; to create it by outlining its broad structure which will include details related to
curriculum components, such as overall aims, subjects, learning outcomes,
admission and assessment policies and so forth. The design of a curriculum seems
therefore to refer to the birth of a new curriculum.
The verb ‘to develop’ means ‘to evolve, advance, mature, progress, ripen, augment
(= strengthen, enhance), broaden and expand’ which basically indicates that to
develop means to improve, change, advance or strengthen something that already
exists. But ‘to develop’ could also mean ‘ to invent, start, or originate’ (Collins Pocket
Reference English Thesaurus, 1993:124) which refers more to the ‘design’ of
something than to the ‘improvement’ of something that already exists. It is no wonder
therefore that the curriculum literature assigns both meanings to the concept
‘curriculum development’: either to create a curriculum or to improve an existing
curriculum. It seems more logical that one uses the concept ‘curriculum design’ when
meaning ‘to create a new curriculum’ and ‘development’ for ‘improving an existing
curriculum’.
Development of a curriculum involves assessing and evaluating the effectiveness of

all the design and implementation elements of an existing curriculum’, amongst other
things, the impact of foundation factors such as social and political changes,
economic changes, new research findings, new perspectives about the overall aims
of education, introducing new content and arranging of content, changes in the
curriculum aims and their priorities, using of new resources and materials and new
ways of teaching, learning and assessment. The evaluation of curricula by
comparing them to similar international ones is very important nowadays, because
travel and communication technology shrink the world to a ‘universal education or
schooling’. Unit 5 discusses curriculum design steps, Unit 6 the curriculum
implementation steps while Unit 7 touches on criteria for evaluating a curriculum.
1.3 Describe the focus and features of contemporary Curriculum

Studies as a discipline
Under the heading of ‘Welcome’ many pages back, the different ‘disciplines’ or ‘part-
disciplines’ of the subject ‘Education’ were clarified, e.g. History or Psychology of
Education. This module of Curriculum Studies, as another part-discipline of
Education as a field of study, focuses on the study of theoretical and practical
dimensions of curriculum design and development, but the Curriculum Studies field
is broader than what this module covers.
First, we will briefly clarify some of the initial features of Curriculum Studies and then
investigate more contemporary features of this discipline. The word ‘contemporary’
means ‘concurrent, in fashion, latest, recent, modern, present-day’ (Collins Pocket
Reference English Thesaurus, 1993:92). Contemporary issues refer thus to modern
or current issues pertaining to a given matter, or issues belonging to the modern
times. This ‘modern times’ could be viewed as’ broader or narrower’ in terms of
years. For example, modern times could be seen as the past 20 years or as
features of the 21st century which may then be referring to the past 14 years or the
time since the year 2000. ‘Contemporary’ in this text refers to the past 14 years or
the beginning of the 21st century till the present (2014).
The clarification of curriculum concepts in Section 1.2 reveals several initial features
of the Curriculum Studies discipline. As is required of any scientific subject, it must
have its own field of study, accepted methods of research and its own subject
terminology. The initial focus of Curriculum Studies was concentrating very much on
aspects regarding the components of a curriculum as advocated by Tyler (1949),
Taba (1962) and others: a) What should the aim of school education be? b) What
kind of content aught to be included in a school curriculum? c) How could content be
taught and learned effectively? And d) how could educators assess the level of
learning in an accurate and fair manner? (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998:194-199).
Let us explore the core initial issues that came to the fore under each of these
component areas:
a) What should the aim of school education be?

 What needs of society should be addressed in aims of education?
 How is Philosophy directing our aims of education / schooling?
 How is Psychology informing curriculum designers about the developmental
and learning needs of learners?
b) What kind of content aught to be included in a school curriculum?

 How does one decide which is the important content to be selected?
 Learners development levels and interests must be considered when selec-
ting and organising content into subjects per grade.
 Knowledge was mostly selected for the sake of the intrinsic value of it not for
its practical application value of it in daily life, accept for promoting reading,
writing and basic arithmetic.
c) How could content be taught and learned effectively?

 The teacher centred approach required that teachers plan and sequence
learning activities mostly around transmitting of knowledge.
 Teaching and learning materials such as the black board and textbook, were
perceived as important to support learning.
 Questions and some problem solving tasks were used to stimulate and direct
learning.
d) How could educators assess the level of learning in an accurate and fair
manner?
 Oral and written assessments focused mostly on basic levels of
understanding knowledge such as memorising, listing facts and describe
things / processes.
 The purpose of assessment was mainly to grade learners instead of using the
assessment results to improve learning results.
 Formal assessment of learning covered large amounts of work because
assessment was done mostly at the end of specified terms or periods.
These four component areas gave rise to ever growing questions as society and
scientific knowledge expanded over time. The focus and features of contemporary
Curriculum Studies therefore comprises the following (Adapted from Carl, 2002:32-
34).
1. Philosophical curriculum features

 Influencing views about human nature and aims of education
 Influencing selection of a curriculum orientation
 Influencing views about quality education
2. Sociological curriculum features

 Involve how schooling accommodate race, gender and multicultural needs
 Involve the role of politics and laws in education
 Involve the role of economics in education and the role of education on the
economy
3. Historical curriculum features

 Focus on the development of curriculum perspectives over time
 Focus on the development of school curricula over time
 Provide proof of more or less successful curriculum designs and
implementations over time
4. Psychological curriculum features

 Recognise the consequences of learner development features and phases
for the curriculum
 Recognise the consequences of learning theories and styles for the
curriculum
 Advocate lesson structures, learning activities and teaching principles
underpinning quality education
5. Comparative curriculum features
 Compare international curriculum designs, e.g. aims, subject content
 Compare international curriculum practices, e.g. school management
practices, lesson plans and learning materials
 Analyse features of specialized curricula, e.g. for career education, pre-
school education or disabled learners
6. Management and leadership curriculum features

 Managing of National school curriculum design and textbook evaluation
committees
 Ministry of Education support for implementing curricula, e.g. staff, facilities
and resource materials
 School audits of leadership and management tasks for effective
implementation of the official curriculum
7. Curriculum content features

 The selection, clustering and sequencing of academic subject content per
grade
 The ratio of knowledge with subject, mental and emotional skills and values
in holistic education
 The development of understanding and thinking skills instead of memorizing
of facts
 Academic and career education provision
8. Curriculum design features

 Focus on the influence of foundations and orientations / models on design
 Focus on curriculum concepts and design principles
 Focus on design and curriculum development steps
9. Curriculum implementation features

 Incorporates the impact of foundation factors
 Incorporates models and steps for implementing a curriculum
 Incorporates the support for successful national implementation
 Effective instruction and learning, e.g. lesson plans, subject files, technology,
insight, study and thinking skills, textbooks, classroom management
10. Subject curriculum features

 The development of subject curricula
 The role of subject syllabi and schemes of work in curriculum implementation
 Effective teaching of particular subjects, e.g subject materials and
technology
 Cross curricular aims via subjects
11. Curriculum evaluation features

 Evaluation types, models, levels, criteria and methods
 Teacher selection and evaluation of teacher performance
 Analysis and evaluation of learning results and examination features
 Whole school audit and school reform models
 Evaluation of the official curriculum
This module covers a selection of topics from the above broad field of curriculum
Studies. There are Units focussing on curriculum concepts and characteristics of the
subject Curriculum Studies; analysis of the historical development of curriculum
science; discussion of the foundations / forces that influence curriculum issues and
trends; evaluation of the curriculum theory and practices of competency-based
education (CBE) and subject-based education (SBE); discussion of the steps in
designing a CBE or SBE qualification or programme; analysing curriculum
implementation steps and creating of a career education curriculum for Namibian
secondary schools. Do you see that the Curriculum Studies features 5, 10 and 11
above are not included in this module. It is also clear from the curriculum field
features above to conclude what valuable insights this subject contributes to the
professional development of teachers.
1.4 Identify international and Namibian contemporary issues of

school and tertiary curricula
Do you see the connection between Section 1.3 and 1.4? The contemporary issues
of curricula on different levels of education should be related to the 11 features of the
field of Curriculum Studies in section 1.3. Remember we defined ‘contemporary’ in
section 1.3 as ‘modern or current issues belonging to the 21st century’. This means
‘contemporary’ in this text refers to educational issues of the past 14 years since the
beginning of the 21st century in 2000.
The following examples of 21st century social issues reflect our modern lifestyles, the
problems we created and face, the new knowledge and skills we need to cope in
present-day society, the lack of morals on many levels, the role of information
technology and so forth. These examples also indicate what may be important
issues to address in our school and tertiary curricula.
1.4.1 Examples of contemporary 21st century social issues:
 International conflict, Terrorism, Chemical weapons, Gun control,

Organised crime
 Waste management, Energy conservation, Recycling
 Market & workforce globalization, Minimum wage, Affirmative Action, Age
discrimination
 Mobile technology & communications, Information management & security

 Abortion, Bioethics, Embryonic stem cell research, Genetic engineering,
Organ and body donation
 Domestic violence, Drinking and driving, Hate crimes, Racism, Gambling
 Drug addiction, Alcoholism, Steroid use in sports
 Eating disorders, Obesity, Diabetics, Unhealthy lifestyles
 Environmental pollution and sustainable use of natural resources, Global
warming, Animal rights
 Human trafficking, Identify theft, Legalization of marijuana and prostitution
 Pornography, Date rape, Sexual harassment, HIV / AIDS
 Texting while driving, Accelerated immigrations,
(Adapted from the University of Maryland, 2014).
Oh wow, it seems like we have lost our way as a human species. I think it is
especially due to our inability to understand the relationship of our soul dimensions
(will, intellect and emotions) with our spiritual dimension (religious beliefs, values).
1.4.2 Examples of contemporary school education / curriculum
issues:
Some 21st century international school curriculum issues are:
 Bullying, discipline issues
 Bullying, discipline issues

 Effect of single parenting on learners
 Violence in schools, video games and on TV
 Promotion of ICT skills (e.g. computer literacy and studies)
 Technology to enhance teaching, learning and management in education
 Lack of moral values teaching at home and school
 Introduction of a formal pre-school education curriculum in especially
developing countries
 Parent involvement in learners’ education
 Different curriculum streams or type of schools, e.g. career, agriculture to
cater for individual talents and promote employment
 Drop out rate of learners
 Thinking skills education, e.g. problem solving, critical and creative thinking
 Second / foreign language studies to be better global citizens
 Interpersonal skills (including emotional skills) to be social competent in a
multicultural society
 Evaluating, integrating and presenting information in oral, written and visual
format
 A focus on comparing mastery levels (at the end of particular phases) in
Mathematics, Science and Reading skills across nations
 More emphasis on assessing thinking skills, practical and authentic types of
assessment methods, effective formative assessment skills and feedback to
learners on their assessment efforts
 A strive for positive, collaborative, problem-based, and stimulating learning
environments
 Curriculum research about required 21st century employment skills
(Adapted from CSCNEPA, 2007; Ed Tech Review, 2014; Route 21, 2014;
Hallissy, Butler, Hurley and Marshall, 2012; NCTE, 2008).
If you analyse these features for patterns, what do you recognise? Most of these
features are related to curriculum implementation. The contemporary curriculum
focus is now on personal, interpersonal, academic, social and employment
competence. The personal development of learners includes thinking skills,
emotional skills and moral values. The interpersonal focus is supported by including
life skills, languages and communication skills, understanding other cultures,
democratic attitudes in the curriculum. The academic focus requires the
development of understanding of different subjects’ knowledge which helps us to
understand some biological, geographical, historical, mathematical, and so forth,
aspects of the world around us. The social oriented subjects help us understand
some structures, systems and laws of our local and international societies. The need
to understand more about the world and its different cultures, histories and
economies is ever increasing. Although preparation for employment is not adequate
yet to my mind, the academic subjects do create a basis for further studies; career
counselling support chances for employment, a subject like ‘Design and Technology’
may help to identify career oriented interests and career education streams in some
countries actually prepare learners for current jobs, e.g. electrician, plumber or
dancer or receptionist.
Are these modern features of education making you realise how important it is for
curriculum designers to work closely with many education stakeholders to design a
curriculum with appropriate aims? The section on ‘orientations’ later in Unit 1 further
explores this important issue of ‘what the aims of education could and should be’. Let
us move first from the international to our own Namibian 21st century curriculum
features.
Some 21st century Namibian school curriculum issues are:
 Unemployment of school leavers

 Teen pregnancy
 Ineffective school management
 Lack of a national school auditing system and consequent reward system
 Lack of provision for appropriate career education options in secondary
schools
 Lack of physical facilities in schools and not enough schools
 Poor discipline in schools
 Teaching that does not promote deep learning, study- and thinking skills
 Inadequate resources for schools to promote effective teaching-learning
 Lack of a national teacher selection instrument
 Lack of government control systems of teacher and school management
performances
 Lack of in-service teacher training for under-qualified secondary teachers
1.4.3 Some 21st century international tertiary curriculum issues
Contemporary higher education curriculum issues are:

 A main focus on the quality of teaching and learning rather than a main focus
on research
 Professional teaching development of lecturers as much as their academic
knowledge development
 Effective institutional leadership and management involving local and
international experts
 Teach study and thinking skills, e.g. problem solving and critical thinking
 Curricula outcomes relevant to social and labour market needs must be
developed with the input of all relevant stakeholders (which also promote
mobility between qualifications and institutions)
 The influence of globalisation on curricula and management of institutions
 Different forms of student support must be available
 Institutions should exploit the opportunities presented by technology to
improve the quality of teaching and learning
 Employ systematic and regular data collection on issues affecting the quality
of teaching and learning
 The role of the university as a ‘knowledge society’
 The relationship between higher education and social change
 Social justice, access to, diversity and massification of higher education
 Funding policies and strategies of higher education and financial support for
students
(Adapted from European High Level Group report, 2013; Brennan and Shah,
2011; European Science Foundation, no date.)
1.5 Discuss different perspectives on ‘quality education’ and

which perspective is applied in Namibia
Is their a difference between training and education?
You will remember that in previous subjects of your programme the concepts
‘training and education’ were clarified as follows: Snook (1973) (in Harris, et al.
1995:14) describes training as “preparing people in a narrow way for some job,
position or function”, whereas education involves “preparing them for life in a broader
and more inclusive sense”. Education is mostly seen as a broader concept than
training with higher cognitive demands than training and a focus on knowledge rather
than on skills (Harris, et al. 1995). This view is also echoed by Penington, (1994)
who beliefs education develops and civilizes the person, while training provides
industry with specific skills. This means education involves teaching the ‘what’ and
the ‘why’ (why includes values) to ensure understanding and transferability of ideas.
Training is supposed to have a narrower focus on the ‘what’, the ‘how’ and the
‘when’. This boils down to a more theoretical education versus a more practical
approach in training. One could agree that education and training can be
conceptually distinct, but quality education programmes encompasses both. This
means that the acquisition of knowledge, generic and employability skills as well as
values should be part of the curriculum for both education and training.
Education involves teaching and learning processes
Education is a process that involves teaching and learning. To provide somebody

with food and shelter is not education, but merely physical care. Although one could
learn something by your self through observation and imitating, much of what we
learn in life is by being taught about it. Wright (in Boyd, Apps et al.,1980:100-101)
states that the term ‘education’ emphasises the educator or agent who takes action
to effect changes in knowledge, attitudes and skills, while the term ‘learning’
emphasises the person in whom the change is expected to occur. Education is an
intentional process and targets specific knowledge, values or skills to be learned.
These intentions are expressed as outcomes or aims that are intended to empower
people to become civilized and to cope better with the demands of life. The term
‘civilized ’ means to be ‘educated, humane, sophisticated, tolerant, polite, cultured
and enlightened (Collins Pocket Reference English Thesaurus, 1993). The term
‘educated’ means to be ‘informed, schooled, taught, coached, civilized, cultivated,
knowledgeable, refined, tasteful and ethical (Collins Pocket Reference English
Thesaurus, 1993). It is clear that to be educated is not just having knowledge and
skills but also to have values which make us ‘humane’.
Miss-education
Not all learning however is educational. For learning to qualify as ‘educational’ it
must have a positive impact on the individual, nature and society. Education that is
not uplifting the human race to higher levels of humanity is called miss-education.
People who are corrupt, who murder and rape are obviously not living on an
acceptable level of humanity and are prosecuted by law as an effort of society to
disapprove and combat inhumane activities. Miss-education might involve sound
knowledge and skills but lacks moral and ethical values or values enshrined as
universal human rights and laws. To teach someone how to steal cars may involve
knowledge and skill but is not qualifying as education. Instead it is rather miss-
education because it disregards commonly agreed upon values and human rights.
Values in education
Values are beliefs which guide our attitudes, actions and thinking of what is right or
wrong, good or bad, ugly or beautiful, etc. People are not born with values and
beliefs so we have to learn it at home, school and through interactions with others.
Values such as fairness, respect for others and their property, democratic attitudes,
unselfishness, kindness, integrity, being hard working and modest are capturing our
humanity. When we are disregarding values by being dishonest, disrespectful
towards others or nature, cruel, selfish or lazy we are acting inhumane, barbaric or
animal like. The term ‘primitive’ refers to ‘being earliest, elementary, simple, barbaric,
crude, savage, undeveloped, unrefined and untrained’ (Collins Pocket Reference
English Thesaurus, 1993). Such negative behaviours normally cause a lot of
problems and things, nature and relationships are destroyed as a result. It is
noticeable that the language of many cultures refers to people who misbehave
because they disregard human values, as animals, e.g. pig, dog, baboon or donkey.
Quality education
It is more than twenty years after Namibia’s independence in 1990 and it is time to
change the focus from ‘education for all’ to ‘quality education for all’. The concept
‘education’ is clarified above and the concept ‘quality’ typically refers to ‘excellence,
superiority, of high standing / standards’ (Collins Pocket Reference English
Thesaurus, 1993). However, we still have to identify the ‘attributes’ of excellence or
high standards in education.
What do you think would constitute ‘quality education’ in Namibia? Is there a generic
description of quality education that is appropriate for all school phases? Is there a
universal description of quality education that is valid for school education across the
globe? Perhaps you thought about the following characteristics as part of quality
education. (Q E in the diagram below stands for Quality Education).
* Q E develops one’s thinking skills and morals

* Q E enables you to cope with life after school
* Q E promotes equity (fair treatment) in education
* Q E is relevant to a particular context, e.g. country
* Q E applies student-centred teaching approaches
* Q E depends upon system structures and processes
* Q E outcomes have a holistic scope of learner devel-
lopment and are meeting required standards
Diagram no 2: Characteristics of quality education

(Adapted from VVOB, 2014)
If you analyse the characteristics of ‘quality education’ in the diagram above, what do you
discover? The first two characteristics refer to content of the curriculum to be taught in the
classroom. This content value thinking skills and morals and implies that the school
curriculum should be relevant to prepare learners for coping with life after school. This
‘coping with life’ should ideally include many areas of life, for example, citizenship and
some preparation for the world of work. The third bullet maintains that fair access and
treatment of learners by the national education system, the school and in the classroom
is an important part of quality education. The forth bullet emphasizes that quality
education must be relevant for a particular context. This means the education in Namibia
must address the Namibian educational needs on a national and regional basis although
our education will also include dimensions of what is perceived as international / generic
quality education. The fifth characteristic suggests that quality education employs
teaching strategies and activities that is geared towards active learner involvement and
learning with understanding. The sixth characteristic suggests that quality education is
dependent upon a national education system and processes. If these structures and
processes are not operating effectively in a country, the achievement of quality education
is hampered. The seventh feature of quality education maintains that the curriculum must
have outcomes which cover a holistic scope of learner development and which are
meeting required national standards. This means the formulated outcomes of education
indicate what we expect learners to learn. The outcomes specify thus also the type of
content to be learned. The scope and depth of the content and the thinking level on which
content must be learned, determine the difficulty of the standards set for syllabi and
assessments.
Do you recognize that quality education comprises many characteristics? It is a

much broader concept than ‘good teaching’ in the classroom. The characteristics of
quality education relate therefore to key curriculum design and implementation
issues such as ‘selection of aims and content’ and ‘management in schools and
classrooms’. What other attributes would you mention as part of quality education?
Another description of quality education by UNICEF (2000) reflects consensus with

the diagram above although the characteristics are presented in a different format
and include more details. Universal quality education includes:
• learners who are healthy,
• well- nourished,
1. Learners • attend school regularly,
• participate and learn actively,
• are supported in learning by families
• environments that are healthy,

• safe and caring and protective,
• gender-sensitive,
2. Environments • disciplined and inclusive,
• provide adequate teaching-learning
resources and physical facilities
• curriculum content reflects relevant local

and international education needs,
• content is of adequate scope and depth
3. Content especially in the areas of literacy,
numeracy, skills for life, gender, health,
nutrition, HIV/AIDS prevention and peace
• processes through which well qualified

teachers use learner-centred
approaches and activities to facilitate
deep learning in,
4. Processes • well-managed schools and classrooms
with
• processes of skilful assessment and
feedback
• outcomes encompass knowledge, skills

(e.g. social, thinking emotional), and
attitudes and values towards oneself,
5. Outcomes others and nature which are linked to
• national goals for education and
participation in society (citizenship)
Diagram no 3: Defining universal quality in education

(UNICEF, 2000)
This definition allows for an understanding of the five basic dimensions of quality
education as a multifaceted phenomenon. The five dimensions include input-factors,
(e.g. facilities, learning materials and qualified teachers) context processes and
output-factors (e.g. outcomes in different subjects, assessment results, pass-fail
ratio) which is an improvement upon the initial view to use input-factors only to
describe quality education. These dimensions above explain that quality education
depends upon schools and families to develop quality learners via attention to their
health, nutrition and school attendance. ‘Quality learners’ can learn well in quality
learning environments which are made up of physical facilities, non-violent, orderly,
inclusive and caring environments. Quality learners in a quality learning environment
set the stage for learning of quality content which is selected according to local and
international aims of education and encompasses language, mathematics and life
skills that include values, attitudes, social and thinking skills. Several processes are
necessary to achieve quality education, namely, quality teaching-learning processes,
management processes and assessment processes. Proper planning, organizing
and controlling of teaching-learning activities are important for achieving quality.
Likewise, are assessment policies, techniques and levels important for achieving
quality education. Quality teaching processes are related to well-qualified teachers
with good content and pedagogical understanding. The teacher’s quality teaching is
also connected to quality school management and support for teachers, for instance,
availability of technology, physical facilities and materials. Quality learning outcomes
specify what learners need to know, need to be / belief and can do in particular
grades. Nowadays the outcomes cover the holistic development of learners which go
beyond the former ‘reading, writing and arithmetic’ (UNICEF, 2000:1-20, 30) as we
will clarify under section 1.6.
The above ‘quality education framework’ is valid for describing the categorical
characteristics of quality education for all phases of schooling. It is also valid for local
and international descriptions of quality education. Although the framework is valid
the details under each of the basic dimensions of the framework will differ for phases
and countries. For instance, outcomes and content differ for upper primary and
senior secondary although the framework dimensions of ‘outcomes’ and ‘content’
stay valid dimensions for both phases. In addition, the outcomes of quality education
change with the times due to many factors that will be discussed in Unit 3.
Quality education as ‘education of a high standard’ is sometimes labeled by

stakeholders from perspectives of different subject fields, for example:
Tabel 1.3: Stakeholder labels for quality education
Subject or Area Quality labeled as

1. Management theory and 1. Quality as inputs, processes and outputs
Management practice Or quality as proven best practice
2. Economics 2. Quality as value for money, or
return on investment
3. Customer service 3. Meeting employer market needs
4. Education 4. Quality is meeting set academic standards
or General, broad education or
Specialized occupational training
5. Psychology 5. Learner development / empowerment or
Society transformation
6. Philosophy 6. Quality as perfection / zero defect /
excellence or consistency or
fit for purpose
(Adapted from Newton, 2006)
Clarification of some ‘quality labels’
‘Quality as inputs, processes and outputs or quality as proven best practice’

relates to the systems management theory where all the components of a system
must work together in a logical system of inputs, processes and outputs. Criteria for
controlling the effectiveness of each component of the system are in place to assure
quality outputs / products / services. Typically both internal and external control
measures are in place and specified personnel are held accountable for the
monitoring or controlling of processes and results. The ideal is that the national
education system in a country also has a systems approach to ensure quality
education in schools. Schools should also take responsibility to reflect upon their
management and teaching activities to determine their ‘best practices’. Best
practices involve both doing the right things (be efficient) to achieve quality
education, e.g. determine appropriate aims / outcomes and doing these right things
effectively (successfully, as it is suppose to be done).
‘Quality as value for money, or return on investment’ involves that quality of

provision, of processes or outcomes are judged against monetary cost (Newton,
2006). The government spending on education to develop particular features of the
school leaving graduate could for example be judged as preventing huge
government spending on crime, health epidemics, unemployment or violence.
Families can also compare their financial input in their children’s school education as
a good investment measured against what financial support they could get from that
children in future.
‘Quality as excellence or consistency’. Excellence implies high standards,

normally determined with great care and input from many stakeholders. National
syllabi aims and content are designed with such input from stakeholders to meet
standards of excellence which commonly meet local and international features
deemed of high value like adequate level of knowledge, thinking and social skills etc.
National examination policies and examinations are then put in place to measure the
achievement levels against the set standards. External examiners and accreditation
processes are additional elements to ensure maintenance of the excellence
benchmarks (Newton, 2006). Of course if a national percentage of 40 is deemed as
a pass in a grade, there could be no talk of excellence. It is not adequate to measure
examination results as product of the education. The process of teaching and
learning in schools should be monitored for promoting excellence. This monitoring is
one way that the national quality of education achieved would be more consistent
across schools and regions.
‘Quality as fitness for purpose’ contrasts with the traditional elitist notions of
academic quality education. The curriculum is designed towards achieving clearly
selected and specified outcomes / aims for a qualification. Like in competency-based
qualifications, content is selected that is suitable to the type of qualification and the
competencies required by that qualification. Industrial associations often need to
accredit such qualifications that are based upon ‘fitness for purpose’ (Newton, 2006).
Namibian education applies the competency-based approach to education and in
some sense many levels of our education is applying the ‘fit for purpose’ view.
These different stakeholder labels for quality education are interested, but they each
represent a narrow perspective of quality education, while the clarified dimensions of
quality education above clearly pointed out that there are many dimensions involved
in quality education. If one would apply these labels to education quality in Namibia,
the ones most applicable to Namibia are probably ‘meeting set academic
standards, and General education and Fit for purpose’. I personally think that if
you have to select one quality education label, I would select ‘meeting set
standards’, because this label is at the basis of ‘academic and career education
standards’, ‘fitness for purpose’, ‘quality as excellence or consistency’, quality as
value for money and quality as proven best practice’.
Apart from subject area labels for quality education, quality definitions are really
influenced by educational philosophies such as Idealism, Realism and
Experimentalism, as well as influenced by curriculum orientations which focus on
goals and structure of the programme content. In section 1.7, 1.8 and 1.9 several
curriculum orientations and their views of what quality education are, are explored,
for example, the cognitive development orientation views the overall purpose of
education ‘as learning a range of thinking skills’, e.g. study and critical thinking skills.
The Technology (competency-based) orientation focuses strongly on the
development of pre-determined cognitive, affective and psycho-motor skills /
competencies according to a systematic design of the education system. The
Academic rationalism orientation beliefs the overall purpose of education is learning
‘academic knowledge that is structured in the traditional disciplines’. The social
reconstruction orientation strives to develop the knowledge, values and social skills
of learners so that they will be able to not just fit into society but be able to address
societal problems and change society for the better. The self-actualisation orientation
aims to develop the individual’s self-image, talents and personality. Obviously, all of
these orientations are emphasising valid aspects of quality education. Education as
a ‘means to an end activity’ needs however to have a more holistic focus such as
proposed by the contemporary ‘wellness’ aims for human development. Such
‘wellness aims’ cover all the key features of mankind, for instance the physical,
mental, emotional, intellectual, social and spiritual dimensions and as such cover all
elements of the orientations listed above. The ‘wellness orientation aims’ are
explored in the next section under 1.6.
Why is it important to characterize quality education?
So you ask why is it important for me as a teacher to understand what is meant by

‘quality education’? How would you think to work out an answer to this question?
Perhaps your thinking was along this line: ‘My purpose as a teacher is to achieve
quality education. Therefore, I should know how ‘quality education’ is described,
what it entails, in order for me to focus on achieving that kind of education. If I do not
understand what counts as quality education, I can not purposefully strive to achieve
that’. It makes sense then that the features of quality education is spelled out in the
previous pages. Every Namibian teacher can now observe the features of the
education in the school where they start teaching and determine what needs to be
done to improve the quality of education in that context or even in other national
contexts. How to improve the quality of education in Namibia is explored in Unit 7.
1.6 Discuss different perspectives (traditional and wellness ones)

regarding the overall purposes of school education, including
the purposes of the pre- primary phase, the upper primary
phase and the senior secondary phase and evaluate the
Namibian purposes for these phases
If it is recognised that education is a purposeful endeavour it would imply that a

country and teachers should be clear about what the learners should attain in terms
of knowledge, skills and values during the course of their particular phases of
schooling. If you were the Minister of Education what would you like to see pre-
primary and senior primary education achieve in Namibia against the background of
the characteristics of quality education?
1.6.1 Why having curriculum aims / exit learning outcomes?
Outcomes / aims in education state the ‘intent of the learning’ or the ‘expected
learning results’ and are important for achieving quality education in Namibia or any
other country, because:
 Outcomes /aims specify the broad content to be achieved in all subjects.
 Outcomes indicate whether the subject teaching focuses on knowledge, or

skills and values/attitudes.
 Outcomes clearly describe what is valued by a nation enough to try to

transmit and cultivate it in future generations.
 Learning programme outcomes put on paper serve to guide authors of

textbooks and developers of other learning materials.
 Learning programme outcomes guide teachers in preparing the necessary

content, selecting the most appropriate teaching strategies and methods as
well as teaching-learning media, which will promote quality teaching and
learning.
 Outcomes guide the type of assessment tools, e.g. essays or multiple choice
questions to be used and the type of weight (in marks) certain aims should
carry.
 Outcomes which are actually preparing learners for the future world of work
and citizenship are clearly enhancing quality education.
 Without outcomes in education, the system is not well directed and many
stakeholders will pull in many different directions. Outcomes serve as
guidelines that indicate what is expected to be taught and what to be learnt
on a national basis so that there is a collective frame of reference created.
1.6.2 The official outcomes of pre-primary education in Namibia
The official outcomes of pre-primary education in Namibia are to provide a

balanced, relevant and coherent programme of learning through structured play.
The aims are to:
1. Develop personal, social and emotional wellbeing in particular by supporting
the transition to and between settings, promoting an inclusive ethos and
providing opportunities for each child to become a valued member of the
community so that a strong self-esteem is promoted.
2. Develop social skills by providing opportunities that will enable children to learn
how to share, cooperate and work in harmony with each other and to listen to
each other.
3. Develop attention skills to concentrate on their own play activities and on tasks
given.
4. Develop children’s language and communication skills with opportunities for all
to talk and communicate in a widening range of situations, to listen carefully
and to respond to others and further to practice and extend the range of
vocabulary use.
5. Prepare children for reading and writing skills with opportunities for all to
explore, enjoy, learn about sign and words in a broad range of contexts and to
experience a rich variety of printed matter.
6. Develop their understanding of numbers, measurement, patterns, shapes and

space by providing a broad range of contexts in which they can explore, enjoy,
learn and practice.
7. Develop children’s knowledge and understanding of the world with

opportunities for all to solve problems make decisions, experiment, predict,
plan, explore and find out about the environment, people and places that have
significance in their lives.
8. Develop and practice their fine and gross motor skills and to increase their
understanding of how their bodies work and what they need to do to be healthy
and safe.
9. Develop children’s creativity with opportunities for all to explore and to share
their thoughts, ideas and feelings through a variety of imaginative art forms.
(Source: Ministry of Education, Syllabus for Pre-Primary Education. 2008.)

Can you see that the selected exit learning outcomes for education will impact on the
quality of education. Of course the whole design of the curriculum is one part
determining the quality and the other part is the effectiveness of the implementation
of a curriculum. The above exit learning outcomes suggest the following 6 learning
areas / subjects for pre-primary education. The detailed exit learning outcomes for
these 6 learning areas are:
Subject Exit learning outcomes

1. Language Learners can listen for information and respond
appropriately. They can read signs and words from their
immediate environment and they can communicate
effectively and confidently in their mother tongue.
2. Preparatory Learners can express orally their understanding of number

Mathematics concepts and mathematical symbols. They can recognize
and describe patterns, relationships and shapes and they
can solve simple problems in everyday contexts.
3. Environmental Learners are aware of the importance of their own basic

learning health and nutrition. They act positively towards the natural
environment and interact positively in the social environment.
4. Arts Learners demonstrate personal and interpersonal skills

through free participation in creative activities, they express
themselves through art forms and appreciate others’
expressions.
5. Physical Learners can participate to the best of their ability in a variety

Development of physical activities that promote movement and motor
development.
6. Religious & Learners have a basic understanding of their own beliefs, are
Moral Education tolerant of others’ and share common positive values.
1.6.3 International outcomes for pre-primary education
Most countries have a national curriculum which specifies their outcomes for
different levels of education. A few international sets of exit outcomes for pre-
primary education are listed below to enable us to compare the Namibian outcomes
with other countries’ outcomes for pre-primary education.
Pre-primary outcomes of India
Read these outcomes and then compare it to the Namibian pre-primary education
aims. The ultimate goal of pre-primary education is to bring about holistic
development of children and to facilitate children to have a smooth transition to
primary education. More specifically, pre-primary education will have the following
objectives:
1. To provide an opportunity to develop physical, emotional, social, mental,
moral and creative aspects.
2. To develop habit for personal sanitation.
3. To develop respect for others.
4. To develop positive behaviour and attitude towards school.
5. To prepare for primary schooling.
6. Develop physical and mental abilities.
7. Acquire an adequate level of knowledge to be able to act independently in
society. (Indian Ministry of Education and Sports, 2005.)
Pre-primary outcomes of Hong Kong (China)
The aims of pre-primary education in Hong Kong is to provide children with a

relaxing and pleasurable learning environment to promote a balanced development
of different aspects necessary to a child’s development such as the physical,
intellectual, language, social, emotional and aesthetic aspects. More specific aims
are:
1. Physical development, which includes the cultivation of healthy habits and

life-style, sensory perception skills and coordination.
2. Cognitive and language development, which includes development of
curiosity and understanding of things and people around them, mathematical
literacy and problem solving and abilities in language and thinking.
3. Affective and social development, which includes development of
understanding and expressing emotions, self-esteem and an optimistic
attitude towards life, foster positive attitudes towards people and society, the
environment, national identity and respect for different cultures.
4. Aesthetic development, which includes exploring of different art media,
sensory experiences, creative powers and appreciating of the surrounding
environment. (Hong Kong Curriculum Development Council, 2007).
Pre-primary outcomes of California Department of Education (USA)
This preschool education promotes readiness for primary education and develops
knowledge, skills and attitudes with regards to:
1. Social-emotional development, which includes self-awareness and self

regulation, social interaction skills and relationships features development.
2. Language and literacy, which includes listening and speaking, reading and
writing skills for English mother tongue children.
3. English-language development, which includes, listening and speaking,
reading and writing skills for non- English mother tongue children.
4. Mathematics foundations, which includes developing a number sense,

classification and patterns, measurement, shape, size and position and
everyday mathematical problem solving. (California Department of
Education, 2007).
It is clear from the above that the world has reached a point where pre-primary
education aims are on a ‘universal agreement’ level. How do these aims compare to
the Namibian pre-primary education aims? What type of international aims do we not
have? You should also consider that the Namibian officially stated aims might
apparently lack some issues but often the syllabus aims would include these
apparent missing aims.
Compare the Namibian pre-primary aims with those of Hong Kong.
First, consider what it means to ‘compare’ something. The verb-list at the

beginning of the book indicates that one should indicate the similarities and
differences with regard to particular criteria. Then draw a conclusion about the
similarities and differences, emphasising the similarities. So what are the
‘criteria’ to be used here to discover the similarities and differences? Yes, the
criteria are ‘which areas’ do the aims cover. List which ‘areas’ are covered by
both sets as ‘similarities’ and which set has aims / areas that the other set does
not mention.
1.6.4 Namibian and international outcomes for senior / upper primary

education
What do you think should be the main focus of our senior primary phase?
The official outcomes of senior / upper primary education in Namibia
The Senior Primary phase consolidates the foundation laid in Lower Primary
phase and develops it further. On completion of the Upper Primary phase learners
will:
1. Show competence in listening with understanding; speaking fluently and
confidently according to situation and audience;
reading with understanding; do factual and imaginative writing using mostly
correct spelling and grammar in a mother tongue and second language.
2. Demonstrate understanding of rational numbers and carry out the basic

operations, solve everyday problems involving number, measurement and
spatial
relationships and collect, interpret and present simple data.
3. Be able to use simple scientific models, methods and skills to make scientific
sense of the natural environment and of themselves biologically,
psychologically and socially. They relate the implications of scientific
understanding to their personal and social health and the sustainable use of all
natural resources for future generations.
4. Explain main developments from selected episodes of Namibian and world

history and main outlines of Namibian and African geography. They describe
development of society and its impact on the environment. They explain beliefs
other than their own in a non-judgmental way. They identify their own personal
traits, manage time to study effectively and demonstrate positive values and
skills in interaction with others.
5. Show creativity in investigating and exploring product ideas and designing a

product. They choose appropriate materials, correctly use basic hand tools and
equipment and make and evaluate their product. They demonstrate
understanding and correct use of software applications such as Microsoft
Office and conduct basic navigation through the Windows environment or other
operating systems.
6. Identify a demand, work out cost and sale prices for a product which they have
developed in Design and Technology, home Ecology, or Elementary
Agriculture and sell it in the school community.
7. Explore and investigate ideas and art media freely, using creative activities,
communicate adequately for their purpose through chosen art forms and
appreciate and interpret sensitively what others communicate through the arts.
8. Develop co-operative activity and game skills, monitor their own progress and
achievements and explain why continued physical activity is important for
health and wellness.
(Source: Ministry of Education, The national curriculum for basic education,
2010.)
Can you identify the learning areas / subjects of Languages, Mathematics, Natural
Sciences, Social Sciences, Technology, Commerce, Arts and Physical Education
underlying the above aims of education?
Outcomes of upper primary education in Uganda
The main aims of upper primary education are to:
1. Enable individuals to acquire functional literacy, numeracy and communication

skills in English, Kiswahili and at least one Uganda language.
2. Develop and maintain sound mental and physical health among learners.
3. Instill the values of living and working cooperatively with other people and caring
for others in the community.
4. Develop and cherish the cultural, moral and spiritual values of life and appreciate
the richness that lies in the varied and diverse cultures and values of the country.
5. Promote understanding and appreciation for the protection and utilization of the
natural environment, using scientific and technological knowledge and skills.
6. Develop an understanding of one’s rights and civic responsibilities and duties for
the purpose of positive and responsible participation in civic matters.
7. Develop a sense of patriotism, nationalism and national unity in diversity.
8. Develop pre-requisites for continuing education.
9. Acquire a variety of practical skills for enabling one to make a living in a multi
skilled manner.
10. Develop an appreciation for dignity of work and for making a living by one’s
honest effort.
11. Equip learners with the knowledge, skills and values of responsible parenthood.
12. Develop skills in management of time and finance and respect for private and
public property.
13. Develop.the ability to use problem-solving approach in various life situations.
14. Develop discipline and good manners. (UNESCO, 2010)
These Uganda aims are to be achieved by the following upper primary subjects:
English, Social Studies, Religious education, Mathematics, Integrated Science
(including Agriculture), Local Language, Creative arts and physical education and
Library.

__________________________________________________________________
Compare the Namibian upper-primary aims with those of Uganda.
By now you know how to compare. So what are the similarities and differences
and what is your conclusion?
Outcomes of primary education in Finland
Finland emphasizes that the purpose of education is to support learners’ growth into
humanity and into ethically responsible membership of society (citizenship) and to
provide them with knowledge and skills needed in life. Basic education, of which
upper primary education is a part, should:
1. Develop a strong base of knowledge.

2. Develop creativity, crafts and thinking skills.
3. Develop individual abilities of learners to realize themselves and build their
future.
4. Develop responsibility for local and global environment issues.
5. Develop an understanding of culture and related knowledge.
6. Develop an understanding of values and ethics.
7. Develop an understanding of life management skills.
8. Develop an understanding of individual health and welfare behaviour.
9. Develop an understanding of social and communication skills.
10. Develop an understanding of learning skills and management of information.
11. Develop an understanding of media literacy.
12. Develop an understanding of technological competencies.
(UNESCO, 2010, World data on education).
Outcomes of primary education in Australia and other countries
Analysis of the above aims of senior primary education indicates that there are
strong similarities among aims of different countries. At last, scientific education
knowledge is globally interpreted and applied, so that many countries have a similar
universal programme for particular phases in education.
This conclusion is further supported if senior primary aims of Australia also
emphasise holistic learner development, citizenship, thinking skills, learner-centred
education, aims in the common subjects such as English, Mathematics, Natural
Sciences, Social Sciences, Arts and Physical education. Respecting other cultures
and protecting the environment, subject knowledge and skills, communication and
social skills are all valued.
Upper primary education in Botswana strongly emphasizes Agricultural aims, apart

from the typical Environmental awareness, gender equity, understanding of
HIV/AIDS like in other countries. Primary education for Kenia should aim to prepare
students to participate in the social, political and economic well being of the country
and prepare them to be global citizens. The subjects in the Kenian upper primary
curriculum are: Kiswahili, English, Mathematics, Science and Agriculture and Social
Studies.
In Japan, primary education emphasizes self-discipline and accepting of

responsibility, group learning, character development national loyalty. The subjects
include: the Japanese language, Social Studies, Arithmetic, Science, Art and
handicrafts, Music, Homemaking, Physical education and Moral education. The
Social Studies now include a strong focus on Life Skills for daily living.
(Ministry of Education, Culture, Spots, Science and Technology. Japan, primary and
secondary eduation, 2012).
1.6.5 Employability skills
Two of the above school outcomes refer to ‘employability skills’. These skills do not
refer to any particular job skills, but rather to general employable skills such as the
following:
 Collecting, analysing and organising information
 Communicating ideas and information
 Planning and organising activities
 Working with others in teams
 Using mathematical ideas and techniques
 Solving problems
 Using technology
 Understanding cultures
(Gonczi, Curtain, Hager, Hallard & Jarrison, 1995)
These skills could be developed from pre-primary level, the content and
methodology to do it must be on the level of the particular grade, e.g. ‘working with
others’ starts off as ‘playing with others’ and ‘using technology’ at pre-primary level is
‘holding a pencil correctly’.
Research in the USA for example indicated that employers expect the
following competencies and skills in employees:
 Resource competencies: manage time, money, materials and human

resources
 Information competencies: acquire and evaluate information, organise
and interpret information, communicate information and use computers to
gather, organise and communicate information
 Interpersonal competencies: participate as a team member, teach others,
serving customers, exercise leadership, negotiate to arrive at a
conclusion, working with cultural diversity, understand social and
organisational systems, monitor and correct performance, improve
systems
 Technology competencies: select, apply and troubleshoot technology
 Basic skills: read, write, speak listen and perform arithmetic computations
 Thinking skills: think creatively, interpret visual information, make
decisions, solve problems, reason and know how to learn
 Personal qualities: be responsible, have a positive self-esteem,
demonstrate social adaptability manage your self, e.g. stress, be aware of
your own strengths and weaknesses, be honest / have integrity.
(Skills that work, 1998)
If these are the skills that will enable learners to cope in future with work life, schools
must deliberately develop these skills in all phases of education. Another modern
concept about the overall goal of education is that education should contribute to the
‘wellness’ of people.

__________________________________________________________________
I have collected in the table below a number of different outcomes for pre-
and senior primary education (PP or SP) from different writers and different
countries. Work through this table deciding which ones you agree with as
suitable outcomes for pre- or senior primary education in Namibia. Write PP or
SP in the relevant agree of disagree column.
Pre-primary OR senior primary learners should be
able to: Agree Disagree
1. Can name the parts of their body
2. Communicate thought clearly in English
3. Understand the importance of schooling
4. Develop values as part of an ethical character
5. Realise the importance of diligent studying
6. Understand road safety rules
7. Understand basic number concepts
8. Understand the importance of hygienic habits
9. Understand the importance of productivity for the

national economy
10. Understand how to plan spending of money
11. Treat all people from all cultures with respect
12. Recognise basic mathematical shapes
13. Have a positive self-image
14. Do not pollute the environment
15. Recognise man’s interdependence with nature
16. Recognise there is a God
17. Cope with real life problems through problem solving

skills
18. Understand that decisions we take have serious short or

long term consequences
19. Is respectful and friendly towards others
20. Develop some habits of managing their emotions
21. Develop understanding of right and wrong
22. Develop coordination through play

23. Be aware of computers
24. Learn that other people have the same rights as you
25. Be aware that one should manage one’s time well
26. Learn through stories and songs
27. Understand how school prepares them to cope with life
There is no right or wrong answers to this activity, as the answers depend to a

large extent on what you think the purpose of education is and what sort of
person you think the education system can and should produce. You probably
noticed that the outcomes above cover knowledge, skills and values in different
subjects. A teacher should be aware of the syllabus aims of each subject they
teach in order to strive to achieve them.
1.6.6 Namibian and international outcomes for senior secondary education
What do you think parents of secondary learners would like to see the school teach
their children? Or put differently, what should learners be able to know, belief and do
when they have completed grade 12? What do you think employers are looking for in
a (grade 12) person applying for a job? Let us investigate what our official aims for
secondary education propose.
1.6.6.1 The official outcomes of senior secondary education in Namibia are:
1. To achieve a broad and balanced command of knowledge, skills and attitudes in

the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains that will enhance:
a) understanding, creativity and investigative and critical minds;
b) productivity, and the ability to apply knowledge, skills, attitudes in a practi-
cal way to problem solving and real life situations and the ability to make
informed decisions;
c) the ability to communicate effectively;
d) moral development, awareness of one’s own beliefs and opinions and
respect for others, and the ability to make informed decisions;
e) values of reliability, co-operation, tolerance, mutual understanding and
service to others;
2. To develop democratic attitudes and skills.
3. To develop and instill a sense of national identity, unity, and loyalty to Namibia.
4. To prepare learners to obtain qualifications of internationally recognised
standards that will provide entrance to tertiary institutions.
5. To develop self-reliance and entrepreneurship as preparation for the world of
work including self-employment.
6. To encourage lifelong learning.
(Source: Ministry of Education, Curriculum for Senior Secondary Education)
Can you see that the selected exit learning outcomes for education will impact on the
quality of education. Of course the whole design of the curriculum is one part
determining the quality and the other part is the effectiveness of the implementation
of a curriculum.
When referring to our national curriculum outcomes, it should be clear how the
curriculum strives to attain the above stated outcomes, for example:
 The “broad and balanced command of knowledge, skills and attitudes” will be
achieved through the inclusion of many school subjects.
 “Understanding, creativity and investigative and critical thinking” will be
promoted by the selection of certain content in the different subjects, but also
through learner-centred teaching methods and assessment principles. So will
continuous assessment promote better understanding and projects or
assignments can assess creative and critical thinking.
 The selection of the subject’s content include real-life situations / events and
the focus is also on the application of the theoretical knowledge to present
and future life situations, like relationships and job situations.
 “Skills like problem solving and decision making” are especially promoted in
subjects like Mathematics, Physical Science and Computer Studies. The use
of interpretative assessment questions where a set of data is presented in
various formats like photographs, pictures or graphs and followed by multiple
choice questions also promote these higher level thinking skills of problem
solving.
 Other “life skills” are promoted through Business Studies, Geography,
Agriculture, Home Economics and the different technical and vocational
subjects like Design and Technology and Bricklaying and Plastering.
 “Values” are developed through all subjects, but Home Economics, Life Skills
and Religious Studies in particular. The development of values builds
character.
 “Communication” is enhanced through the many indigenous languages,
English, German, French or Afrikaans and the fact that the medium of
instruction is also English in the secondary schools.
 “Attitudes of democracy, loyalty to Namibia and a national identity” are
promoted by means of subjects like History, Languages and Religious
Studies.
1.6.6.2 International outcomes of secondary education

Most countries have a national curriculum which specifies their outcomes for
different levels of education. The following few examples are however outcomes of
individual schools in different countries. The above Namibian outcomes are very
representative of Southern African school aims. The following outcomes give one a
comparative basis of local versus international outcomes of secondary education.
Outcomes of a Norwegian high school

Read these outcomes and then compare it to the Namibian secondary education
aims.
 Develop religious values.
 Develop physical and mental abilities.
 Acquire an adequate level of knowledge to be able to act independently in
society.
 Understand human rights and responsibilities.
 Master skills related to work contexts.
 Develop the roles of responsible citizens.
 Develop democratic ideals and tolerance.
 Develop scientific thought and methods.
 Lay a foundation for further education.
Refer to [http://odin.dep.no/kd/English/doc/legislation/acts/o14101-
200002/hov002-bn.html]
Outcomes of a Netherlands school

 Develop learning to learn skills, e.g. gather and integrate information, do
problem solving, study skills.
 Develop citizenship, e.g. rights and responsibilities, reading media critical,
democracy ideas.
 Develop social skills, e.g. relationship skills, gender roles, give and take
criticism, communication, family habits, cultural group habits.
How do these aims compare to the Namibian secondary education aims?
(Refer to http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/dvo/English/corcurriculum/secondary
/1grade/bstream/1…).
Outcomes of a Virginia (USA) school
 Develop skills of working together, e.g. tolerance, respect.

 Develop civic and global responsibilities.
 Develop proficient understanding in different subjects.
 Develop entry level employment skills.
 Prepare learners for further education.
 Develop moral and ethical values.
 Acknowledge the variety of cultures.
 Develop thinking and judgement skills to make wise choices in life.
 Develop emotional health.
 Emphasise the importance of physical fitness.
 Develop aesthetic values.
(Refer to http://schoolcenter/eps1.org/education/components/scrapbook/ de
fault.php?sectiondeta…).
Common outcomes of secondary schools in Japan

 Develop the ability to learn, e.g. academic and study skills.
 Develop the ability to think independently and solve problems.
 Develop personalities and talents.
 Develop creative thinking and problem solving.
 Develop ethics and values so that their conscious can judge good and evil.
 Develop English and foreign language abilities as well.
(Refer to [http:www.mext.go.jp/English/formal/16.htm]).
Common outcomes of secondary schools in Australia

Learners:
 have the essential skills in literacy and numeracy as a foundation for success
in all learning areas;
 are creative and resourceful and are able to think critically, analyse
information and solve problems;
 are able to learn and plan activities independently, collaborate and
communicate ideas;
 are motivated to reach their full potential;
 have the capacity to make sense of their world and think about how things
became the way they are;
 are on a pathway towards further education, training or employment, and
acquire the skills that support this, including an appetite for life-long learning
have a sense of optimism, self-esteem and are able to manage their
emotional, mental and physical wellbeing;
 have a sense of respect for others, control over their lives and are well
prepared for their potential life roles as family, community and workforce
members;
 value their culture and place in Australia and have a strong sense of identity
 are creative and productive users of technologies, particularly information and
communication technologies;
 have the knowledge, skills and attitudes to establish and maintain healthy,
satisfying lifestyles;
 are able to embrace opportunities, make rational and informed decisions
about their own lives, and accept responsibility for their own actions have the
capacity and inclination to act with moral and ethical integrity;
 have an understanding of Australia’s system of government and civic life and
appreciate its diversity of culture and history, including the special place of
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures;
 are able to relate and communicate across cultures, especially in relation to
cultures and countries of the Asia-Pacific;
 have a desire and capacity to work for the common good, including
stewardship of the natural environment;
 are responsible global and local citizens. (MCEETYA, 2008).

I have collected in the table below a number of different outcomes for
secondary education from different writers and different countries. Work
through this table deciding which ones you agree with as important outcomes
for secondary education in Namibia.
Learners should be able to: Agree Disagree

1. Understand facts about their bodies and health
2. Communicate thought clearly in English
3. Understand their role as useful members of society
4. Develop values as part of an ethical character
5. Realise the importance of hard work
6. Understand important geological issues of the world we
live in
7. Understand important historical issues of Namibia and the
rest of the world
8. Understand the political system of Namibia
9. Understand the importance of productivity for the national
economy
10. Understand how to do your own budget planning
11. Treat all people from all cultures with respect
12. Reflect critically on all information coming your way
13. Feel confident and have a positive self-image
14. Feel committed to a democracy
15. Recognise man’s interdependence with nature
16. Recognise the danger of overpopulation
17. Cope with real life problems through problem solving skills
18. Understand that decisions we take have serious short or
long term consequences
19. Maintain pleasant personal relationships
20. Develop emotional maturity and stability
21. Develop self-directing learning skills
22. Realise the threats to peace in Namibia
23. Be computer literate
24. Understand how to plan and organise events
25. Manage time well
26. Understand how subject knowledge prepares them to
cope with life
27. Have basic employability skills
28. Add one:

___________________________________________________________________
There are no right or wrong answers to this activity, as the answers depend to a
large extent on what you think the purpose of education is and what sort of
person you think the education system can and should produce. You probably
noticed that numbers 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, and 23 can all be linked to specific
subject areas. Others, such as 3, 4, 22, could also be linked to subject areas,
but can also be the product of the ethical and social context of the school.
1.6.7 Dimensions of holistic wellness outcomes for education
‘Wellness’ is a comprehensive concept and includes a holistic perspective on human

development. Take note you must be able to ‘evaluate’ the wellness focus. This
means that you should be able to debate whether the wellness dimensions are
complete enough in terms of representing our human nature and which dimensions
are relevant to pre-primary and senior primary. In addition you must be able to
evaluate if the Namibian pre-primary or senior primary or senior secondary aims of
education are addressing the dimensions of wellness. Apart from perhaps the
occupational roles below, pre-primary and senior primary school aims should
develop all wellness areas on levels suitable for a phase. Senior secondary
education could even develop the occupational roles below.
Tabel 1.4 Dimensions of wellness
Social wellness: quality of interaction with others, respect for others,
contribute to community welfare.
maintain fitness, healthy nutrition, safe sex, drug
abuse, medical checks, general safety practices,
Physical wellness:
HIV/ AIDS.
Emotional wellness: express and control emotions, self-image.
Occupational wellness: job satisfaction, recognition for contributions,
advancement, professional development.
expanding knowledge and thinking skills, solve
problems, manage stress, adaptability and tolerance,
Intellectual wellness:
perception of others.
Environmental understand interdependence with others and nature,
wellness: neighbourhood, home and workplace.
Spiritual wellness: seek meaning and purpose in life, develop love,
values, religion, trust and ethics.
(Seven dimensions of wellness, 2000).
A more complete example of the ‘wellness’ perspective about educational outcomes,

is the following one of a particular Canadian State. The “wellness” dimensions are
dimensions of one’s life – the dimensions of one’s being. They are the physical, the
psychological, the social, and the spiritual dimensions. These four dimensions are
interconnected, interdependent, and constantly interacting with each other.
Maintaining or improving one’s wellness – one’s quality of life – requires
continuous balancing and rebalancing of these four dimensions in response to the
events in our lives. Underemphasizing (neglecting) or overemphasizing any one
dimension will have a negative impact on the others. It is a complex task to ensure
that each school phase include all areas of wellness at the right level of difficulty and
enough scope of content. The current tradition in curriculum design is much physical
and values develop-ment at the lower grades with a growing level and scope of
intellectual development to grade 12 and beyond. After grade 12 the knowledge
becomes more specialized, thus focusing on more depth than breadth.
Associated with each dimension are a variety of factors that can cause us to move
toward the ‘optimal wellness end’ of the ‘illness-wellness continuum’ – or toward the
‘illness end’. The Wellness curriculum outcomes are designed to enhance learners’
knowledge and understanding of these factors, and to improve their ability to
manage them in order to move toward, or remain near, the optimal wellness end of
the continuum.
Pre-primary, senior primary and secondary education should address the

dimensions of wellness that involves:
(a) Physical dimension
The physical dimension deals with the functional operation of the body. In general,
wellness factors related to the physical dimension can be grouped within the
following categories:
 Physical activity and fitness

 appropriate amounts of, and ease of access to, a variety of physical
activity
 a balanced menu of physical activity that provides opportunities for
development and maintenance of each component of physical fitness –
cardiovascular endurance, muscular endurance, muscular strength,
flexibility, and body composition (healthy body weight).
 Nutrition
 opportunities for a balanced diet
 wise food choices
 Medical Self-care
 regular self-tests and check-ups
 proper use of medications
 taking necessary steps when ill
 appropriate use of the medical system.
 Physical Environment
 safety in the home (e.g., fire, carbon monoxide, backyard trampolines)
 sources and prevention of common injuries (e.g., blisters, sprains,
sunburns)
 safety related to the operation of motorized recreational vehicles (e.g.,
personal water craft, snowmobiles, motorcycles)
 safety related to the operation of cars, trucks, and other vehicles (e.g.,
seat belts, designated driver)
 pedestrian safety (e.g., jaywalking, light coloured clothing, or reflective
strips)
 stereo headsets causing users to be unaware of traffic noise and other
sounds that would alert them to possible hazards or dangers
 safety related to acts of violence
(e.g., physical assaults, rape)
 pollution (e.g., sound pollution, environmental, tobacco smoke)
 use and abuse of alcohol, drugs, and tobacco products.
 Other
 stress prevention and management
 adequate amounts of sleep.
(b) Psychological dimension
Factors of wellness related to the psychological dimension can be grouped into three
categories: mental, emotional, and intellectual. These categories are described
below.
The mental category of the psychological dimension includes:

 reacting to difficulties and adversity in an optimistic manner
 viewing difficult situations as challenges and opportunities for growth
 adopting positive values, attitudes, views and beliefs
 accepting our limitations and making the best of a bad situation.
The emotional category of psychological wellness is the “feeling” part and includes:
 handling emotions such as sadness and anger and controlling, or coping with
personal feelings
 maintaining emotional stability at some mid-range between highs and lows
 laughing and being able to stimulate laughter in others
 being able to express emotions appropriately and comfortably.
The intellectual category includes factors related to “thinking”. These include:
 learning information processing skills and using information effectively

 continuously acquiring knowledge throughout life
 developing thinking skills such as problem solving, creative and critical
thinking
 keeping abreast of current events/ having broad general knowledge
 being curious.
(c) Social dimension
The social dimension of wellness has to do with “others” – both human and non-
human. It extends beyond relationships with people who are close to us – beyond
our cultural environment of family, friends, and local community. Our social wellness
is also dependent on our relationships and interactions with all that is not human
such as plants, animals, and minerals that make up the natural environment.
Wellness in the social dimension of our lives also depends on our relationships and
interactions with the buildings, parks, automobiles, and other elements that
constitute the built environment. Factors in our cultural, natural, and built
environments influence our behaviour, and in turn, our behaviour has an impact on
these environments. These factors are described in the following sections.
Wellness factors in our cultural environment
Given the growth of technology and globalization, we could argue that all of humanity
on the planet makes up our cultural environment. But in terms of the wellness-related
decisions that we make, it is factors in our cultural environment of family, friends, and
people in our community that influence us the most. These factors consist mainly of
our relationships and interactions with other people. They include:
 relationships with family, friends, and people in our community

 the ability to get along with people from diverse backgrounds who express
differing beliefs, values, and perspectives
 the ability to resolve conflicts, to negotiate, and to reach consensus
 feeling “connected” to a person, group, cause, or even a pet
 a sense of belonging to a large social unit
 the ability and willingness to reach out to others and to care for them
 the ability and willingness to invest in meaningful causes beyond ourselves
 traditions – one’s own and those of various cultures
 socio-economic factors (e.g., race, income, education)
 technology
 laws and cultural practices within society.
Wellness factors in our natural environment
Factors in our natural environment that can influence our wellness include:
 The weather and climate: Heat, cold, wind, rain, sun, snow, etc. influence the
activities in which we do (and do not) participate, the illnesses and injuries we
may suffer
(i.e., increased incidence of skin cancer in sunny climates), and the moods we
may experience (i.e., depression as a result of prolonged periods of rain and
overcast skies).
 The geography: Lakes, forests, mountains, and rivers influence the activities
in which we participate. Some people enjoy the wide, open spaces of the
plains but feel trapped and enclosed in the mountains. Similarly, people who
like the mountains and wooded areas may view the prairies as stark and
empty.
 Pollution: The quality of the food we eat, of the water we drink, and of the air
we breathe are affected by a variety of pollutants (i.e., carbon monoxide in the
air due to car exhausts; residues of harmful pesticides in the air, ground, and
water supplies). In addition, the earth’s protective ozone layer is being eaten
away by human-made chemicals resulting in increasing cases of skin cancer
and cataracts, and decreases in human immunities. Government and
municipal laws as well as organisations like the ‘Green Clubs’ address the
pollution issue.
Wellness factors in our built environment
We, who live in modern societies, spend nearly all of our time amidst the built
environment that consists of buildings, streets, roads, vehicles, machines, furniture,
and other objects fabricated by humans. Not all of these are fashioned out of inert or
dead matter. The built environment includes the pets we keep, the domesticated
animals we rear, and the domesticated crops we grow. It is made up of anything that
has come into existence entirely to serve human needs and purposes.
There are numerous factors in our built environment that can influence our wellness.
Some of these include:
 the extent to which the built environment nourishes our soul

 the design of our cities, towns, buildings, rooms, vehicles, furniture, tools, etc.
and the materials out of which they are fabricated
 the resource demands upon the planet that generates massive amounts of
waste and pollution.
(d) Spiritual dimension
This is the “depth” dimension of life. It refers to the values, beliefs, and commitments
at the core of one’s being. This set of personal guidelines especially acts as a secure
anchor when difficult times arise or when we have to deal with spiritual questions.
Spiritual wellness does not just “happen”. It requires time and attention from
childhood till death. Unless it is nourished and exercised regularly, it will not be there
to support us when we need it to counteract cynicism and despair. How do we go
about getting in touch with our core and developing into spiritually healthy beings? A
first step is to create an atmosphere that invites spiritual development. Time must be
set aside to be quiet – for solitude, reflection on your being and meditation about
ones purpose in life.
A basic precondition for the development of any kind of spirituality is the ability to
tolerate, and even enjoy, solitude. The development of the spiritual dimension
requires solitary practice – spending time alone. In our culture, however, very few
people can tolerate solitude. The development of these abilities requires disciplined
habits that are usually developed slowly over a long period of time.
For spiritual growth to occur, opportunities must be provided for students to reflect on
their inner lives and to engage in serious dialogue on profound issues. Students
need a place to respond in depth to questions such as: To what should I be
committed? What gives meaning to my existence? What animates, energizes, and
gives direction to my life?
Spiritual well-being means different things to different people. This dimension of

wellness might include:
 a belief in some unifying force that gives purpose or meaning to life (i.e., for
some people, this unifying force is nature; for others, it is a feeling of
connection to other people, or a personal deity or universal life force)
 a sense of belonging to a scheme of existence greater than the merely
personal
 a sense of purpose
 a realization that all humanity is somehow interrelated
 an understanding that true happiness involves more than the acquisition of
material goods
 a desire to comfort and help others
 the ability to show gratitude and generosity
 a desire to contribute to society
 an attempt to reduce conflict and disorder
 efforts to bring harmony to activities, relationships, and the larger community
 a sense of wonder and awe related to the beauty, power, and mysteries of
nature
 a potential, or capacity, to engage in thinking about larger purposes (e.g.,
social justice, ecological sustainability). (Source: Saskatchewan Government,
2004).
This spiritual dimension is the core of our being and determines our peace of
mind and overall happiness in life because spiritual beliefs encompass values
that direct our behaviour, emotions and thinking.
People are not born with values. Values as ethical guidelines and rules, beliefs and
attitudes are learned over time with much repetition. It is very important that pre-
primary learners already learn how to behave, how to treat others and what is right
and wrong. Senior primary and secondary learners are still in need of what is ‘right
and wrong’ values, and values related to all subject content must be pointed out as
part of the broader aim of education in every lesson. Values as beliefs can be
accepted without having to understand it. Only later in life adult people start
questioning their own and others’ beliefs and values.
Education in values
Under section 1.5 it is stated: It is clear that to be educated is not just having
knowledge and skills but also to have values which make us ‘humane’. Values are
beliefs which guide our attitudes, behaviour and thinking of what is right or wrong,
fair or unfair, ugly or beautiful, etc. Values such as fairness, respect for others and
their property, democratic attitudes, unselfishness, kindness, integrity, being hard
working and modest are capturing our humanity. When we are disregarding values
by being dishonest, disrespectful towards others or nature, cruel, selfish or lazy we
are acting inhumane, barbaric, primitive or animal like.
Our values are inculcated over a long time of education inside and outside school.
Values can be categorised into three main groups: values that relate to our Being, to
other People and to Tasks. For example:
 Values that relate to our Being

Truthful, honesty, integrity, democratic, gentleness, altruistic, fair, serving
attitude, reflective, friendly, kind hearted, self-controlled, emotional maturity,
informed, dutiful, organised, purposeful, analytical / reflective, humble,
obedient to laws, enthusiastic, spiritual, fun, knowledgeable, flexible,
spontaneous, adventurous, humoristic, optimistic, dependable, commitment,
punctuality, strategic thinker, diligent, caring, egotistic, artistic / cultural,
athlete, intellectual.
 Values that relate to People

Acceptance, non-judgmental, non-discriminatory, tolerance, patience,
respectful of others’ dignity, life, property…, open-minded communication,
forgiveness, empathetic, supportive, fairness, cooperative, people-builder,
democratic attitude, good customer service, giving recognition, apologising for
faults, neatness, sensitive to others’ ideas/ emotions, accepting authority,
harmonious relationships, conflict instigator or peacemaker.
 Values that relate to Tasks

Trustworthy, competence, productivity, quality focus, responsibility,
objectiveness, self-disciplined, accuracy, punctuality, reliability, organised,
logical, loyalty, teamwork, obeying the rules, dutiful, creative, problem solver,
hardworking, systematic, orderly, technology literate, monitoring, effective
administration, power seeker, status seeker, supportive of others, seeing the
big picture.
Remember that this classification of values is not watertight. Many values in one
category are also applicable to other categories. You will also notice that many of
these values imply a specific skill. Teachers like all other employees, must
recognise that during work hours they must live and work by the
organisational / school set of values and not by their personal values. If one
cannot abide by the organisational values, you will be best off to resign and find
another workplace with values more acceptable to you. Or reflect upon your values
and perhaps change them. The above values are also examples of what we need
to teach our learners at home and in school.

______________________________________________________________
Choose one set of outcomes of Namibia, e.g. pre-primary, senior primary or
secondary education outcomes and then compare the selected Namibian
outcomes with the ’wellness’ perspectives.

___________________________________________________________________
You can start with a list of the selected set of Namibian aims and then
determine which wellness dimensions are covered by them or start with the
descriptions of the wellness areas and determine which Namibian aims cover
these areas. Indicate what dimensions of ‘wellness’ are the Namibian outcomes
addressing and which ones are not. Consult the verb list to make sure you
adhere to the thinking processes of ‘compare’. Draw a conclusion how the
Namibian aims meet the standards of the wellness aims.
(Note: Sometimes, the formal Namibian stated secondary aims might apparently
neglect to cover certain areas but fortunately the syllabus aims would include
these missing aims. The operational curriculum can thus improve the designed
curriculum).
1.6.8 Evaluate the completeness of holistic wellness outcomes
You were asked to compare the wellness aims with the Namibian aims of education.
The assumption underlying that comparison is that the wellness aims are a good
‘benchmark’ or set of aims against which to compare the aims. How does one decide
why are the wellness aims a good set of aims? Yes, you guessed right. The best set
of aims must correlate with our best scientific understanding and experiences of the
nature of mankind. Refer back to the areas of our human nature that the wellness
aims cover. They seem to be really comprehensive in describing who we are as
humans. Each teacher must study the syllabus aims of the subjects they teach and
determine how a particular subject contributes towards the development of some
wellness aims.
1.7 Evaluate the 5 orientations of Babin underpinning curriculum

purposes and determine your own Babin curriculum orientation
Do you agree that in order to ‘evaluate’ a ‘curriculum orientation’ we should first

understand what this ‘curriculum orientation’ concept entails? To ‘evaluate’ an
orientation requires according to our list of verbs earlier in the unit, to ‘determine the
value / worth / quality / success of something according to certain criteria’. So what
then is a curriculum orientation? And what criteria do we use to determine the worth
of each curriculum orientation?
An ‘orientation’ means ‘position, location, sense of direction, bearings’ (Collins

Pocket Reference English Thesaurus, 1993:350). A curriculum orientation refers to
the ‘overall direction’, the ‘position or bearing that a curriculum takes’ in terms of the
core function of schooling / education.
Elliot Eisner and E. Vallence as editors of a book with the title ‘Conflicting
conceptions of curriculum’ (1974) is credited for introducing the following five
curriculum orientations to the field of curriculum studies. In 1981 P. Babin re-
introduced these orientations in his book ‘Canadian curriculum issues in
perspective’.
The names of the following five curriculum orientations reflect their overall aims /
directions of education.
1. Academic rationalism / subject-based orientation

2. Development of cognitive processes
3. Technological / career education orientation (CBE)
4. Self-actualisation / humanistic orientation
5. Social reconstruction
Diagram no 3: Eisner / Babin common curriculum orientations
Let us explore these five orientations.
1.7.1 The academic rationalism / subject-based orientation

The academic subject-based orientation, as the oldest orientation, emphasises the
transmission of the most worthwhile subject knowledge and the development of
understanding in these subject areas. The most ‘worthwhile subjects’ are those in
the Arts and Sciences that lay a good foundation of knowledge for further and higher
education. A good understanding of subjects would include a focus on concepts,
theories and writings or ‘great books’ by scholars. In the sciences the method of
inquiry is also important on top of the content (Hoadley and Jansen, 2011:278-279).
According to Wiles and Bondi (1993:347-348) the roots of this subject-based

curriculum orientation date back to ancient Greece (1600-300 BCE) when the
process of education was concerned with the pursuit of objective knowledge for its
own sake. During the Medieval period (500-1400 after Christ) schools and
universities preserved and transmitted knowledge organised as subjects (Ornstein,
Levine, Gutek and Vocke, 2011:79). The core subjects of the subject-based
curriculum were commonly ‘languages, mathematics, sciences and history’ (Wiles
and Bondi, 993:348). It is clear that this orientation would have supported the
development of good subject textbooks. It is also understandable that some authors
relate this orientation to concepts of ‘traditional or instructor-centred’ education
where teaching from textbooks was the norm (Moore, 2006:1). Understanding of the
subject knowledge is to be promoted by reading important publications, analysis,
comparison and discussions. Modern times’ supporters of this academic rationalism
orientation will for instance not see sex-education or driver-education as important,
because it is not focusing on academic subject knowledge. During the Renaissance
the Liberal Arts view move away from subject knowledge for its own sake, towards
producing an ‘enlightened citizen’ that would serve the general welfare of a
democratic society by having the necessary knowledge, thinking abilities and
understanding to be a responsible citizen. The shift thus moves from ‘understanding
academic knowledge’ for its own sake to a ‘cognitive development via a knowledge
focus’ as a new orientation as in 1.7.2.
1.7.2 The development of cognitive processes orientation
According to Hoadley and Jansen (2011:276-278) the cognitive development

orientation has its roots in the ‘process psychology’ of the 1920s and the progressive
education movement in America. This cognitive development orientation emphasises
that the curriculum content and teaching-learning activities must above all else foster
the development of learners’ cognitive processes. Such cognitive processes will
incorporate the ability to infer, to hypothesise, to identify and solve problems, to
understand the meaning and value of information, to remember, to visualise, to learn
how to study, to analyse, to evaluate and to integrate information. The cognitive
model of J.P. Guilford and modern psychologists clarify many cognitive processes
that could constitute a cognitive process curriculum. Bloom’s six levels of cognitive
operations (from1956) are still in use in educational institutions today to guide the
cognitive levels of teaching and standards of assessment. During the 1990s the
‘thinking skills movement’ and the role of Sonoma State University in it was
prominent and the development of thinking skills are now published widely.
The curriculum content is thus especially taught to achieve the development of

thinking tasks. For instance, via Mathematics learners could learn to think abstractly,
to visualise problems and solutions, to understand the importance of following logical
steps to solve problems in Mathematics and in real life, learn to be accurate, learn to
monitor the correctness of calculations and so forth. In a similar way all teachers
must develop thinking skills via their subject content. Study skills are basic
information processing skills and also basic thinking skills which can be developed
via any subject. The curriculum of the cognitive development orientation will also
apply teaching-learning activities and materials suitable for developing thinking
abilities. Teaching methods will include ‘thinking about facts questions’ and subject-
based and real life problems to allow opportunities to practice problem solving
abilities. In addition, the assessment opportunities will strive to measure the growth
of the cognitive processes and not merely reproduction of knowledge.
In this modern times of ‘knowledge driven societies’ most people will understand that
it is more important to be able to process information than to be able to memorise
the information. Computer technology allows us to find any information quickly, but
we must be able to interpret it, evaluate it and integrate it. For that we need good
cognitive abilities. There is no fault with schools developing cognitive abilities of
learners, but if the whole curriculum is designed with only this purpose in mind, it is
too narrow and neglect many other dimensions of our human nature.
1.7.3 The technological / career education orientation (CBE)
The technological curriculum orientation designs, develops, delivers and documents

instruction and assessment in terms of its intended outcomes and these outcomes
include clearly stated competencies. This system approach with its elements of
‘input-process-output’ of this orientation was criticised as similar to the ‘systems-
design of technology’ with its ‘means-ends’ elements and therefore it was labelled as
too ‘rigid’ or too ‘technological’ or too ‘behaviouristic’. This ‘technological system
design’ orientation has as point of departure competencies formulated as exit
learning outcomes and based on these outcomes, content was selected. The
selected content was not always organised in subjects but also in ‘modules’ which
integrated disciplinary subject content. Suitable teaching and learning activities were
then selected to master the stated outcomes and theoretical and practical
assessment opportunities were designed to monitor mastery of competencies and
their underpinning knowledge and theories.
The roots of this ‘technological system design’ go back to the late 1960s when the
Competency-based education (CBE) movement (later referred to as Outcome-based
education) emphasised that the public school curriculum should be relevant to the
economic needs of a country by developing job specific and general employable
skills of learners. Especially for learners who did not have an ‘academic’ inclination,
since most of them seek employment after school rather than attending higher
education institutes (Wiles and Bondi, 1993:352.) Then some schools in some
countries introduced the vocational curriculum which focused on preparing ‘not
academic oriented learners’ for some trade (e.g. woodwork, welding or painting) in
the area of industry or agriculture. Such a curriculum consisted of crafts and job
related employable skills and knowledge. At a later stage of development the
vocational curriculum combined the academic subject training and the vocational
training. The common areas of current vocational training then were (1) industrial
trades, (2) business education, (3) agriculture, (4) home economics, (5) marketing
education, (6) technical education, (7) technology education and (8) health
education. The vocational education focus thus became broader than industry and
agriculture and was labelled ‘career education’. Career education was recognised as
an alternative curriculum option for anyone and not only for minority group learners
(Wikipedia, 2010, June; UNESCO, 2010).
The influence on education by the technological orientation, as portrait by the CBE

paradigm, involved the worldwide establishment of National Qualification Authorities;
National Qualification Frameworks; a stronger degree of control of government
regarding the design and implementation of programmes; and specified learning
outcomes indicating minimum standards, levels and credits of syllabi. The CBE
curriculum design is now often also applied in academic schools with no career
education stream, as is the case in Namibia.
The appropriate term for our modern circumstances, is ‘career education’ which offer
different ratios of mixing career skills and academic knowledge to cater for individual
talents and preferences. Unit 7 elaborates on the need for and features of career
education in Namibia while Unit 4 evaluates the ‘systems’ and ‘behaviouristic’
features of CBE in depth, so for now it is sufficient to know what the ‘technological
orientation means and that CBE is an example of such an orientation.
1.7.4 The self-actualisation / humanistic orientation
The humanistic curriculum orientation to education aims at the ‘humanizing’ of

schooling. This comprises a learner-centred paradigm with very different views from
the traditional teacher-centred paradigm about the aims of education, the roles of
teachers and learners and views about teaching-learning activities and the school
atmosphere. Schools applying a humanistic curriculum orientation, aim to support
the self-actualization of learners. Learners thus receive individual attention and
support to enhance their unique talents and interests. Accumulating subject
knowledge for the sake of having knowledge is therefore not the focus. Instead, the
curriculum strives to develop learners holistically, for instance, to develop humane
relationships with peers and teachers; to treat others with respect and compassion;
to accept responsibility for ones life; to focus on understanding rather then
memorising of facts; to promote cooperative learning and trust and to develop
problem solving skills. The teacher acts as a facilitator of learning rather than being a
transmitter of knowledge and being the only source of information. As a facilitator the
teacher is democratic and learners are allowed some freedom of choice related to
learning activities and learning materials. Learning content is related to community
life and practical ‘learning by doing’ as well as group discussions are highly
regarded. The humanistic curriculum emphasises the process of implementing the
curriculum stronger than the product as end result of the curriculum (Wiles and
Bondi, 1993:350-351).
The modern curriculum is not designed with a lot of learner input as the humanists
would like to see happen. Therefore teachers must take extra care to point out why
subjects and topics are important for learners’ current and future life and apply
methods where learners are ‘discovering’ and ‘learning by doing’ to ensure individual
involvement. Secondly, most classrooms in Africa have too many learners in it to
allow teachers much opportunity for individual attention to learners and the extra-
curricular opportunities for personal attention must be used. Teachers must also
skilfully praise and criticise learners whenever s/he is talking to an individual learner
in class / school in order to make the most of those individual attention moments.
The learner-centred approach is based upon the humanistic orientation and
advocates this active learning of learners and their democratic right to be view their
ideas and feelings. It is always helpful for a teacher to be aware of learners’ home
circumstances in order to use the best approach to motivate, support or discipline
learners, irrespective whether you accept the humanistic curriculum orientation or
not. Modern schools strive to provide for individual self-actualisation by having
different subject combinations to choose from. The problem with that is that all
choices are still part of an academic stream. Unit 7 shows how more streams need
to be introduced in Namibia to provide for more learners’ self-actualisation. The
humanistic curriculum orientation did contribute towards the provision for special
education needs within mainstream schools or within special needs schools.
One of the problems with the humanistic orientation is that some countries, like
Namibia, implemented promotion policies that ‘no one should fail’ to spare learners
the embarrassment. That was a mistake in judgement, because the personal and
national consequences of poor education are more devastating than a failing grade
which reminds someone that s/he is not meeting the set quality standards.
Fortunately the promotion policies in Namibia are now expecting slightly better
performances to pass and automatic promotion is discarded.
1.7.5 The social reconstruction orientation
Do you still remember that the name of a ‘curriculum orientation’ reflects its overall
aim of education? The overall aim of the ‘social reconstruction orientation’ is thus
very clear: improvement of society. Their argument is that schools cannot be neutral
to what happen in society and should in fact strive to create a better future society by
managing social changes via the curriculum. From the 1930s this drive for American
schools to bring about social changes, was prominent. The desired social
improvements to be promoted by the curriculum were seen as:
 Combat values / attitudes of racial discrimination

 Develop attitudes of sympathetic tolerance
 Develop attitudes of critical open-mindedness
 Develop problem solving and decision making skills
 Develop abilities to draw logical conclusions and generalizations
 Develop skills of learners to deal with change in society
 Develop deep learning skills of learners in order to understand information
Social reconstruction schools back then, from pre-primary till grade 12, focused on
academic learning skills, computer literacy, development of gifted learners,
understanding of maths and sciences, performing arts, physical fitness,
communication, citizenship, community outreach programmes and career education.
Teachers act as facilitators of learning and group learning, real life practical learning
experiences and problem solving were perceived as excellent teaching-learning
methods (Wiles and Bondi, 1993:353-355).
Do you agree that the above desirable social improvements of the 1930s are still
desirable ones for 2014 as well? Do you recognise that ‘thinking skills, values and
understanding’ of knowledge will always be part of quality education but quality
education as described under 1.5 encompasses more than only thinking skills,
values and understanding’ of knowledge. Can you see that different social groups in
society might list different social needs like promoting particular values, manpower
needs, sex education, computer literacy that the school must meet. The holistic
approach to learner development solves the problem of what to select or leave out of
the curriculum, by developing all aspects of human nature.
Another aspect of the social reconstruction is that schools develop a critical
consciousness among learners of the kinds of social problems of society and
motivate learners and equip them to correct these ills. A curriculum designed
according to the social reconstruction orientation will display the following features:
Tabel 1.5: Features of a social reconstruction curriculum
1. Curriculum content will have to relate to critical local and universal social
problems, why they exist and how to deal with them.
2. Science content and the scientific thinking process must be related to social
problems.
3. History must not only focus on political systems of the past but also on how
politics influenced the social circumstances and problems caused by these
circumstances.
4. Mathematics could include graphs and statistics about social trends and
problems, e.g. about poverty, spiritual decline, substance abuse, violence,
levels of education, unemployment…Causes and effect could be studied and
ways to solve social problems could be discussed and practiced.
5. Environmental Studies in the earlier years and Geography in secondary school
will focus more pertinently on water, air and soil pollution an the effect of
pollution on society. The effects of nuclear radiation pollution are now known
and communities could be completely destroyed by it. Societies must thus be
very careful and informed when nuclear power plants are opted for. Learners
must understand their current and future citizen role and be able to combating
any kind of pollution and apply the sustainable use of natural resources.
6. Life Skills and Religious Education might develop values and attitudes that
promote peace, living and working together, forgiving others, accepting others,
respecting others’ rights.
7. Several languages may be offered (e.g. from indigenous to French and
Chinese) which promote communication and understanding among different
modern groups of society. Assertive communication skills and conflict handling
skills should clearly be part of the languages.
8. Learners should be able to evaluate the motive and truthfulness of information
on television and other mass media. They need to understand the emotional
right brain approach of advertising to create ‘wants’ related to fun, power, sex
or status which can not always be afforded or is not really a ‘need’.
9. Learners need to be aware, via ICT and other subjects, of the dangers of
computer technology and ways to use them safely.
10. Learners must be taught how to analyse society and how to manage negative
and positive changes in society.
(Adapted from Hoadley and Jansen, 2011:284).

Let us assume you agree that schools should serve the needs of society?
Compile a list of Namibian desirable social features that schools in Namibia
should develop in learners.
Clearly if you agree with some of the features listed above, then list them too.
Reflect however more on the Namibian ideal social features and add them to
your list. I hope your list includes like my list the development of a range of
smart thinking skills, emotional intelligent skills and moral values that are the
foundations of a good and prosperous society.
1.7.6 Additional curriculum orientations
Apart from the above five curriculum orientations, other types or curriculum
orientations could be identified. The curriculum orientation of ‘Deschooling’ de-
emphasised the formal public school system due to acute dissatisfaction with
American public schools during the late 1960s. Ivan Illich as chief spokesman of the
de-schooling orientation criticised public schools as bureaucratic and authoritarian
institutions that control learners’ education to the point of limiting the development of
individual talents and perpetuating the social order by controlling the power, the
structures and curriculum. Illich opposes the prescribed curriculum, the undemocratic
organisation of the schools and the discriminatory values with regard to race, gender
and minorities. The de-schooling protagonists propose more freedom of choice and
input of learners and parents into the schools’ curriculum and management.
This de-schooling orientation led to private schools and especially ‘home schooling’
where parents acted as surrogate teachers. During the 1990s the American
government addressed the de-schooling movement by introducing vouchers to
parents that they could use to enrol their children in public schools that are
acceptable to de-schooling oriented parents. Meanwhile the de-schooling movement
stimulated the government to rethink the criticism against public schools and to bring
about improvements. So in a sense the de-schooling movement assisted in
improving public
schools (Wiles and Bondi, 1993:355-356). Homeschooling across the world is now
supported via television programmes and computerized learning. In the isolated
parts of Australia homeschooling is supported by government via satellite and
computer technology because there are not schools available in these isolated
areas.
Even in Namibia some parents participate in a ‘Schools of Tomorrow’ which are an
American homeschooling system with a Christian focus. The main reasons for the
homeschooling in Namibia were the lack of hostels for farm children and the neglect
of Christian values in public schools. After independence of Namibia many private
schools were established, because parents felt the degree of quality education of
government schools were not acceptable. As a rule, such private schools in Namibia
are not receiving financial support from government and they are not allowed to
discriminate against race when admitting learners. In some countries career
education options is deemed a positive response to provide for different individual
education needs other than the common academic stream.
It should be noted that the de-schooling supporters are not against schooling per se,
but they are dissatisfied with the content in the curriculum, with the management
style and the values applied in public schools. Homeschooling has some advantages
but also disadvantages for learners in the long run. One major disadvantage is that
learners in the homeschooling situation are deprived of socialisation with other
learners in school and during extra curriculum activities. Under section 1.8 and 1.9
more alternative curriculum orientations of Miller and the Wellness orientation are
clarified.
1.7.7. Evaluation of the five Eisner / Babin curriculum orientations
How do we determine the worth of the curriculum orientations? Well, firstly we said
the orientations are distinguished by their overall purpose of education. Your view
about the overall purpose of education is connected to your view of our human
nature. In turn, your view of human nature is also related to your view of the purpose
of mankind and your view about creation and the creator. More about these
philosophical views are clarified towards the end of Unit 2 under the evaluation of
Dewey’s work, so it will not be discussed here any further. For now it suffices if you
understand that these philosophical views do influence our view of the purpose of
education. The criticism that we could raise about the different orientations, is that
they are all emphasising valuable types of aims. The problem is however that each
orientation claims that their view is the best view on the aims of education. Each of
these ‘best views’ have a too narrow focus for a school curriculum. The wellness
orientation aims however cover all features of human nature and are therefore more
complete and accurate than any other single curriculum orientation which has a
narrow perspective.
Revisit the wellness and five Eisner / Babin orientations above and decide which
orientation you belief to be the best one. Then determine which curriculum
orientation is underpinning the Namibian national school curriculum.
There is an instrument available that can be used to determine professionally

which of the Babin orientations one prefer, but that instrument is not included
in this book. Fortunately, you can also determine the curriculum orientation you
prefer by simply reading what each orientation entail. Remember the key aspect
that you use to select your preferable one, is the ‘overall aim of education’.
The Wellness orientation focuses on the most complete development of our

human nature and is therefore the best curriculum orientation. The Namibian
school curriculum is designed according to the ‘CBE / technological’ orientation
but this systematic format is applied to an ‘academic rationalisation or subject-
based orientation. Our subject-based school curriculum also have elements of
‘cognitive development, humanistic elements, social reconstruction elements and
subject knowledge’ but the point is that typically, one of the orientations will
determine the overall purpose and features of a curriculum. In our case the
subject-based orientation determines our school curriculum aims and features
although the format of the curriculum has CBE features. If our Namibian school
curriculum was based upon a wellness orientation there would have been a strong
focus on teaching study skills and other thinking skills, a strong focus on
developing social and emotional skills, on developing moral values and on
developing general employable skills and preparation for particular jobs. Refer
back to the section on ‘quality education’ and decide what influence our subject-
based curriculum orientation has on the quality of education in Namibia.
1.8 Explain the Miller classification of orientations: transmission,

transaction and transformation
In 1983 J. Miller wrote a book with the title ‘The educational spectrum: Orientations
to curriculum’. Like Eisner and Babin he proposes curriculum orientations but some
differ from those of Babin e.g. (1) the behaviourism orientation, (2) the subject
discipline one, (3) the social orientation, (4) the cognitive processes orientation, (5)
the development of the child, (6) the humanistic and the (7) trans-personal
orientation. Miller classifies these seven orientations into three main categories /
orientations, namely the (a) Traditional or Transmission orientation, the (b) Decision
making or Transaction orientation and (c) the Transformation orientation (Carl,
2002:66-67).
The Transmission orientation is equivalent to the traditional teacher-centred and

subject-based orientation where the focus is on learners acquiring discipline
knowledge for the sake of knowledge via transmission-lessons by the teacher.
The Transaction orientation is mainly a humanistic orientation and has a more

means-end approach and the subject knowledge serves to promote cognitive
development, other self-actualisation dimensions of child development and to
promote adaptation to society. The teacher is a democratic facilitator and teaching
activities involve learners actively like in a learner-centred paradigm. The curriculum
content and the process of implementation it receives emphasis.
The Transformation orientation focuses strongly on the development of the learner

(humanistic) and the reconstruction of society. The orientation focuses thus on both
the transformation of the person and of society, hence the name ‘transformation’
orientation. The transformation curriculum design takes note of the characteristics of
learners. The school values and management are humanistic oriented and learners’
rights are respected and their active learning efforts supported. The curriculum
content focuses strongly on self-actualisation of learners, but also preparing learners
to not only adapt to society but to reconstruct society. Therefore subjects and topics
like languages, ICT, Life Skills, Citizenship, democratic and moral values, thinking
and job skills are emphasised.
The three classifications of Miller are not really contributing new ideas to the five
orientations of Babin. It merely combines some of the five orientations into three.
Nevertheless, as professionally educated teacher you must be aware of Miller’s
perspectives.
1.9 Evaluate the contemporary ‘wellness’ holistic orientation and

relate it to the Babin and Miller orientations
Revisit the section about the features of the Babin and Miller curriculum orientations.
Study the details of the: Academic rationalism / subject-based orientation, the
Development of cognitive processes, the Technological / career education
orientation (CBE), the Self-actualisation / humanistic orientation and the Social
reconstruction orientation. The criticism that we could raise about the different
orientations, is that they are all emphasising valuable types of aims. The problem is
however that each orientation claims that their view is the best view regarding the
overall aims of education. We realize that compared to the dimensions of human
nature which need to be developed, each of these ‘best views’ have a too narrow
focus for a school curriculum. Quality education needs to develop us in a balanced
way which means all our dimensions, for example, we need to be able to
communicate well, express our emotions in a civilised manner, need to have basic
reading, writing and arithmetic skills, we must be able to think critically and make
effective decisions, so education must address all of these to prepare learners to
cope with the future.
Revisit also the section about the features of the wellness orientation. Study the
details of the Social wellness, the Physical wellness, the Emotional wellness, the
Occupational wellness, the Intellectual wellness, the Environmental wellness and the
Spiritual wellness. Do you agree that these seven dimensions correlate with our best
scientific understanding (see also 7.5 in Unit 7 on multiple intelligences) and
experiences of the nature of mankind. If the curriculum is based upon these seven
aims it will be a holistic education which develops all the main dimensions of human
abilities required to cope in a modern world. Clearly it is a complex task to design the
school curriculum in a manner that integrate subject knowledge, learner self-
actualisation characteristics, humanistic perspectives, cognitive processes and
abilities to reconstruct society into syllabi outcomes for each grade and phase of
schooling.
In Unit 3 several ‘foundation forces’ such as historical and economical forces, are
explored that influence the design of curricula, including the ‘overall purpose’ or
‘orientation’ of a curriculum. For now you use the features of the different orientations
to judge their worth in modern Namibian education.
1.10 Discuss the contribution of Curriculum Studies as a

discipline to professional teacher development
The human race has a basic concern to prepare their young to cope with the future
and this concern leads to elaborate modern education systems. ‘Curriculum Study’ is
the discipline within Education as a field of study that deals with the design and
implementation features of a qualification curriculum. This information gives us a
broad understanding of the field of Curriculum studies as a part-discipline of
Education and how it relates to Education as the ‘mother field of study’. This is a nice
introduction you think, but how do we get to an answer for l.10?
Let us again consider the thinking process to work out an answer rather than
learning this content by heart. How would you ‘think about’ this heading to work out
the answer? We need to note three things in the heading: first note ‘discuss
contribution’, then note ’Curriculum Studies’ and note ‘professional development’.
Now formulate the common sense and academic questions we need to answer. The
common sense question is: ‘What is the value for a teacher to study Curriculum
Studies’? The academic question is: ‘What is the contribution of Curriculum
Studies towards the professional development of a teacher?
To be able to discuss the contribution of Curriculum Studies as subject towards the

professional growth of a teacher, we need to know what areas and topics Curriculum
Studies focus on. Once we understand the focus areas and topics we can point out
how it benefits a teacher to learn these things. You must also be aware of the key
duties of teachers because those are the areas of professional development, such
as (a) a facilitator of learning (b) a producer and user of learning materials (c) a
subject specialist (d) a learner phase specialist, e.g. lower primary (e) an advisor to
learners and parents regarding physical, social and mental wellness (f) an assessor
of learning (g) a professional leader and manager (h) a model citizen and (i) a
community development agent. Do you agree that the thinking so far will produce an
answer to our academic question?
The next logical step is to clarify what are the focus-areas of Curriculum Studies
before we can match them to the duties of teachers in order to discuss the
contribution of Curriculum Studies to the professional growth of teachers. Under
section 1.3 we have already indicated the focus-areas of Curriculum Studies. Turn
the pages to 1.3 to study the typical details of the philosophical curriculum issues,
the sociological issues, the historical issues, the psychological issues, the
comparative curriculum issues, the management and leadership issues influencing
the curriculum, the content issues, the design and implementation issues, the subject
curriculum and the evaluation issues. The table below assist you to get an overview
of the advantages (related to the 1.3 areas) of Curriculum Studies for teachers.
School leaders, administrators and teachers benefit by understanding the following
features involved in the design and implementation of a curriculum, e.g. they will
understand:
Tabel 1.6: Advantages of Curriculum Studies for a teacher
1. How different foundations / forces such as history, social factors,

psychological insights in learner development and learning, and philosophical
thoughts influence a curriculum;
2. The different orientations to curriculum design;
3. The modern holistic aims of a curriculum;
4. The concepts of the curriculum field and format of curriculum documents;
5. How some curriculum lessons can be learned from history;
6. Different perspectives on ‘quality education’;
7. The differences between subject-based and competency-based curricula;
8. The guiding principles when developing curricula;
9. Different models for selecting and organising curriculum content;
10. The steps and their features involved in designing a curriculum;
11. The steps and their features involved in implementing a curriculum;
12. The contributions of some great curriculum scholars and particular eras;
13. Why curricula change and how to manage such changes;
14. Criteria for evaluating a curriculum;
15. Modern issues in curriculum design and implementation, e.g. thinking skills
and emotional intelligence development and the use of technology in class.
16. Understand how lesson design steps and curriculum design steps correlate
17. Understand the importance of the logical structuring of lesson content
18. The importance of teaching-learning materials for implementing the curricu -
lum
19. Add another:
Discussion of the value of Curriculum Studies for teachers
The eighteen focus-areas in the table above indicate how Curriculum Studies could
contribute to the professional growth of teachers. If we correlate these 18 focus-
areas to the duties of teachers we can indicate the Curriculum Studies contribution
with greater accuracy, for example:
Tabel 1.7: The value of Curriculum Studies for teachers

Duty of teacher Number of focus-area in the
table related to teacher duty
(a) a facilitator of learning 1, 2, 3, 15, 16, 17
(b) a producer and user of learning materials 18
(c) a subject specialist 6, 9, 12, 17
(d) a learner phase specialist, e.g. pre- primary 1, 10
(e) an advisor to learners and parents regarding
physical, social and mental wellness 1, 5, 11
(f) an assessor of learning 3, 6, 10, 14
(g) a professional leader and manager 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13
(h) a model citizen and 3, 6
(i) a community development agent. 3, 6, 10, 11, 12
To understand some of the correlations you must be knowledgeable about the
details involved in both the ‘duties’ and the ‘focus areas’ above. Reflect on how the
‘duties’ and the ‘focus areas’ correlate. The correlations in the table above suggest
that there is a broad spectrum of teacher duties that are clarified by studying
Curriculum Studies. So we can conclude our discussion about the value of
Curriculum Studies for teachers’ professional growth with the statement: Yes,
Curriculum Studies contribute much to the professional growth of teachers.
1.11 Summary
The word ‘summary’ means ‘to give the main information without the details’
(Longman dictionary of contemporary English, 2011:1768). In academic publications
like this one, the summary serves the additional purpose of pointing out how the
topics of a unit relate to each other and to the unit title. If you see the big picture it
promotes insight. In addition, conclusions are presented at the end of the summary
which also promotes insight. If you understand knowledge, you remember it and can
apply it in reality. Now that you realise the value of summaries, you will hopefully
always read them.
Before we summarise Unit 1 allow me to emphasise four aspects in this book prior to
the beginning of Unit 1 that is crucial to your effective studying of this subject:
(1) The exit learning outcomes of this subject gives you an overview what is
expected of you to learn in each unit of this subject. (2) The section on ‘study
support’ assists you to understand what you learn and score high marks. (3) The
section on the thinking processes involved in verbs teaches you how to answer test
and examination questions and score 40% better if you perform the thinking as
required by the verb. (4) The icons used in the text serves to focus your attention on
the outcomes, the learning activities and the summaries which are all promoting your
understanding of the content.
The title of Unit 1 summarises what the Unit is all about: features of curricula and
quality education. It is important for your learning that the brain should note this
‘golden thread’ that strings together all the facts of a unit. A ‘curriculum’ was
described as a document clarifying the sum total of the planned and hidden learning
outcomes with relation to set standards of knowledge, skills and values which
develop human nature holistically. It was also indicated that what we expect learners
to learn is spelled out by outcomes in the official curriculum. If we analyse the official
curriculum and identify missing subjects we refer to the missing parts as the null
curriculum. A distinction was made between the design and the development of a
curriculum, where design means to create a new curriculum and develop means to
improve an existing curriculum. Whether you design or develop a curriculum the four
basic components of a curriculum should be addressed.
Contemporary curriculum issues refer to characteristics from the start of the
21century in the year 2000. The field of Curriculum Studies could be clarified by
identifying 11 broad focus areas, from philosophical curriculum features, sociological,
historical, psychological, comparative, management and leadership, content, design,
implementation, subject curriculum and evaluation features. Universal contemporary
curriculum issues include the teaching of thinking skills and career education. Some
of the important Namibian contemporary curriculum issues are the lack of teaching-
learning resources, poor teaching and poor school management. Curriculum
features can be classified as design and implementation factors and should be linked
to their impact on quality education. Quality education involves more than good
teaching, it involves learner factors, environment factors, content factors, processes
and outcomes. There are many labels for quality education, and according to these
labels The Namibian label was identified as ‘meeting set academic standards, and
General education and Fit for purpose’. A best quality label is probably ‘meeting set
standards’ because it is at the basis of all the other labels.
It was indicated why it is necessary to characterise ‘quality education’ because that
characteristics guide us to achieve the quality education which enhances our quality
of life. Unit 1 furthermore presented local and international exit learning outcomes for
the different phases of education from the pre-primary to the secondary phase. The
Namibian outcomes for phases were compared to some international ones and the
secondary outcomes were compared to the wellness orientation outcomes that
develop all dimensions of our human nature. The shortcomings of the Namibian
outcomes for all phases are the lack of developing thinking skills, occupational skills,
physical health and fitness, emotional maturity and moral values. The personal and
national importance of values underpinning our being, our relationships and work
attitudes and behaviour was emphasised.
The cognitive development orientation views the overall purpose of education ‘as
learning a range of thinking skills’, e.g. study and critical thinking skills. The
technology (competency-based) orientation focuses strongly on the development of
pre-determined cognitive, affective and psycho-motor skills /competencies according
to a systematic design of the education system. The academic rationalism
orientation beliefs the overall purpose of education is learning ‘academic knowledge
that is structured in the traditional disciplines’. The social reconstruction orientation
strives to develop the knowledge, values and social skills of learners so that they will
be able to not just fit into society but be able to address societal problems and
change society for the better. The self-actualisation orientation aims to develop the
individual’s self-image, talents and personality. Obviously, all of these orientations
are emphasising valid aspects of quality education. Education as a ‘means to an end
activity’ needs however to have a more holistic focus such as proposed by the
contemporary ‘wellness’ orientation aims for human development. Such ‘wellness
aims’ cover all the key features of mankind, for instance the physical, mental,
emotional, intellectual, social and spiritual dimensions which are explored in the next
section under 1.6.
The curriculum orientations, from the subject-based knowledge one to the
reconstruction of society determine the overall purpose of a curriculum and although
each of the clarified orientations highlight one trait of quality education, only the
wellness orientation develops all dimensions of human nature. The systematic CBE
curriculum format can however be applied to the holistic focus of the wellness
orientation. Namibia applies the CBE format to the subject-based orientation and that
is why our curriculum does not address all the areas of the wellness orientation.
Some likely features of a social reconstruction curriculum were described, the social
disadvantages of homeschooling were listed and the quality education of Namibian
private schools acknowledged. The curriculum orientations of Miller from the
‘traditional’ teacher-centred to the humanistic ‘transformation’ orientation do not
really propose new ideas to the orientations of Eisner and Babin.
The advantages for a teacher’s professional growth by studying Curriculum Studies
were clarified, while also focusing on the thinking process of determining the value of
studying this module. Now that you understand some key features of ‘curriculum’
and the ‘quality education’ that curricula strive to achieve next unit enlightens you
about the historical progress of curriculum science.
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UNIT 2
__________________________________________________________________________________
Analyse the historical progress of curriculum

development science
Contents
Introduction
Learning outcomes
2.1 Explain some basic curricula features of education up to 1600 …………... 101
2.2 Explain some basic curricula features of education between
1600-1900 …………………………………………………………….………… 103
2.3 Analyse the progress of curriculum development science during
1900-1909 ……………………………………………………………………….. 116
2.4 Analyse the progress of curriculum development science during 1910-
1919 ……………………………………………………………………………… 117
1929 ……………………………………………………………………………… 119
1939 ……………………………………………………………………………… 121
1949 ……………………………………………………………………………… 123
1959 ……………………………………………………………………………… 125
1969 ……………………………………………………………………………… 129
1979 ……………………………………………………………………………… 131
2000 ……………………………………………………………………………… 135
2.12 Curriculum developments after 2000 ……………………………………….. 142
2.13 Explain curriculum developments before and after 1990 in Namibia……. 144
2.14 Discuss the curriculum development contribution of selected individuals
such as John Dewey, Franklin Bobbitt, Ralph Tyler, Allen Ornstein and
William Spady…………………………………………………………….. … 160
2.15 Summary……………………………………………………….……………… 184
2.16 References…………………………………………………………………….. 192
Introduction
This Unit focuses on the historical development of curriculum science, because it is

incumbent for curriculum scholars and practitioners to understand the heritage of
their field in order to build upon it. After Education was recognised as a discipline, its
knowledge expanded and several areas in Education became independent subjects.
‘Curriculum Studies’ is one of these areas and deals with the core concepts and
history of how theories on curriculum design and implementation developed. In Unit
3 the ‘foundations’ that influence curricula cover also ‘historical foundations’ that
refers to broader historical issues than the development of curriculum science as in
Unit 2. Further on, Unit 5 and 6 explore the design and implementation steps in
detail. The curriculum literature covering the decades between 1900 and 2000
demonstrate the scientific progress of curriculum development ideas while the
contribution of some key individuals in each of these decades are also highlighted.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit, you are expected to be able to:
2.1 Explain some basic curricula features of education up to 1600.

2.2 Explain some basic curricula features of education between 1600-1900.
2.3 Analyse the progress of curriculum development science during 1900-1909.
2.4 Analyse the progress of curriculum development science during 1910-1919
2.12 Examine curriculum developments after 2000.
2.13 Explain curriculum developments before and after 1990 in Namibia.
2.14 Discuss the curriculum development contribution of selected individuals such
as John Dewey, Franklin Bobbitt, Ralph Tyler, Allen Ornstein and William
Spady.
1. Evaluate the curriculum ideas of John Dewey.

2. Compare the curriculum ideas contribution of Bobbitt and Tyler.
3. Evaluate the curriculum ideas contribution of Ornstein, Levine and Gutek.
4. Analyse the curriculum ideas of William Spady.
5. Summarise the current curriculum development insights.
6. Explain how the understanding of the components of a curriculum is helpful to the
teacher.
2.1 Explain some basic curricula features of education up to 1600
The era up to 1600 can be described in terms of recognised historical periods, each
with their education ideas which reflect particular curriculum features. Ornstein,
Levine, Gutek and Vocke (2008) clarify the education of the following historical
periods and some of their curriculum features. (Unit 3 has more detailed information
about the historical foundations that impacted on curricula.)
Note that the Ornstein, et al., used abbreviation BCE (before the Christian Era) is an
alternative naming for the traditional Before Christ or BC and the alternative to the
traditional Anno Domini (AD) meaning ‘after Christ’ is CE, meaning ‘Christian Era’.
2.1.1 Preliterate societies (7000 BCE to 3000 BCE)

 Overall goal of education:
Teach group survival skills and group cohesiveness.
 Curriculum content:
This includes survival skills of hunting, fishing, food gathering; stories, myths,
songs, poems and dances.
2.1.2 China (3000 BCE – 1900 CE)

To prepare elite officials to govern the empire according to Confucian

principles.
Confucian ideas
2.1.3 Egypt (3000 BCE – 300 BCE)

To prepare priest-scribes to administer the empire.
Religious or technical texts.
2.1.4 Greek (1600 BCE – 300 BCE)

For Athens it was to cultivate civic responsibility and to develop well-rounded
persons while for Sparta it was to train soldiers and military leaders.
For Athens it was reading, writing, arithmetic, drama, music, physical
education, literature and poetry, while for Sparta it was drill, military songs
and tactics.
2.1.5 Roman period (750 BCE – CE 450)

To develop civic responsibility for a republic and then empire, and to develop
administrative and military skills.
Reading, writing, arithmetic, Laws of Twelve Tables, law and philosophy.
2.1.6 Medieval period (CE 500 – CE 1400)

To develop religious commitment, knowledge, and rituals and to prepare
persons for appropriate roles in a hierarchical society. Pistorius (1971:85-
102) points out that the Medieval period is the time when the Catholic church
established many religious schools, schooling became more available for
the middle class and the printing press enhanced the availability of learning
materials. The main goal was to shape the spiritual dimension of peo-
ple but philosophy and science were also studied.
Reading, writing, arithmetic, science, liberal arts, philosophy, theology and
crafts, military tactics and chivalry.
2.1.7 Renaissance period (CE 1400 – CE 1500)

To cultivate humanist experts in Greek and Latin (classics) and to prepare
courtiers for service to dynastic leaders. Pistorius (1971:104-110) points out
that the Renaissance is the time of development of schools and universities
and education focused on developing knowledge and intellectual abilities.
Latin, Greek, classical literature, poetry and art.
2.1.8 Reformation period (CE 1500 – CE 1600)

To instill commitment to a particular religious denomination (Catholic or Pro-
testant at the time) and to cultivate general literacy.
Reading, writing, arithmetic, catechism, religious concepts and rituals; Latin
and Greek and Theology.
(Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and Vocke, 2008:56-57).
Can you see how the goals of education in the different periods of our human history
changed and how goals and curriculum content correlate with each other? Do you
also note the influences of these periods’ education goals or curriculum on our
modern education? For instance: the pre-literate societies emphasised skills and
values transfer; the Egypt society used education to prepare the elite rulers; Athens
focus on forming a well-rounded person to which our holistic wellness ideas relate;
the Romans’ education promoted administrative skills and civic responsibility like we
do today and the Reformation introduced the vision of universal education to provide
literacy to the masses (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and Vocke, 2011:56-57).
2.2 Explain some basic curricula features of education between

1600-1900
If the period of the Reformation is seen as approximately from 1500-1600, it leaves

us with the 300 hundred years between 1600-1900. Let us explore briefly some of
the key features of each of the three centuries and their influences on education.
2.2.1 Key features of the century 1600-1700
This century also had its power struggles in governments, wars between the Dutch
and England and France and Spain, the rise of Russia as a military power, trade
territory wars and persecution of Christians. It was also the time when London was
rebuilt, following The Plaque and the Great Fire in 1665-1666; and the time of
philosophers like Bacon, Descartes, Spinoza and John Locke (1632-1704). In the
literature field a few of the famous persons are the prose of Miguel de Cervantes, the
tragedies of Shakespeare, the dramas of Lope de Vega, the drama Lucifer of the
Dutch Joost van den Vondel, poet John Milton and play writer John Dryden. The
violin was continuously improved in Italy by the Amati, Stradivari and Guarneri
families from 1650 onwards. Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) produced
Baroque music and Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598-1680) was recognised as the greatest
sculptor and architect since Michael Angelo (Beazley, 1979: 34-37).
It was however the scientific progress in this era that influenced the philosophy and
education ideas of the time. Francis Bacon, English philosopher and scientist, and
the Italian, Galileo Galilei, (1564-1642) scientist and inventor promoted the
establishment of the ‘scientific method’ through their experiments and publications.
William Gilbert (1504-1603) suggested that the Earth was a giant magnet with its
own magnetic field while the Dutchman, Hans Lippershey, invented the telescope in
1608. William Harvey discovered the circulation of human blood in 1628. Isaac
Newton’s (1642-1727) account of the universe surpassed Galileo’s and created a
framework for scientific thought. His publication ‘Principia’ was published in 1687 and
the first section deals with the behaviour of moving bodies and Newton’s three laws
of motion and principles of gravitation. The second section deals with the motion of
bodies in fluids and also wave motion. The third section utilizes the principles in the
first two sections to explain the motion of bodies on Earth and in the universe.
Newton’s views that the universe obey set laws accorded with the view of the
Protestant church. He discovered also the spectrum of light in 1666 and invented the
reflecting telescope in 1671. The first practical steam engine was invented in 1696
by Thomas Savery, a British engineer.
The above scientific discoveries demonstrate the focus of the era on how reality
works as opposed to a mere focus on theoretical thinking about reality. This focus on
reality lead to the philosophical school of thought referred to as Realism (Ornstein,
Levine, Gutek and Vocke, 2011:163). This Realism philosophy impacted the
curriculum perspectives and practices as can be seen in the education practices of
Comenius.
Educators of the period 1600-1700
Comenius (1592 -1670)

Jan Komensky, known as Comenius, was a Czech but living as a bishop in Europe
due to religious persecution in his own country. Working towards combating religious
intolerance he constructed his educational philosophy, Pansophism where all
knowledge forms a universal science to mould the ideal moral person
(Pistorius,1971:138). Comenius rejected the doctrine that children were inherently
bad and that teachers needed to use corporal punishment in order to discipline them.
Instead, teachers must be caring and lesson content should be appropriate to the
children’s natural stage of development while lesson content is logically and
gradually developed (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and Vocke, 2008:92).
The aim of education for Comenius was to develop learners’ Christian values in
order to create a society that could live in peace and harmony. He also proposed
practical experiences as learning method and the use of audio-visual materials to
promote learning effectiveness. Both these factors should be applied in indirect /
inductive teaching strategies while recognising the natural phase of learner
development (Pistorius, 1971:136-141).
Comenius furthermore proposed the following principles of teaching:

(a) Use objects or pictures to illustrate concepts verbally or in written format;
(b) Relate lessons to students’ practical lives;
(c) Present lessons directly and simply;
(d) Emphasise general principles before details;
(e) Emphasise that all creatures and objects are part of a whole universe;
(f) Present lessons in sequence, stressing one thing at a time;
(g) Do not leave a specific skill or subject until students understand it.
The Realism-oriented education ideas of Comenius are still influencing our practices
today. For instance, out learner-centred education also emphasises guidelines of
Comenius: Teachers should understand the stages of development of learners; use
media; show caring; teach logically; ensure understanding; do not rush learning and
advocate human rights and respect for cultural and religious diversity (Ornstein,
Levine, Gutek and Vocke, 2008:92-93).
Newton published his book ‘Opticks’ in 1704 which clarified his particle theory of light
and Abraham Darby produced the first high quality iron in 1709 in England. Prussian
blue, a dye, was produced from 1710 and Thomas Lombe, an Englishman, patented
a machine to make thrown silk in 1718. From about 1720 the period of the
Enlightenment is characterised by a focus on reason and the scientific method. By
1720 more technological innovation was stimulated by the industrial revolution. In
England the textile industry used bleaching and dyeing processes which boosted the
chemistry and machine technology field. Quicker transport was needed to transport
raw materials and product by see and the first sextant and chronometer (1726, by
John Harrison) were invented which supported sea navigation (Beazley,1979).
Plant growth and production was explored by Stephen Hales and plant and animal
classification was done by the Swedish botanist, Carl Linnaeus, in 1735. Immanuel
Kant, the German scientist and philosopher, published his views (1755) on galaxies
of stars and the formation of the solar system, and rotation of the earth and impact of
the tides on it. Early electricity ideas were put forward (1752) by Benjamin Franklin
and in 1769 James Watt produced the first rotary steam engine which together with
the ‘spinning jenny’ (1764) of Hargreaves which could spin several threads at once,
transformed the mechanisation of the textile industry. Agricultural improvements
produced surplus food for towns and developments in hygiene (first water toilet in
1778 and soap in 1780) and medicine (vaccinations discovered by Edward Jenner in
1796) created a basis for better urban living conditions. The cotton industry
prolonged slavery in the South of America. The first battery was invented by Count
Volta in 1800 (Beazley,1979).
The century (1700-1800) is also the era of philosophers such as Descartes, David
Hume, Charles Montesquieu, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Thomas Reid, Immanuel
Kant and Mary Wollstonecraft, who promoted equal opportunities for women in 1792.
The Enlightenment were furthermore characterised by literature of Lessing, Johann
Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832), William Blake, William Wordsworth and so forth.
The classical age of European music was dominated by Joseph Haydn (1732-1809)
and Wolfgang Mozart (1756-1791). (Beazley,1979: 37-41).
It is to be expected that the strong focus on the scientific method and the discoveries
made in various fields must have had an influence on the philosophy and education
of the time. The technological discoveries benefitted the industrial revolution which in
turn lead to the emerging of a middle class. The expansion of the middle class
required the planning of mass education systems. The main philosophical school of
thought was the one of Rationalism which emphasised knowledge and reasoning.
Intellectual development was thus the main aim of education rather than moral
development (Pistorius, 1971:148, 173 ). Two renowned educators of this century
were Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) and Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746 -
1827). Let us explore their contributions to education.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
He was a Swiss-born French theorist that lived through the eighteenth-century of the
Enlightenment / Reason. He questioned the authority of the church and absolute
monarchy. His books, e.g. The Social Contract, condemn distinctions of wealth,
property and prestige that cause social inequalities and corrupt people. His
educational ideas appeared in his novel Emile which depicted the story of a boy from
infancy to adulthood. He is against authoritarian discipline and schools that repress
the instincts of children and coerce them into unnatural and stressful routines and
roles of society instead of letting them develop according to their own interests and
needs. Therefore Rousseau prefers home schooling. He emphasised five stages of
human development: infancy (0-5 yrs), childhood (5-12 yrs), boyhood (12-15 yrs),
adolescence (15-18 yrs) and youth (18-20 yrs). Rousseau rebelled against the
overemphasis on the development of the intellect and believed that learning should
take place by experiencing the world, by doing, seeing, by visiting places and feeling
pleasure and pain, not by learning from books. His unpractical ideas of intellectual
and moral development through experiencing the world were discarded except for
the fact that the ‘curriculum must incorporate the interests and needs of children’
which were taken up by the child-centred Progressive education and later
Constructivist schools of thought (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and Vocke, 2008:93-97).
Pistorius (1971:162-163) also points out that his antagonism against society
authorities and discipline and his rejection of Christ as the saviour of people caused
the government and the church of the day to reject his ideas.
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746 -1827)

The life of this Swiss educator coincided with the early industrial revolution in Europe
and America and family life was changed as women and children entered the work
force. Pestalozzi was concerned about this impact of harsh factory working
conditions on families and children and sought to develop schools that would nurture
children’s development, move away from memorisation and could improve society.
Unlike Rousseau before him, Pestalozzi did not reject schools but believed that if
properly organised, they could be effective centres of learning, e.g. schools must
display a caring homelike environment which nurture learners self-esteem, have
objects and pictures to learn from and learning must not be hurried. The ‘learning
from objects’ or object-lessons emphasised direct sensory and concrete learning
where objects are named, traced and described, drawn, multiplied, counted and
written about. Pestalozzi’s key contribution was in this ‘direct learning experiences’
in the learning environment and he advocated further detail about this direct learning
for his teacher training programmes, e.g.:
(a) teachers should begin with concrete objects before introducing abstract
concepts;
(b) begin with the learner’s immediate environment before dealing with what is
distant;
(c) begin with easy exercises before introducing complex ones and
(d) always proceed gradually and ensure understanding.
These ideas were applied in elementary school classrooms in Europe and the United
States and served later as forerunner of process-based learning. Pestalozzi believed
that teachers should not only be skilled in methods, but be capable of creating a
loving environment and address learners’ emotional and social needs too as
precondition for subject learning (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and Vocke, 2008:97-99).
Pestalozzi initially supported the rationalism ideas of intellectual development but

later on changed his education goal to religious and moral development as the core
for the upliftment of society and the human race. In his book ‘Wie Gertrud ihre kinder
lernt’ (How Gertrud taught her children) he criticised the teaching methods of the
time and proposed education improvements, for instance, the learner must be taught
how to think not merely the what / content to think; he re-emphasised the importance
of visual learning materials and the active involvement of learners in learning; the
role of art to develop hidden talents and intellectual discipline; the necessity of
understanding content rather than memorising it and the logical sequencing of
curriculum content from easy to more difficult and from known to the unknown. He
furthermore highlighted the readiness level of learners for a program level and the
value of a caring and supportive learning environment rather than tough punishment
(Pistorius, 1971:174-181).

This century is so full of political, economical, scientific and technological
developments that one should explore it by means of four periods of 25 years each.
The period from 1800 –1825
From 1800 to1825 the Napoleonic Wars stimulated the industrial revolution which in
turn created large towns with many factories employing people and so fostered a
growing middle class, but also many ills of capitalism. During this first 25 years of the
century, France became the pure science and Britain the industrial science country.
Automation was invented in France (1801) but not fully exploited while atomic theory
was proposed in England but refined in Europe. Powered transport in England
(1804, first railway locomotive) and the USA boosted new industrial expansions and
the producing of gas lighting (1806) transformed city life. The single wire telegraph
and photography were invented in 1816. Electrical science (e.g. work of André
Ampère, 1822, on electric currents and the selenoid) and modern chemistry made
great progress (discovery of potassium and sodium in 1806/7) while the study of
fossils raised new questions about the age and origin of life.
Key philosophical ideas of this first 25 years of the century were the Idealism of
Schelling and Hegel (see Unit 3 on philosophical schools of thought), the emphasis
of the anti-rational nature of man by Schopenhauer, and views on social justice and
welfare by Robert Owen (1813) and Charles Fourier (1808) as well as the founder of
modern Protestant theology, Friedrich Schleiermacher (1822) (Beazley, 1979: 42-
43).
The first public railway system in London (1825) not only provided inexpensive
transport for materials but also brought in more people into cities, which led to
worsening of living and working conditions. In Chemistry, Friedrich Wöhler
discovered in 1928 that organic substances do not always come from living things. In
1827, Georg Ohm, a German physicist, formulated Ohm’s law that clarified the
relation among current, voltage and resistance. Charles Lyell showed in 1833 that
rocks evolve slowly, slavery was abolished throughout the British empire and in 1835
the farmers in South Africa began the Great Trek to escape British rule. A British
mathematician developed in the 1830s the mathematical principles of the
mechanical computer. Anaesthesia had its beginnings in 1843 when the American
surgeon, Crawford Long, operated on an etherized patient. Nitroglycerine was
discovered in 1846 by an Italian chemist. The rotary press was invented in 1847 by
the American Richard Hoe and reinforced concrete invented in 1847 by the French
engineer, Joseph Monier.
It was also the period of August Comte who advocated positive thinking and
methods in social studies. Ludwig Feuerbach advocated a ‘humanistic atheism’ and
Kierkegaard, a Danish religious philosopher and founder of ‘existentialism’ argued
against ‘rationalism’ and emphasised ethical choices. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
wrote the Communist Manifesto in 1848 and predicted the revolution and overthrow
of capitalism and its replacement by socialism. It was also the time of Paganini in
Vienna, brass bands in Germany and Franz List, the piano virtuoso (Beazley, 1979:
44-45).
Since it is impossible to limit the impact of educators in this century to a particular 25

year period the key educators of this century will be dealt with at the end of the
century’s developments.
Science and technology focused on the needs of industry in this period, for instance,
chemical dyes and explosives. The abolition of slavery in America and the rise of
trade unionism in Europe both raised labour costs and thus stimulated
mechanization while the Crimean War provided incentive for the development of
better kinds of steel. Darwin’s theory of evolution and Mendel’s research into
genetics were the great advances in science together with the development of
spectroscopy (allowing new elements to be discovered) in Germany and the
application of the Doppler- effect which allowed more accurate estimates of the size
of the known universe.
The sewing machine was developed in 1851 by Isaac Singer and the rotation of the
earth was demonstrated conclusively in 1851 by the French physicist, Jean Foucault.
The first synthetic plastic material was patented in 1855 by the chemist Alexander
Parkes. The first oil well was struck in Pennsylvania in 1858. Dynamite was invented
in 1866 by the Swedish inventor, Alfred Nobel (1833-1896) who founded the Nobel
Prize. Louis Pasteur discovered in the 1860s that micro-organisms / bacteria cause
fermentation and disease and that sterilisation can kill bacteria. The Periodic Table
of elements was devised in 1869 by the Russian chemist, Dmitry Mendelyev. Britain
bought a decisive share in the Suez Canal in 1875 thus acquiring a quick route to
India. This period featured also Johannes Brahms, carrying on Beethoven’s music as
well as Marx and Darwin’s ideas (Beazley, 1979: 46-47).
Several nations scramble for expanding their rule in Africa and Asia, especially
Britain. However, France, Japan, Germany and the USA all participated in this era of
imperialism. Germany now took over the lead from Britain in science-based
industries and possessed a flourishing heavy industry, became the centre of early
car developments and led the field in preventative and curative medicine with the
discovery of antibodies and new drugs and the building of new hospitals. The
invention of the telephone in 1876 by the American, Alexander Bell and the
phonograph in 1877 Thomas Edison, would soon change society. Edison also
patented his light bulb in 1879. The first electric tram ran in Berlin in 1881, while in
1884 H. Maxim invented the Maxim machine gun in England. Motor transport was
founded in 1885 in Germany by Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler. The German
physicist, Heinrich Hertz, produced radio waves by 1887. The pneumatic tyre (air
filled) was invented in 1888 by the British veterinarian, John Dunlop. The diesel
engine was invented and demonstrated in 1896 by the German engineer Rudolf
Diesel, while the German, Wilhelm Röentgen, discovered x-rays in 1895. Viruses
were discovered in 1898 by the Dutch scientist Martinus Beijerinck while aspirin was
first marketed as a drug by a German pharmaceutical firm in 1899.
These 25 years were also the time featuring Friedrich Nitsche who rejected
Christianity; the sociology and educational ideas of Herbert Spencer, the sociology
ideas of Emile Durkheim and the psychological ideas of Sigmund Freud (1856-
1939). In addition, this period could boast with the art of Vincent van Gogh (1853-
1890) and the Russian music of Peter Tchaikovsky (Beazley, 1979:48-49).
Recognised educators of this century were: Herbart, Froebel, Spencer, Dewey, and
Montessori. Let us explore each of these historical mentors in education.
Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776 – 1841)
As German professor of philosophy and psychology he devised 5 ‘systemised

instruction’ sequential steps, namely:
1. Preparation, in which teachers encourage readiness in students to receive

the new concept or material they are planning to introduce.
2. Presentation, in which teachers clearly identify and present the new concept.
3. Association, in which a principle is formed that combines the new and
previous learning.
4. Generalisation, in which a principle is formed that combines the new and
previous learning.
5. Application, in which appropriate examinations and exercises assess
whether students have mastered and learned the new principle.
In addition to his systematised teaching method, Herbart advocated that teachers

should help students to construct relationships between ideas in order to form an
‘apperceptive mass’ or network of ideas. At a time when Greek and Latin dominated
the curriculum he brought in history and literature because such humanistic studies
would be valuable two sources to develop moral values of students. Herbart’s
teaching method and inclusion of history and literature in the curriculum influenced
US and Japan practices and educators at the time, but even today his ideas are
seen in practices for teachers like: 1. Identify what you want to teach, 2. Plan a
systematic lesson and 3. Assess students to verify their comprehension and
application of knowledge (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and Vocke, 2008:100-101).
Pistorius (1971:192-201) clarifies additional curriculum perspectives of Herbart which

outline his particular contribution to education. The clearly formulated goals of
education should focus on developing insight and ethical behaviour of learners. The
curriculum must include subjects like mathematics, natural science subjects, art
subjects, languages, religious education and history. Teaching methods must include
lots of visual learning experiences and content must be related to relevant natural
and social interests of learners. Herbart emphasised individual attention to learners
and that the discipline process must positively guide the learner’s ethical behaviour.
He furthermore clarified the relationship between knowledge and character
development as well as the importance of methodology of teaching to developing
understanding.
Friedrich Froebel (1782 – 1852)
Froebel, a German educator, created the Kindergarten school which is a school for
early childhood education which develops school readiness of learners. Froebel was
an Idealist like Plato and believed that an inherent spirituality (values) rather than the
body was at the core of human nature and therefore the learning environment must
develop this spirituality. (See Unit 3 for more on the Idealism school of thought). He
was also a nationalist and believed that the people of each country shared a
common folk spirit that manifested itself in the nation’s stories, songs and fables.
Thus stories and songs must play a role in the kindergarten school.
Froebel was a student for two years under Pestalozzi and accepted Pestalozzi’s
systematised method of teaching and vision of the school as an emotional safe place
for children with caring teachers who are sensitive to children’s readiness and needs
but redefined the child’s growth in spiritual terms. Froebel thought that the use of
objects might also stimulate recall of ‘a corresponding concept in a child’s mind’.
Froebel’s kindergarten environment featured games, play, songs, stories and crafts
and activities must stimulate children’s imagination and introduce them to the
culture’s folk heroes and heroines and values. Many materials must be available,
e.g. materials representing mathematical concepts or shapes and materials that
could be used in the design and construction of many things. Because the
kindergarten has such an enormous effect on children, Froebel believed that the
personality of the teacher is of paramount importance. The teacher must be caring
towards children but also understand their development and needs and must resist
the premature introduction of academic subject knowledge into kindergartens.
Froebel’s kindergarten ideas influenced international education as such schools
followed his model (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and Vocke, 2008:101-103).
Apart from the above features of Froebel’s education, his contribution to the
curriculum field included the following:
 The goal of education is to develop learners’ inherent intellectual, ethical and
emotional abilities and talents according to the universal laws of the Creator.
 The social responsibility of schools was highlighted.
 He emphasised the relevancy of curriculum content for the natural
development phases of learners.
 He introduced pre-primary / Kindergarten education.
 Teaching methods must incorporate the natural development needs of
learners to involve them actively in learning, such as play.
 Play with all kinds of objects and materials related to different subjects are
important .
 He believed in positive guidance, not negative punishment.
(Pistorius, 1971:184-191).
Herbert Spencer (1820 - 1903)
Spencer was an English social theorist who applied Darwin’s biological evolution
theory to society: the ‘fittest’ individuals (those with skills, intelligence and
adaptability) of each generation would survive, while the ‘unfit’ (lazy, stupid or weak
individuals) would slowly disappear. Competition would therefore improve the human
race. Applying his ideas to education, Spencer believed that private schools would
be better centres of education than public schools since learners have to compete to
get accepted into private schools which attract also more capable teachers. Spencer
wanted learners in classrooms and schools to compete against each other.
He believed that people in an industrialised society needed a utilitarian education in

order to learn useful scientific subjects and skills. He thus advocated a curriculum
based upon science and technology that prepared individuals to be efficient
producers in a competitive industrial society. He believed school curricula should
include physical science, biological science, social science, applied technology and
engineering. If nowadays’ subjects like computer science, genetics and bio-
engineering were available at Spencer’s time he would have included them in his
curriculum. The utility rationale behind his choice of subjects was the promotion of
health, positive social relationships and economic productivity. (This utility rationale
was refined by William Spady around 1967 to a system of competency-based
education).
In addition, Spencer identified five types of curriculum activities: (1) self-preservation

activities, (2) occupational activities that enable a person to earn a living, (3) child-
rearing activities, (4) social and political activities and (5) leisure and recreation
activities. Spencer had a strong impact on education. These 5 life-oriented activities
guided English and American curricula for 20 years after Spencer’s death. He paved
the way for more learners to attend private schools with public funding and school
curricula addressed utility (career and science) and human (social) needs. Different
forms of competition were inspired by Spencer’s ideas to identify the ‘fittest
students’, teachers and schools and to boost quality education (Ornstein, Levine,
Gutek and Vocke, 2008:104-105).
Spencer refocused the aim of education from a focus on theoretical knowledge to the
practical value of knowledge and therefore subjects with the most practical value
were seen as the core of the curriculum, for instance, physical and health education,
geography, accounting, mathematics, physical science, biology, mechanical
subjects, citizenship, child rearing, history and political science. The former highly
appreciated subjects like art, religious education, music and language were seen as
less important although they were included in the curriculum. Spencer advocated
concrete, visual experiential learning and inductive learning as teaching methods. He
agreed that the curriculum must be relevant for the phase of development of learners
but should not overload learners. He rejected disciplinary actions by educators and
believed that learners will learn via their mistakes. His strong focus on the practical
value of knowledge neglected the emotional and moral development of learners. His
naturalistic approach to education led to competitions and the quantitative measuring
of aspects in education (Pistorius, 1971:206-211).
John Dewey (1859 – 1952)
The social, political, scientific and technological context of the first half of the
twentieth century influenced the education philosophy of Dewey. He rejected
Spencer’s emphasis on individual competition in favour of group learning. Dewey
tested his Experimentalist education philosophy in the University of Chicago
Laboratory school between 1896 and 1904. Dewey saw education as a social
process and its purpose was social growth. Education and schooling are democratic
and open-ended processes in which students and teachers could test all ideas and
values. The purpose of knowledge is to support the solving of problems. Children
must be challenged to solve real life problems to develop their intelligence and
expand their knowledge. For Dewey, the scientific method is the most effective
method to solve our problems but lessons should also follow this format to ensure
learning with understanding.
Steps in the application of Dewey’s scientific method to learning

1. The learner experiences or encounters a problem that interests him/ her.
2. The learner defines the problem.
3. By reflecting on prior experiences, by reading, research or discussions the
learner acquires information to solve the problem.
4. The learner constructs possible solutions that might solve the problem.
5. The learner chooses the best solution and tests it, thus validating his own
knowledge. (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and Vocke, 2008:106).
In addition, Dewey’s curriculum consists of three levels of learning activities: The first
level of ‘making and doing’ engages children in project activities that develop
sensory and motor skills and socialising via group activities. The second level of
project activities broadens students’ concepts of space and time through history and
geography. The third level activities involve students in science subjects such as
biology, chemistry, and social studies that they can use in problem solving as
described above. Dewey’s impact on education can be seen in his ideas about social
reform via education; that learners should learn by doing / experiencing and that
learners should develop problem solving skills; and that teachers should use group
activities, collaborative learning and process-centred teaching activities. (Ornstein,
Levine, Gutek and Vocke, 2008:105-108). How would you critique Dewey’s ideas?
See section 2.13 for more detail about the education ideas of and critique against
Dewey’s views.
Maria Montessori (1870 – 1952)
This Italian educator devised an internationally popular method of early childhood

education. Like Pestalozzi and Froebel she recognised that the early experiences
have a formative influence on children’s later lives. She was the first female medical
physician in Italy and from her successes with mentally handicapped children she
believed that her methods were applicable to all special education children. In 1908
she established a school for impoverished children in the slums of Rome where the
environment featured methods, materials and activities suitable for children’s
interests. She believed that work that interests them motivates them internally,
stimulate spontaneous learning and enable them to concentrate.
Montessori’s curriculum included three types of learning activities: Practical, sensory
and formal skills and knowledge. Children performed everyday practical activities like
washing dishes, practicing basic manners and social etiquette. Repetitive exercises
developed sensory and muscular coordination. Children learned the alphabet by
tracing letters then learn to write and then to read. They used coloured rods and
cups to learn counting and measuring. She planned all teaching materials and
apparatus to achieve specific practical, sensory or intellectual learning outcomes.
Montessor’s significant contributions to education include her:
(a) emphasis of learner’s phases of development when they are ready for parti-
cular sensory, motor and cognitive learning;
(b) her belief that children are capable of sustained self-directed work in learning
a particular skill and
(c) her emphasis on the school as part of the community and the need for parent
participation and support.
(d) her use of materials and apparatus to enrich the environment for young
children. Thousands of Montessori schools were established worldwide,
some six thousand schools in the United States alone. Most of the
Montessori schools were and still are private schools enrolling children
between the ages two and six and having teachers trained in the Montessori
methods and materials (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and Vocke, 2008:110-111).
After 1900, famous educators were Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980) a Swiss psychologist
and Paulo Freire (1921 – 1997) of Brazil (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and Vocke,
2008:113-116).
The philosophical schools of thought between 1600 – 1900 are dealt with in Unit 3,
under ‘Philosophical foundations’.
Discuss whether Maria Montessori’s ideas should nowadays be part of any good
school.

___________________________________________________________________
Remember, decide first what the verb ‘discuss’ means and apply it to the
question: describe her education contributions / ideas and then argue whether
it is still valid for good education today. Then draw a conclusion whether her
type of education should actually be part of any good school or only part of a
Montessori school.
2.3 Analyse the progress of curriculum development science

during 1900-1909
According to (Schubert, 1984:13-28) this first decade of the Twentieth Century was
characterised by amongst others, the following events: Britain was still involved in
the Boer War in South Africa; painters like Picasso, Matisse and Monet came to the
fore; it was the time of Puccini’s ‘Madame Butterfly and Sigmund Freud’s book ‘The
interpretation of dreams’; Takamine isolated adrenalin, Hopkins discovered vitamins;
Marconi invented the wireless and the Wright Brothers the airplane. Einstein
published his theory on relativity and Rutherford his theory on radio activity; Shaw
created superman and Barrier created Peter Pan.
Against these background influences and growing urbanisation, three types of

curricula and thus schooling, were competing. The ‘intellectual traditionalists’
curriculum relates to the ancient Greek tradition of the trivium (consisted of the
subjects Grammar, Rhetoric and Dialectic) and the quadrivium (composed of
Arithmetic, Geometry, Astronomy and Music). Unlike in the Greek period, the
‘education for all’ focused on more social classes than the elite class and reading,
writing, arithmetic and a bit of history was the curriculum. It was believed by the
‘intellectual traditionalists’ that these subjects moulded character, developed thinking
and were applicable to many domains of living. Two renowned scholars namely,
William James and Edward Thorndike tested the claims of the ‘intellectual
traditionalists’ and found that ‘memory did not improve with practice’ and Latin and
Mathematics did not improve ‘the power of the mind more than other subjects’. This
criticism and the views that worthwhile schooling could not ignore life contributed that
the ‘intellectual traditionalists’ added more subjects to their curriculum.
A second type of curriculum and schooling emerged in this decade, the ‘social
behaviourists’. A faith in the method and products of science entered also the world
of education, especially after Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon developed the first
test in 1906 that claimed to determine intelligence. Curricularists suddenly felt that
curricula for schools should be determined scientifically by carefully analysing
activities of adult life and then induce the young into society by teaching them tasks
involved in such adult activities. This curriculum process was referred to as the
‘scientific curriculum making’ or ‘activity analysis’.
A third group of curriculum beliefs was known as the ‘experientialists’ and their views
were built upon the work of Johann Friedrich Herbart who died in 1841 but his ideas
were converted, including by the McMurry brothers, into a Herbartian curriculum
development process. The ‘experientialists’ followed essentially John Locke’s ideas
of the ‘tabula rasa’ which meant that the mind is an empty space to be written on by
educational experiences. Their repertoire of accumulated knowledge and experience
enable learners to perceive and interpret the world. A major curricular implication of
this view was that teaching and learning methods were the important processes of
organising the content to make it relevant to the students’ repertoire. The study of
child development was consequently important for curriculum developers in order to
use the methods best suitable for students’ learning. Herbart’s five stages of method,
namely preparation, presentation, comparison, generalisation and application were
seen as the process stages of knowledge acquisition and impacted instructional
methods for many years. In addition, Herbart’s five stages of method were applied as
stages for developing a curriculum for schooling that must embrace the ethical. John
Dewey was an experientialist too and his curriculum views will be discussed further
on in this unit.
Although 1918 is mostly accepted as the birth date of the curriculum field, the period
1900-1909 delivered some curriculum books which indicate that the term ‘curriculum’
was already established and written about. Five of the 9 books published from 1900
to 1909 were:
1. Dewey, J. 1900. The school and society. Chicago: University of Chicago

Press.
2. Bagley, W. C. 1905. The educative process. New York: Macmillan.
3. McMurry, C. A. 1906. Course of study in the eight grades. (Vol 1 and 2) New
York: Macmillan.
4. Meriwether, C. 1907. Our colonial curriculum 1607-1776. Washington: Capital.
5. Hayward, F. H. (Editor) 1909. Primary curriculum. London.
(Schubert, 1984:13-28).

during 1910-1919
A few of the reminders of the context of the second decade of the twentieth century
are: independence of Portugal; Stravinski’s ‘The Firebird ballet, Wilson became US
president; the Balkan countries engage in war in 1912; Marie Curie isolated radium
which unleased events in the area of atomic power; Amundsen reached the South
Pole and a year later (in 1912) Scott too; in 1913 Mahatma Ghandi was arrested in
India for exercising civil disobedience; Edgar Rice Burroughs created Tarzan of the
Apes in 1914; income tax was introduced in the US in 1913; World War 1 ended in
1918; the Panama Canal was opened in 1913; Alexander Graham Bell discover the
telephone in 1915; Carl Jung wrote on unconscious functioning and Einstein on
‘electron valency’ related to atomic theory of matter and energy and Charlie
Chaplin’s film of Shoulder Arms (1918) was much appreciated.
The advances in the natural sciences and technology gave prominence to the social
behaviourist school of curriculum thought because the public expected a scientific
and technological approach to determining what was taught in schools. The 1913
Cleveland Conference under leadership of Thorndike, Judd and Gray became an
annual event that promoted social behaviourist ideas of the ‘activity analysis’
curriculum development process whereby adult activities of efficient living were
catalogued and translated into learning experiences for students in schools. Franklin
Bobbitt advocated this social behaviourist cause with his book in 1915 on ‘What
schools teach and might teach’ and his even more important book, ‘The Curriculum’
in 1918. Bobbitt’s work introduced a new emphasis in curriculum science on what the
curriculum should be versus what it is. Weeks (1913) also focused on a curriculum
for the future while Heckert emphasised in1917 the relationships between the
organisation of instructional materials and the elementary school curriculum. “This
relation between curriculum and instruction became a perennial debate (Schubert,
1984:33).
The experientialist school of curriculum thought was supported directly and indirectly
by Dewey’s book ‘Democracy and Education’ in 1916 which set curriculum issues in
a political, scientific, philosophical, psychological and educational context. Dewey’s
views of the curriculum thus united school with life and living. W. Kilpatrick (in 1918)
based his ‘Project method’ on his interpretation of Dewey’s work. This method
advocated the idea that learning activities should be based on student interest.
The publication ‘Cardinal principles of secondary education’ (1918) displayed strong

tendencies of the intellectual traditionalists’ curriculum views. This document stated
the following goals of secondary education:
 Health
 Command of fundamental processes (probably reading, writing, arithmetic)
 Worthy home membership
 Vocational preparation (probably via applied sciences)
 Citizenship
 Worthy use of leisure time, and
 Development of ethical character (probably via ethics as subject)
(Schubert, 1984:34).
Although these goals may be open to wide interpretations, they do highlight the fact
that this decade focused strongly on the content of the curriculum apart from the
focus on the curriculum development process and the relation between curriculum
and methods and materials. A few of the 13 published books in this decade reflect
some of the core curriculum features of this decade:
1. Gray, E. D. 1911. How the curriculum of the secondary school might be
reconstructed. New Mexico: University of New Mexico Bulletin.
2. Weeks, A. D. 1913. The education of tomorrow: The adaptation of school
curricula to economic democracy. New York: Sturgis & Walton.
3. Dewey, J. 1916. Democracy and education. New York: Macmillan.
4. Bobbitt, F. 1918. The curriculum. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
(Schubert, 1984:29-37).

during 1920-1929
Prosperity seemed to pick up after the War of 1914-18 and the concept ‘roaring
twenties’ was coined. Egypt became independent from Britain; Mussolini took over
the Italian government; Stalin became the secretary-general of the Communist Party
in Russia. Lenin died in 1924. The president of China died in 1925; in the arts area
D. Lawrence created ‘Women in love ‘and Fitzgerald produced ‘The great Gatsby’;
expressionism continued in painting with Picasso, e.g. his Three Musicians; in the
music world Gershwin created the Rapsody in Blue; in the U.S. women obtained the
right the vote in 1920; 140,000 people died in an earthquake in Japan and the
economy of Germany, Japan, Brazil and the U.S. collapsed causing the decade to
end in depression and despair (Schubert, 1984:41).
Frederick Bonzer (1920) characterised ‘curriculum’ as the sequential order of

experiences that students are expected to have in school and many scholars
focused on prescribing the nature and order of desirable learning experiences. This
‘learning experiences’ curriculum view advocated the experientialist progressive
curriculum, which emphasised the importance that the needs and interests of
individual students be addressed by the curriculum. The focus on the needs of
children was captured by Rugg and Schumaker (1928) in their book ‘The child-
centred school’. This focus on students’ nature and needs and the learning activities
to promote learning, lead to the development of activity curricula captured in books
by Ferriere and Hopkins.
Another curriculum trend of this decade was to explore curricula for particular school
phases or audiences: Glass (1924) and Koos (1927) explored junior high school
curricula, while authors such as Burke (1924) and Carmichael (1927) emphasised
curricula applicable to kindergarten and early primary school phases. Books with the
typical focus on the broader secondary (Cox, 1925; Davis,1927) and elementary
school (Tippitt, 1927) also flourished.
The social behaviourist school of curriculum thought explored curriculum goal
statements and ways to group students based on biographical data. Stratemeyer
and Bruner (1926) started the realisation that if one has goals and objectives they
must be evaluated and thus the means-end of accountability were introduced.
Bobbitt continued his ‘activity analysis’ curriculum that focused on ‘social efficiency’
and W. Charters produced a well received book, Curriculum making in Los Angeles’
in 1922. In 1927 Snedden analysed the role of sociological forces in the curriculum.
C. A. McMurry (1923) was concerned about the organisation of learning experiences

in the curriculum. Phillips (1923) highlighted the instructional methods in the
curriculum implementation and Burke (1924) stressed the moral development of
students in schools. Carmichael (1927) even suggested that morals should be used
as the basis of curriculum construction and that the curriculum should not merely
include some moral oriented outcomes. Harap (1924) emphasised consumer
education through curriculum materials development and Acheson (1929) explored a
curriculum for religious education. Knox (1927) was convinced that curriculum
materials are very important and that curriculum practitioners should be made aware
of such materials. Holloway advocated that supervision is necessary in schools to
oversee the implementation of the curriculum.
Two other thrusts in the curriculum literature of this decade are worth noting. The
first deals with the study of curriculum practices. Examples are, Stout’s survey of
curricula in the North Central states; Bobbitt’s Los Angeles curriculum study (1922);
and the survey of innovative curricula presented in Part I of the ‘Twenty-sixth
yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education’ (1927). The second
thrust was to provide curriculum documents for practitioners to guide their design
and implementation of curricula. Such documents mostly ‘simplify and distill’
curriculum theories into lists of principles. Examples of such practical books are,
Herriott (1925-26), Harap (1928) and Hopkins (1929) with his ‘Curriculum principles
and practices’.
Some of the 87 books that appeared in this decade and which reflect some key
issues explored, are:
1. Bonser, F. G. 1920. The elementary school curriculum. New York:

Macmillan.
2. Koos, L. V. 1920. The junior high school. New York: Harcourt, Brace and
Howe.
3. Snedden, D. S. 1921. Sociological determining of objectives in
education. Philadelphia: Lippincott.
4. Charters, W. W. 1923. Curriculum construction. New York: Macmillan.
5. Phillips, C. A. 1923. Modern methods and the elementary curriculum.
New York: Century.
6. Bower, W. C. 1925. The curriculum of religious education. New York:
Charles Scribner’s Sons.
7. Bobbitt, F. et al., Curriculum investigations. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
8. Skinner, M. E. and Chappell, E. P. (editors) 1929. A curriculum study for
teachers of beginners: A manual for use in standard training courses.
Nashville: Cokesbury Press.
9. Whitehead, A. N. The aims of education and other essays. New York:
Macmillan.
(Schubert, 1984:39-60).
Under the leadership of Harold Rugg, an experientialist, Part II of the ‘Twenty-sixth

yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education’ was created to make
visible a composite statement of curriculum scholars from the three schools, namely
experientialist, intellectual traditionalists and social behaviourists. In reality most
schools reflected predominantly the character of the intellectual traditionalists.
(Schubert, 1984:49).

during 1930-1939
Some of the contextual reminders of this decade are: The Great Depression grew
worse and unemployment soared; Einstein and other Germans immigrate to the US;
Haile Selassie became emperor of Ethiopia; war and uprise characterised Spain,
Peru, Columbia, Bolivia and Paraguay. U.S. president Roosevelt implemented
measures to combat unemployment and Adolf Hitler became chancellor of Germany
with dictatorial power. Sinclair Lewis received the Nobel Prize for literature in 1930.
The planet Pluto was discovered by Tombaugh (1930) while understanding of
energy physics was advanced by the discoveries of the ‘cyclotron’ by Lawrence
(1930) and the ‘neutron’ by Chadwick (1932) and the ‘positron’ by Anderson. Vitamin
A was discovered in 1931 by a Swiss, Paul Karrer. Hemingway created ‘To have and
have not’ in1937 and James Joyce wrote ‘Finnegan’s Wake’. Disney’s film of ‘Snow
White and the seven dwarfs’ delighted the young. R. Watt developed radar, Whittle
advanced jet engine research, Aiken began work on digital computers and Georg
Biro introduced ball point pens. In 1939 Britain and France declared war on Germany
(Schubert, 1984:61-66).
Curriculum thought of the Thirties was influenced by three books of the Twenties:
Kilpatrick’s book on the ‘Project method’; H. C. Morrison’s book on ‘The practice of
teaching in the secondary school’ and Kilpatricks’s one on ‘Foundations of method’.
The curriculum literature of the Thirties highlighted the relation of teaching methods
and the curriculum, it used the term program for curriculum and the curriculum of
particular cities or states were explored. Curriculum implementation procedures and
the assumptions behind such procedures received attention. Milligan (1937), for
example, probed the relation between a professed philosophy (as assumptions) to
curriculum content and learning activities as ‘procedures’. It was also recognised that
curriculum aims are followed by curriculum procedures.
Examples of authors for this decade which reflect some of the main focus areas are:
Phillips (1931) on teaching methods; Stratemeyer (1931) on curriculum materials
and the governance of it; Trillingham (1934) on organisation and administration;
Jones (1935) on extra-curricular activities and Staley (1935) on sports. Caswell
(1932) wrote on the elementary level of schooling; Prosser (1939) on the secondary
curriculum and Dewey on the college curriculum. Broady (1936) wrote on small
schools and many books focused on curricula in particular locales, e.g.
Pennsylvania. Leary (1938) elaborated on curriculum laboratories. The work of
Dewey and other experientialists promoted a focus on ‘integration’. That means that
there was an effort to interrelated aspects and categories rather than de-
compartmentalised curriculum issues. Searching for correlations and wholes
promoted the construction on content units and correlation of subjects. An
Educational Policies Commission (1938) published a list of 43 objectives for a well
educated person. The objectives were categorised under the four headings of: ‘self-
realisation, human relationships, economic efficiency and civic responsibility’. Many
books addressed curriculum change, revisions or trends, e.g. The changing
curriculum by Harap (1937). A new type of book emerged during the Thirties. It was
books that served as compendia, as encyclopedic portrayals of the available
curriculum knowledge of the time. For example, the 1935 book of Caswell and
Campbell treated the following as major topics:
 Teaching procedures;
 Evaluation;
 Organisation;
 Instruction;
 Units;
 Courses of study
 The school in contemporary life;
 The social responsibility of the school;
 Influences on curriculum;
 Principles for curriculum development;
 Curricular aims and scope;
 Pupil purposes;
 Activities to develop purposes;
 Subject matter selection;
 Grade placement and time allotment;
On the whole, the social behaviourists move closer towards the intellectual
traditionalists that dominated the school curriculum. The experimentalists produced
much literature and promoted it in the name of ‘progressivism’ (Schubert, 1984:61-
91).
What were the main curriculum topics between 1930-1839?

(No, you are not getting this answer, just turn back a page or two.)

during 1940-1949
The horrors of World War II continued until 8 May 1945. From 1947 the economic
conditions started to improve with the General Agreement of Tariffs and Trades
among 23 nations.
The paintings of Pollock, Leger and Picasso now accentuated the medium and let
the message be implied by the viewer. The music of Rogers and Hammerstein and
‘The Cocktail Party’ by T. S. Eliot was well received. The year 1947 brought division
of India and Pakistan, a Jordanian shepherd boy discovered the Dead Sea Scrolls
and the Jews proclaim the State of Israel in 1948. In the same year Ghandi was
assassinated and India became a republic within the British Commonwealth of
Nations.
In 1940 the American Council on Education reassessed what ought to be the aims of
secondary schools. Caswell explored later in the decade (1946) the responsibility of
the American secondary school which relates to the purposes / aims of schooling. In
1941 Bobbitt emphasised two new points, namely, that education is greater than
schooling and that general curricula have shortcomings in the sense of not dealing
with individual needs and interests. Therefore, individualised curricula need to be
developed. Hopkins (1941) and J. G. Saylor stressed the involvement of
stakeholders as part of the democratic processes in curriculum planning. The
National Commission on Cooperative Planning also highlighted the involvement of
stakeholders in curriculum planning which included selection of subject fields and
subject matter for subjects.
The most important and extensive analysis of curricula in schools of the time, was
‘The eight year study’ that was published in 1942. This study compared the
traditional intellectual and progressive schools in a five volume set by Aikin and
Giles. Volume I describes an overview of the 8 year study; volume II analyses the
curriculum features of the 30 schools involved and volume III interpreted the data. It
was found that students from experimental schools which content and teaching
methods differed from the traditional schools performed as well or better in college
than students from the traditional schools.
Curriculum revision and change and curricula for specific locales such as city
schools, small schools or curricula in certain states, e.g. California, received
attention. Two new curriculum thoughts were put forward by Doane and Burton.
Doane (1942) proposed a proper needs assessment of youth in order to set
appropriate purposes for the curriculum. Burton (1944) underlined the role of the
teacher to design learning experiences appropriate for the needs and interests of
learners. He also suggested that learning efforts of learners must be monitored
continuously. In America the focus was now also on the core curriculum features of
the ‘common school’ which provided ‘general education’ for most of the children at
school. The Educational Policies Committee of the National Education Association
devised in 1944 a core of common learnings for youth which included the following
needs: (Schubert, 1984:104).
 Salable skills
 Health promotion
 Competent citizenship
 Good family membership
 Defensible consumerism
 Aesthetic appreciations
 Wise use of leisure time
 Democratic values and
 Rational thought.
These areas of the curriculum include the social and democratic views of the
experientialist, the practicality of the social behaviourists and some of the virtues of
the intellectual traditionalists. In 1945 a Harvard Committee report proposed that the
common curriculum in high schools should provide a general background in
humanities, social sciences, natural sciences and mathematics via methods that fit
less academically oriented students. Students should also be enabled to think
effectively, communicate well, make judgments and develop values. Another
publication, that of the National Society for the Study of Education, supported this
‘reform’ in general education. Ralph Tyler and Hilda Tab were two of the authors of
this National Society’s reform document. In 1946 Martens called for curriculum
adjustments for gifted students while Fleming highlighted the relation of research and
the curriculum. In 1947 Florence B. Stratemeyer added a new dimension to the
comprehensive type of curriculum books: she discussed sources of curriculum
development, its purposes, proposed a range of stakeholders to be involved in
curriculum development processes, emphasised the analysis of childhood situations
upon which curriculum learning experiences should be built and suggest that
learners should actually have a primary role in developing and the teaching-learning
of curricula.
In 1947 Hildreth’s ‘Learning the three R’s’ reflected the sentiment of the ‘nuts and
bolts’ of education or ‘going back to the basics’ and thus the decline of the
progressive education views. The intellectual traditionalists’ ideas of subject areas
organised into units especially on the elementary level, seemed to gain ground as
part of the common curriculum. In 1949 Ralph Tyler’s book ‘Basic principles of
curriculum and instruction’ discussed and related earlier curriculum ideas and
proposed 4 categories as basics for curriculum development: e.g. purposes;
experiences; organisation and evaluation. More detail about the meaning and value
of Tylers’ elements of a curriculum is provided in 2.12. The selected curriculum
literature of the Forties hereunder, reflects the research, curriculum knowledge,
comprehensive curriculum books and Tylers’ curriculum elements contribution to the
curriculum field.
1. Lawson, D. E. 1940. Curriculum development in city school systems.

Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2. Lee, J. M. and Lee, D. M. 1940. The child and his curriculum. New York:
Appleton-Century Crofts.
3. Morrison, H. C.1940. The curriculum of the common school from the
beginning of the primary school to the end of the junior college.
Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
4. Hopkins, L. T. 1941. Interaction: The democratic process. Boston: D.C.
Heath.
5. Aikin, W. M. 1942. The story of the eight year study. New York: Harper and
Brothers.
6. Doane, D. C. 1942. The needs of youth: An evaluation for curriculum
purposes. Chicago: Scott Foresman.
7. Smith, E. R., Tyler, R. W. and the Evaluation staff. 1942. Appraising and re
cording student progress. New York: Harper and Brothers.
8. Bathurst, E. G. et al. 1949. The place of subjects in the curriculum. Educa
tional bulletin, no 12. Washington: Office of Education.
9. Tyler, R. 1949. Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press. (Schubert, 1984:93-121).

during 1950-1959
It was the time of the Cold War between Communist and Democratic powers. The
war between north and south Korea began in 1950 and ended in 1952 and a time of
prosperity and productivity was experienced over many areas of life, including the
curriculum area.
The Fifties produced 151 curriculum books and one of the most important
comprehensive books was the one in 1950 by Smith, Stanley and Shores with the
title of ‘Fundamentals of curriculum development’. This text provided encyclopaedic
background on the curriculum field but added new dimensions which were to
become mainstays for some time to come. Smith, Stanley and Shores addressed
curriculum issues like the following:
Tabel 2.1: Curriculum dimensions of The Fifties
A. They tied curriculum issues to the following:

 The meaning and structure of culture;
 Community changes;
 Economic considerations;
 Social values;
B. They formulated criteria for determining:

 They formulated criteria for determining objectives;
 They formulated criteria for determining subject matter or content;
 They formulated criteria for determining content sequence;
 They formulated criteria for determining learning experiences;
 They formulated criteria for determining grade placement and time
allotment to curriculum areas of learning
C. They presented 3 orientations to curriculum organisation:

 The characteristics, practices and criticisms of the subject organisation
were discussed;
 The characteristics, practices and criticisms of the activity organisation
were discussed;
 The characteristics, practices and criticisms of the core curriculum
organisation were discussed;
D. They devoted much attention to the role of human relations and in

terpersonal politics in curriculum change, revisions and decision
making.
E. They discussed alternative curriculum viewpoints on theoretical

curriculum issues and thus created curriculum theory which were
better grounded than former ‘recipes’ in comprehensive texts.
(Schubert, 1984:131).
The attempt to developed theory in curriculum was pursued further in 1947 via a
conference at the University of Chicago under the leadership of Virgil Herrick and
Ralph Tyler. The conference only came up with convictions of what sound curriculum
theory should embrace. Krug produced a book on Curriculum planning in 1950
wherein he applied purposes to curriculum content, teaching-learning aids and
processes of local schools. Featherstone and others criticised the secondary school
curriculum for being too much academically or vocationally oriented while 75 % of
the learners do not continue further education after school.
Caswell and Associates produced descriptive surveys and reports in the Fifties about
curriculum improvements, materials and actual curriculum cases. The Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD) in America emphasised
curriculum revisions or improvements. It was clear that the comprehensive type of
curriculum books mostly amalgamated the views of the intellectual traditionalists, the
social behaviourists and the experientialist schools of thought. Spear (1951) and
Ragan’s work (1953) addressed the roles of teachers in curriculum processes. Many
books appeared about the secondary school curriculum and the issue of organising
the curriculum for effective learning experiences received much attention. Subject
books began also to appear for elementary and secondary levels for Science,
Mathematics, Social Studies and the Language, Arts curriculum. Action research
focused on democratic ‘Community schools’ which were integrated in community
functioning but several authors wrote on curriculum trends in high schools, teacher
education and better teaching of the curriculum. Books by Saylor and Alexander,
Kirk and the Columbia University advocated the roles of teachers and administrators
as curriculum workers in schools. Foremost among the contributions on purpose in
the curriculum was the 1956 taxonomical classification of cognitive objectives by
Bloom and others. Much theoretical debates and practical applications were sparked
by Bloom’s taxonomy.
In 1957 the Russians launched the Sputnik and the perceived educational superiority
of the USSR elicited criticism about the American education. Suddenly, massive
funding was provided by government to implement often hastily designed curriculum
projects that would become permanently part of the curriculum in the future. French
(1957) produced a book on ‘behavioural goals’ and Spears emphasised the
introduction of in-service programmes in curriculum development. UNESCO
accentuated the psychological foundations of a curriculum and ASCD yearbook of
1958 treated the issue of continuity from level to level of school programmes. In
1958 Lawler addressed the role of curriculum consultants in schools.
In 1959 James Conant produced ‘The American High School Today’ which
influenced the high school curriculum in subsequent years. He proposed a high
school with a college preparatory stream; vocational stream and general education.
Tabel 2.2: The 1959 Conant USA high school curriculum
 The idea of particular credit requirements was promoted by Conant’s

work.
 In addition he advocated a counselling system,
 Individualised program scheduling,
 Required courses and electives,
 Ability grouping by subject,
 Emphasis on English composition and
 Marketable skills,
 Special programmes for slow readers,
 Special programmes for the academically talented,
 Extra provision for gifted students,
 Prerequisites for advanced courses,
 Honors lists,
 6-8 Period days,
 Emphasis on foreign language and science preparation,
 Home skills for girls and
 The study of American government in grade 12.
(Schubert, 1984:144)
Conant’s ideas integrated the former different schools of curriculum thought and
established the modern high school features.
Some of the important curriculum books published in the Fifties were:

1. Gwynn. J. M. 1950. Curriculum principles and social trends. 2nd ed. New
York: Macmillan.
2. Jersild, A. T. 1950. Child development and the curriculum. New York:
Columbia University.
3. Smith, B. O., Stanley, W.O. and Shores, J. H. 1950. Fundamentals of
curriculum development. Yonkers-on-the=Hudson, New York: World Book
Company.
4. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).
1951.Action for curriculum improvement. Washington: ASCD.
5. Shane, H. G. and McSwain, E. T. 1951. Evaluation and the elementary
school. New York: Columbia University.
(Schubert, 1984:123-159).
Explain why was the curriculum ideas of James Conant important.

___________________________________________________________________
Conant’s ideas integrated the former different schools of curriculum thought
and established the modern high school features. He proposed a high school
with a college preparatory stream; vocational stream and general education.
Then give details of his curriculum ideas.

during 1960-1969
One important characteristic of the Sixties was the competition amongst world
powers to demonstrate their technological superiority. Fourteen African countries
became independent and the war in Vietnam was raging. The exploration of space
was given serious attention. The quest for equality of race was growing stronger,
technological achievements were mushrooming while devastation of the environment
was continuing.
The increased Federal and private foundations’ funding for American educational
research and development after the Sputnik launching, contributed to the fact that
173 more books were published in the Sixties than in the Fifties. Many of these
books were reprints or new revisions of books from earlier decades. Curriculum
projects of the Sixties often followed the theory of Jean Piaget about the stages of
cognitive development as well as the ideas of Jerome Bruner that subject knowledge
of disciplines possesses an inherent structure that must be understood. The growing
demand for accountability in education required from curricularists to pre-specify
what they planned to achieve and to prove that they did. Objectives and assessment
of it thus received attention. Robert Mager’s book (1962) treated the formulation of
accurate objectives. Some questioned the suitability of these ‘behavioural and
systems theory’ objectives for education but today education systems worldwide
make use of aims and objectives or exit and learning outcomes (Schubert,
1984:161-178).
Some of the important curriculum books and topics of the Sixties were:
Jameson and Hicks explored the elementary school curriculum in 1960 while in the
same year UNESCO treated the preparation of the secondary school curriculum. In
1961the book ‘Curriculum Theory’ by George Beauchamp appeared and although
written from a perspective of system theory and engineering models, fit the social
behaviourist style of curriculum research and were reprinted twice. In 1962 Hilda
Taba’s book ‘Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice’ explored general
curriculum development rather than curriculum development of a particular level or
subject area. A humanist focus (child centred, whole person, interest- based
curriculum) and consequent personalised education re-emerged in the 1962 ASCD
Yearbook. Alternative forms of curricular organisation such as individualised
instruction, open education, ability grouping, team teaching for multigrade classes,
peer teaching, schools without walls and alternative schools received growing
interest in 1963. The concept of the ‘hidden curriculum’ referred to as the ‘unstudied
curriculum’ was introduced. Curriculum change weighed heavily in the literature of
1964. Krathwohl et al., created the taxonomy for the affective domain of objectives.
In 1965 McNeil’s book focused on the ‘administration and the curriculum’ and the
ASCD linked to this theme and defined roles for professionals involved in supervision
and curriculum development. Better cooperation among curriculum planners and
implementers of it was advocated by several authors. Leeper promoted the issue of
assessment in the curriculum. Jerome Bruner (1966) highlighted instructional issues
as implementation of the curriculum while John Goodlad clarified the role of society,
institutions and the individual in curriculum changes. One of the books ‘Formative
years’ with a retrospect focus on the history of curriculum (from 1900-1940)
development was written by Mary Louise Sequel. A monograph series was begun to
stimulate ideas on ‘curriculum evaluation’. Robert Gagne in his book ‘The conditions
of learning’ (1967) proposed a hierarchical structure of learning (from simple and
specific to complex and general) and this learning theory could serve as a basis for
curriculum design. Also in 1967 D. Wheeler contributed to curriculum science with
his concept of ‘situation analysis’ as another element of the curriculum development
process.
In 1968 Louise Berman advocated the application of the humanistic orientation

across all subjects. Curriculum change and innovation was addressed again. Phillip
Jackson’s ‘Life in classrooms’ sensitised curricularlsts to the powerful effects of the
hidden and the intended curriculum. In 1969 Mager’s ideas on objectives was refined
by Popham while several authors advocated the role of the curriculum to prepare
learners for the future, for instance Toffler. Additional novel explorations of
curriculum thought was the analysis of Cassidy (1969) of the role of knowledge, the
role of experience and the role of action in effective education. Guttchen and
Bandman treated some curriculum problems from a philosophical perspective. Hass
related the idea of continuous progress to curriculum and instruction and thus took a
first step towards ‘continuous assessment and evaluation’. The ASCD identified life
skills that would enable effective living in both school and society.
A few of the books of the Sixties were:
1. Jameson, M. C. and Hicks, W. V. 1960. Elementary school curriculum:

From theory to practice. New York: American Book Co.
2. Ontario Curriculum Institute. 1966. Children, classrooms, curriculum and
change: a report of the Committee on the scope and organisation of the
curriculum. Toronto: Ontario Curriculum Institute.
3. Swenson, G. and Keys, D. 1966. Providing for flexibility in scheduling and
instruction. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
4. Alpren, M. (editor) 1967. The subject curriculum: grades K-12. Columbus,
Ohio: Charles E. Merrill.
5. Conner, F. and Ellena, W. 1967. Curriculum handbook for school
administrators. Washington: American Association of school administrators.
6. Meeker, M. N. 1969. The structure of intellect: its interpretation and uses.
Ohio: Charles E. Merrill.
7. Popham, W. J. et al., 1969. Instructional objectives. Illinois: Rand McNally.
8. Wilson, J. 1969. Moral education and the curriculum. Oxford: Pergamon
Press.
The comprehensive books of the Sixties still amalgamated the different schools of
curriculum thought as in the Fifties but the intellectual traditionalists with their subject
disciplines as the basis of the curriculum, dominated in practice (Schubert,
1984:161-227).

during 1970-1979
The Vietnam War and its impact on America continued until 1975. In England (1970)
women would now receive equal payment for equal work. The rights of many other
types of groups received attention in many parts of the globe. Protests about policies
regarding the environment, employment practices, international relations and
accountability were common. Communication technology improved interaction but
required also better decision making due to the overload of information.
Education also experienced a protest culture which benefitted the experiential

curriculum school of thought. Pressures for accountability hit the schools as much as
other institutions. The number of curriculum publications exceeded those of the
Sixties by over 100 books. This included a number of revised and reprinted books
from prior decades, e.g. from Dewey, Rugg, Bobbitt, Mager, Beauchamp and so
forth. Large scale empirical research that portrayed data quantitatively carried
influence and social and political forces impacting on education and the curriculum
received much attention. Factors predicting school achievement were the focus of
many studies, e.g. the impact of socio-economic status of the home, time on learning
tasks and knowledge and skill levels at specified ages. The revisionist movement in
England and America criticised the kind of knowledge perpetuated by dominant
social classes in schools. The curriculum was accused of subjugating (suppressing)
lower economic and racial minority groups. Young (1971) and Musgrave’s critical
books addressed this issue of knowledge and control and that curriculum
development and subject matter must therefore reflect the social and practical
circumstances. Habermass, Freire and Pinar and Grumet’s books like several others
addressed the issue of a curriculum suppressing lower economic and racial minority
groups. The humanist orientation of the Sixties was thus still growing in the
Seventies (Schubert, 1984:229-245).
Eisner’s book ‘The educational imagination’ in 1979 advocated curricular content that
reflects critical analysis and proposed qualitative modes of curriculum evaluation.
Quite a number of books promoted novel aspects of curriculum knowledge, e.g. Doll,
Alexander and Saylor and Oliver. Prominent ‘comprehensive type’ of curriculum
books were written by, amongst others, Nicholls and Nicholls (1972 and 1978),
Stenhouse (1975), Zais (1976) and McNeil (1977). These books were more
analytical and descriptive than the prescriptive ones of the Sixties. Apart from books
dealing with the typical elementary curriculum level, e.g. Wiles and Bondi (1979),
some new directions were introduced, namely the early childhood curriculum (e.g.
Parker, (1972) and Jones,(1977) as well as the junior high and middle school
curriculum (Lounsbury and Vars, 1978). Curriculum books about the process of
change or innovation included Lawler, 1970, Hoyle and Bell, 1972, Harris, et al,
1975, and Werner, 1979. Toffler wrote a book titled ‘Future Shock’ (1970) in which
he argued that education must increase the ability of people to cope with the future
and to adapt to continual change.
Another type of focus on innovation was dealing with case studies about how
curricula were selected and organised in schools. Such writings usually had the
format of qualitative research with descriptions, analysis and suggestions. Examples
are: Turner (1971) on schools that liberated learning; Miller on a secondary
curriculum based on humanities; Saylor (1972) about future oriented schools; Moffett
(1973) on student-centred curricula; Frazier (1976) on strategies for teaching that
involved mastery, adventure and association; Bloomer and Shaw (1979) on
constraints regarding innovative curricular organisation; Berman and Roderick’s
process-oriented curriculum (1977) that focused on decision- making,
communication and other people skills for the enhancement of living (Schubert,
1984:245-254).
Harrow (1972) developed a taxonomy for the psychomotor domain of objectives and
Apple explored (1979) the kinds of knowledge and class relationships perpetuated
by the curriculum. Many books were written on curriculum evaluation, some of which
are: Taylor and Cowley (1972) presented a fine sample of curriculum evaluation;
Bellack and Kliebard (1977) pointed the way to a holistic evaluation of the curriculum
and Eisner (1979) provided a more qualitative evaluation of the curriculum as
opposed to the common quantitative evaluations of the time.
In 1978 Brent produced an important book called ‘Philosophical foundations for the
curriculum’ which recognised the contribution of Philosophy to curricula and
stimulated the notion that there are other foundations that impact on curriculum
design. The theme for foundations of curriculum development was treated in the
Fifties but now in the Seventies entire books were published about the foundations,
e.g. Whitfield (1971), Zais (1976) and Shiro (1978). In the same year Michael Schiro
also clarified four ideologies and their impact on curriculum development. His four
ideologies were: academic scholar; social efficiency; child study and social
reconstruction. Today these ‘ideologies’ seem rather misnamed and are nowadays
referred to as ‘orientations’. More accurate ideologies that influenced education, are
now identified such as: ‘Liberalism, Conservatism, Utopianism, Marxism and
Totalitarianism.
According to Gutek (1985) an ideology refers to more emotional rather than rational
ideas or views held by a group. These emotional views form the basis of interpreting
the group’s past, explains its present social, economic, political and educational
perspectives in order to shape its future goals and actions. An ideology creates a
sense of group identification and solidarity for its members but on the other hand
creates exclusion and competition with others. A group ideology is often culture
group bound or ethic group bound or social status group bound as it focuses on a
particular desired view of society. Ideologists commonly try to influence the national
laws, political, educational and other systems to promote their particular
perspectives. Individual ideology leaders impact the ideology greatly, e.g. Hitler with
his ideas of a superior race, Gandhi and his goal for Indian independence and
Marx’s socialism view which maintained that the economic powers controlled and
exploited the workers class. The American Revolution of 1776 and the French
Revolution of 1789 were expressions of the ‘liberal’ ideology. ‘Apartheid’ which
advocated separation of ethnic groups in society is another ideology example.
A personal philosophy of life is a perspective about the nature and meaning of life.
The traditional schools of philosophy ask what is real or the truth. As such
philosophies have a metaphysical focus that transcends time and space and which is
broader than an ideology which is contextual and focuses on a rather concrete,
subjective, narrow and prescriptive view of a particular ‘desired’ society. Since the
eighteenth-century Enlightenment models about a ‘good society’ have inhabited an
ideological world which caused many wars between groups and countries. The
ideologies of the ruling parties are deposited in the educational and political systems
of the time.
For example, the dominant ideology will directly impact the school goals, the
curriculum content which is selected, the policies, the attitudes and values to be
developed and the hidden curriculum beliefs.
Fredericks (1978) and Wechman (1979) wrote about curricula for special education.
Another important development was the book of Becker (1979) that illustrated the
growing importance of international cooperation in education. This opened a door for
observing curricula of different countries and multicultural curricula studies. Kallos
(1975) especially suggested that America is too unaware of curricula of highly and
less developed cultures. Due to increased communication technology and the drive
for international cooperation, curriculum books included contributions of authors of
different countries. As in prior decades, curriculum scholars produced books for
curriculum practitioners such as teachers, supervisors, and administrators. These
practitioner books also cover how to design, implement curricula and use curriculum
materials. Books on curriculum design were produced, for example, by McNeil
(1976), Gower and Scott (1977) and Posner and Rudnitsky (1978). Kopp and Zufelt
(1974) Speiker (1976) and Rubin (1977) produced books on administration,
leadership and supervision in the curriculum (Schubert, 1984:255-268).
With the computer technology development, the huge amounts of books and new
journals, clearing houses like ERIC were established. In addition, collections of
curriculum readings emerged in the Seventies, for example, collections of curriculum
articles included: Hass, et al., (1970) Levit (1971), Rubin (1976), Taylor and Reid
(1979). One book that went beyond a collection of articles was the one of Eisner and
Vallance (1974) where they identified curriculum as:
(a) the development of cognitive processes
(b) technology
(c) consumatory experience
(d) a springboard to social reconstruction, and
(e) academic rationalism
(Schubert, 1984:270-272).
These five goals of a curriculum are nowadays known as curriculum orientations as
indicated in Unit 1, e.g. number (b) ‘technology’ refers to the systems and
behaviourist ideas which include objectives, methods to achieve that and
assessment of the level of achievement.
A few of the curriculum books of the Seventies are:
1. Mager, R. F. 1975. Preparing instructional objectives. 2nd edition.

Belmont,California: Fearon.
2. Talmage, H. (editor). Systems of individualised education. Berkeley,
California: McCutchan.
3. Tanner, D. and Tanner, L. 1975. Curriculum development: Theory into
practice. New York: Mcmillan.
4. Holt, M. 1978. The common curriculum: Its structure and style in the
comprehensive school. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
5. Willis, G. 1978. Qualitative evaluation: Concepts and cases in curriculum
criticism. Berkeley: McCutchan Publishing Company.
6. Wechman, P. H. 1979. Curriculum design for severely and profoundly
handicapped. New York: Human Sciences Press.
7. Wiles, J. and Bondi, J. 1979. Curriculum development: A guide to practice
elementary education. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill.
(Schubert, 1984:306-322).
Clarify the curriculum science development during the Seventies (1970-1979).

___________________________________________________________________
Find the section on the Seventies and extract the main development features
paragraph by paragraph. Monitor on the verb list what is the thinking involved in
‘clarify’. If you have completed the task, compare your effort with the relevant
section in the summary, section 2.14.
during 1980-2000
As it was recognised in the decades prior to this period, some of the curricularists,
practitioners and curriculum features for the period 1980-2000 listed below were also
influenced by science and technology, the state of the economy, peace and war,
social challenges, priorities of politics and trends in artistic expression.
In the Seventies special interest groups and government agencies took the lead in
programme development. In the Eighties government took the lead in response to
how curricula must be adapted to balance the demand for national versus local
needs programmes (McNeil, 1990:391). Debates about the most valuable knowledge
for boys and girls in public schools, the content of textbooks and the appropriateness
of pedagogical methods and testing practices continued during the 1980- 2000
period (Benavot and Amadio, 2004:3). The two decades between 1980 and 2000
displayed a growing emphasis on quality curriculum issues such as policies, school
resources, instructional time, organisation of the curriculum, teacher effectiveness
and the pace and complexity of the classroom life. Another trend was the focus on
comparative studies of educational achievement which were done with regards to
quality curriculum issues and educational achievement analyses (Benavot and
Amadio, 2004:3).
A UNESCO report by Benavot and Amadio (2004) about global features of school
curricula between 1980-2000 display trends about instructional hours in the primary
and lower secondary phase; organisation of school content; core and elective
subjects; changes in school curricula between 1980 and 2000.
2.11.1 UNESCO report about global features of school curricula: 1980-2000
UNESCO report about global features of school curricula: 1980-2000

1. The cross-national average instructional time for children in primary school
classrooms is about 750 hours per year. In grades 1-4 the median instructional
hours tend to be higher in Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and the
Caribbean, and Western Europe and north America than in Central Europe,
East Asia and the Pacific and the Arab States. Developing countries that have
double or even triple shift schooling per school day reduces instructional time
to fit in the shifts. In general, instructional time increases in grades 3-4 and
again in grades 6-7. In grades 5-8 instructional time varies between 800 and
900 hours per year. The instructional time did not increase worldwide from
1980 to 2000. In Latin America, the Caribbean, Arab States and in parts of
Sub-Saharan Africa the instructional time expanded, while it reduced in
Southwest Asia, Central, Western and Eastern Europe.
2. In terms of the organisation of the curriculum, most of the educational content
during the first six years of primary schooling are categorised into six core
curriculum (using 80% plus of instructional time) subject areas: language,
mathematics, natural science, social sciences, aesthetic education and
physical education. The additional subjects to the core are mostly religious and
moral education, hygiene / health education and vocational / practical skills.
‘Vocational education’ is now added to the former skills –oriented subjects
such as Domestic Science, Manual skills, Agriculture and Life Skills. In the
1980’s only 37-46% of countries included elective subjects in the curriculum
while in the 2000’s over 50% of countries included elective subjects in the
official curriculum. Subjects related to computers and technology has
increased at all grade levels between 1980 and 2000. Computer courses are
now (2004) taught in 25% of all primary grades and about 40% in all lower
secondary grades.
3. Language and mathematics education universally receive special emphasis in

primary schools from grade 1-8. About 30% of instructional time is devoted to
language teaching and 20% to mathematics teaching. In total about 45% of the
instructional time is allocated to language and mathematics instruction in grade
7 and 8. The instructional time devoted to arts, sciences, physical education
and social sciences (including environmental education, history, geography
and citizenship) are about 10% for each subject area. Between 1980 and 2000
the percentage of countries requiring instruction in environmental topics has
increased from 10 to 17%.
4. A few trends could be noted which imply changes to the core curriculum
above. The proportion of instructional time devoted to natural sciences,
mathematics and foreign languages has increased. In addition, the teaching of
history, geography and civics as separate subjects has been reduced in favour
of the more interdisciplinary ‘social studies’.
5. Although the above mentioned core curriculum has remained fairly stable, the
specific content of subjects have changed to accommodate principles of
individualisation, learner-centredness and protection of the natural
environment. International topics have become more pervasive in the social
sciences in order to develop ‘global citizens’. The increase in foreign language
instruction in secondary schools is in line with this global citizen idea. There
are some advocates calling for citizenship education as a separate subject.
6. At the upper secondary level general tracks and specialised (e.g. science and
mathematics, social sciences or commercial) tracks have increased in most
world regions. Related to different tracks are optional subjects for learners.
There is a global increase of about 30% in countries offering electives as
optional subjects in the secondary phase. Such electives are more prevalent in
more-developed countries in Europe and in America. Although optional
subjects cater for learner interest and knowledge expansion, it creates
overloaded timetables for schools and learners. Conventional discipline-based
subjects must therefore often compete with newer integrative subjects for a
place on the timetable. Statistics for the period 1980-2000 show that the typical
required core subjects per year in grade 5 are ten subjects and are eleven
subjects in grade 8. This overloaded timetable has not changed dramatically
during the last two decades.
7. Subject discipline knowledge is increasingly standardised worldwide and

although historical and cultural features impact on school curricula, the impact
of global issues on the curriculum is greater than local cultural or historical
factors, e.g. environmental education to protect the planet, foreign languages,
global citizens’ human rights, global poverty and entrepreneurship to address
it, AIDS and drugs, computer literacy, equal rights for minorities, fair working
conditions, and so forth. The global focus has shifted from ‘education for all’ to
‘quality education for all’. (Benavot and Amadio, 2004:1-25).
In addition to the above curriculum features, one should also take note of the
following developments during 1980-2000.
2.11.2 Further developments during 1980-2000
Multiple intelligences
From the mid-1980s work by Robert Sternberg and Howard Gardner about multiple
intelligences influenced beliefs and practices of educators. Sternberg identifies three
types of intelligence, namely, an analytical one, a practical intelligence and a creative
intelligence. Gardner identifies eight (8) intelligences such as a logical-mathematical
one, a linguistic, musical, spatial and bodily-kinesthetic intelligence as well as an
interpersonal, intrapersonal and a naturalist intelligence (Weiten, 2011:288-290).
Despite the criticism against Gardner’s intelligences it might correctly suggest that
learners have different abilities / intelligences which influence their interests. A
learner might therefore be more interested in seven other intelligences than in the
logical-mathematical one which seems to be a more ‘academic-oriented’ intelligence.
The theories about multiple intelligences imply that curricula should address
individual differences and the cultural context. The question could thus be asked if
the Namibian socio-economic development context requires a vocational or career
education curriculum to complement the general academic curriculum. A vocational
or career education curriculum which educates learners in modern jobs would cater
for other types of learners’ intelligences and would match learners better to the
developing economy of Namibia.
Thinking skills
Shortly after the mid-1980s a huge amount of books and materials start to appear on
thinking skills types and ways to develop it independently and across school
curricula. The thinking development movement influenced amongst other
dimensions of education, the lesson aims and plans, teaching strategies and
questioning techniques and resources to develop core / micro thinking skills, meta-
cognitive thinking skills such as planning and evaluation, critical thinking, logical
thinking, creative thinking and problem solving and decision making skills. The core
curriculum subjects did not change much due to the thinking skills movement, but the
developing of thinking abilities and attitudes across the curriculum subjects brought
many changes in the implementation of subjects in first world countries. Richard
Paul, A. Binker and D. Weil wrote several books about promoting critical thinking in
different grades of schooling (e.g. Kindergarten to grade 3, grade 6-9) which
provided theoretical and practical guidelines for educators (Paul, Binker and Weil,
1990). Many other prominent authors promoted the thinking skills movement, for
instance, Sternberg, Russel, Beyer, De Bono, Langrehr, Marzano and Arredondo,
Bellanca and Fogarty, Brandt, Ennis, Perkins, Swartz, Lipman, Baron, Fisher,
Anderson and many others. The thinking skills movement promoted smarter ‘how to
learn’ and ‘how to think’ skills. Such skills included the SQ3R study method, mind
maps for structuring knowledge, planning of projects, memory skills, deep learning
skills, problem solving and critical thinking skills. Efforts are still underway to export
the thinking skills development perspectives and programmes to all interested
countries and schools.
Employability skills
In the 1990s the competency-based movement stimulated research into
‘employability skills’ which should be promoted by schools. Such general employable
skills could be developed across the curriculum and include ‘organising and
analysing information; planning and organising activities, time and resources;
working with others, solving problems; using technology and having desirable
personal qualities and values. The ‘solving problems’ relate to the thinking skills
movement mentioned above. The thinking skills focus emphasised again that
mastering school subject content is not always the purpose on itself but also a
vehicle for developing affective and cognitive aims. After 2005 the focus on general
employable skills developed into specific job skills. (See the section ‘after 2000’).
Holistic wellness aims

Another important development during 1980-2000 is the formulating of a holistic set
of aims for education. This holistic wellness aims of schooling (advocated from about
2000 onwards) which demonstrate that education must develop the whole person,
because then schooling will develop social wellness, physical and emotional
wellness, occupational and intellectual wellness, and environmental and spiritual
wellness. To have a holistic set of wellness goals for education at last, is an
important curriculum development feature. The time to be allocated to the different
areas of wellness is open for interpretation at the different levels of education, but at
least all holistic features are identified in a manner to correlate with modern
philosophical and psychological views of human nature. The ‘social wellness’ is
typically promoted via ‘Social Studies’ as a subject but also via other subjects. The
social wellness includes sex and relationship education.
Emotional intelligence (EI)

A better understanding of human psychology has also led to the emphasis of
‘emotional intelligence’. Daniel Goleman introduced the concept of ‘emotional
intelligence’ in 1996 in his book ‘Emotional Intelligence: Why it can matter more than
IQ. Emotional intelligence (EI) can be defined as a learned ability to identify,
experience, understand and express human emotions in healthy and productive
ways. This implies that we must learn to be aware of our emotions; manage / control
our emotions like anger or fear; recognise and understand the impact of emotions in
others and maintain healthy relationships with others (Goleman, 1995:43-44). These
dimensions of emotional intelligence correlate with the ‘wellness areas’ and
‘leadership skills’. That is why development of emotional intelligence develops social
skills like inter- and intra personal skills, self-management skills, self esteem and
ethics / character. The emotional intelligence wave highlighted the importance of
emotions of both educators and learners in schools and how schools should develop
features of high emotional intelligence in learners such as deal with emotions, act
morally, assertively and respect others’ feelings. Working conditions of teachers can
de-motivate them which could lead to poor quality teaching. Similarly, if learners’
emotions are not positively managed their motivation to learn will be reduced and
poor quality learning is the result.
2.11.3 USA curriculum features between the years 1980-2000
The school reform trends in the USA between the years 1980-2000 provide more
features of curriculum issues being debated at the time, some issues were most
likely also debated elsewhere in the world. Therefore we must take note of these
USA curriculum features.
Due to pressure by the National Education Association the Carter administration
created the ‘U.S. Department of Education’ and after that, problems in education
drew more public attention. Newspapers reported declines in students’ scores on the
SAT (standardised test taken for college admission) and the National Science
Foundation also reported declining standards. To top off the national public
education performance picture, the economic competitors’ national scores in
subjects like reading, mathematics and science were higher than those of the USA
learners. In 1981 Terrel Bell commissioned a ‘National Commission on Excellence in
Education’ which produced a report ’A nation at risk: The imperative for education
reform’. The report painted a negative portrait of American education but made five
recommendations for attaining excellence in education. These recommendations
in 1983 were:
Table 2.3: Recommendations of the USA ‘nation at risk

report’ in 1983
Recommendations of the USA ‘nation at risk report’ in 1983

1. That five new basics be added to the curriculum of America’s schools.
These basics included (a) four years of English, (b) three years of
mathematics, (c) three years of science, (d) three years of social studies
and (e) half a year of computer science in high schools.
2. That more rigorous and measurable standards be adopted.
3. That the school year be extended in order to make more time for learning
the 5 ‘new basics’.
4. That the teaching be improved with enhanced preparation and
professionalization of teachers.
5. That accountability be added to education.
(School Reform - A nation at risk , 2013).
The ‘nation at risk report’ was followed by other critical reports and together they
created the impetus for two decades of American education reform to regain its
competitiveness among its economic rivals globally. High school graduation
requirements increased, more rigorous intellectual content was introduced and
thinking skills were emphasised due to the reform recommendations. However, the
reforms were undercut by the lack of enough well qualified teachers and many
students migrated to easier tracks, thus gaining little from the reform drive.
In September 1989 President George Bush convened governors, teachers, business

people, parents and elected officials in Virginia for an education summit to formulate
measurable goals for education reform. The convention released the ‘America 2000’
goals for improving ‘education for all’ early in 1990. The goals were:
Tabel 2.4: America 2000 goals for improving education
America 2000 goals for improving education

1. By the year 2000, all children will start school ready to learn (preschool
focus).
2. By the year 2000, the high school graduation rate will increase to at least 90
percent.
3. By the year 2000, all students will leave grades four, eight and twelve
having demonstrated competency about challenging subject matter,
including English, mathematics, science, foreign languages, civics and
government, economics, arts, history and geography. Every school in
America will ensure that all students learn to use their minds well, so they
may be prepared for responsible citizenship, further learning and productive
employment in the nation’s economy.
4. By the year 2000, the nation’s teaching force will have access to
programmes for the continued improvement of their professional skills and
the opportunity to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to instruct and
prepare all American students for the next century.
5. By the year 2000, U.S. students will be first in the world in mathematics and
science achievement.
6. By the year 2000, every adult American will be literate and will possess the
knowledge and skills necessary to compete in a global economy and
exercise the rights and responsibilities of citizenship.
By 1994 President Clinton signed the America 2000 goals into law, but by
then two new goals were added:
7. By the year 2000, every school in the U.S will be free of drugs, violence and
unauthorised presence of firearms and alcohol and will offer a disciplined
environment conducive to learning.
8. By the year 2000, every school will promote partnerships that will increase
parental involvement and participation in promoting the social, emotional
and academic growth of children.
(School Reform - A nation at risk, 2013: 6-7).
In order to implement the national goals and their related academic standards and
their assessment, a National Council on Education Standards and Testing (NCEST)
was established in 1991 and in 1994 another body was established, the National
Education Standards and Improvement Council (NESIC), which had the
responsibility to review and certify voluntary state and national education standards
that were being developed. Parents were allowed and financially supported to send
their children to any type of school they deem best, even to private schools. Some
parents prefer the ‘home schooling’ option where they educated their children at
home. Private schooling and home schooling are also features of the current
Namibian education context. Reflect on other similarities and differences of the
1980-2000 curriculum features of America versus Namibia.
2.12 Curriculum developments after 2000
The transport and communication technology shrinks the world to a global

community. It means also that countries are more aware of what happens elsewhere
in the world and thus learn from each others’ research, problems and practices. This
applies to the world of education as well, therefore some of the following curriculum
issues of American education reform after 2000 could be seen as the latest
characteristics of curriculum developments in the world.
Tabel 2.5: American and global education characteristics of

curriculum after 2000
American and global education characteristics of curriculum after 2000
1. Reflecting on a longer school day and or longer year.

2. After-school tutoring options by teachers as well as peers.
3. Different types of schools, e.g. charter school (a privately managed school
but financed by government) private schools, home schooling.
4. Smaller class sizes’ effect on quality education.
5. Improving teacher quality through initial and in-service training, provision of
teaching-learning materials, higher pay to attract better qualified
applicants, performance bonuses or merit pay, firing low performing
teachers.
6. The role of electronic learning devices, computer access and software,
online courses, and the Internet in schools.
7. Research to reduce drop-out rate of learners.
8. Research to reduce absenteeism.
9. The advantages and disadvantages of English-only versus bilingual
education.
10. The theory and practice of putting special education students in the
mainstream schools.
11. The correlation of curriculum content standards and textbooks.
12. Funding for schools and the ratio between financial input and national
quality performance output.
13. Adequacy of educational supplies for schools, as well as needed and
neglected infrastructure.
14. Addressing the rights of students.
(Adapted from Wikipedia, 2013:13-24).
Number 3 in the table above refers to ‘different types of schools’. Some secondary
schools in for example, the USA, Netherland, Finland, Korea and Norway offer
career or prevocational education curricula with a mix of job theory and practice and
academic subjects. The curricula in the different countries typically address modern
jobs in the technical sector (e.g. construction, metal, electrical), the agriculture sector
(including food technology), the economic sector (e.g. administration, catering,
fashion and clothing) and the care and welfare sector. In Finland for example, the
career curricula is aligned with post secondary vocational education and the
vocational secondary qualifications allow learners also to be admitted to
Polytechnics or Universities (Finnish National Board of Education, 2010). Unit seven
explores a career education curriculum for Namibia.
In the UK a different type of career education is followed. In both the primary and the
secondary curriculum two career-oriented subjects are incorporated: ‘Design and
technology’ and ‘Art and design’. The stated ‘Purpose’ and ‘Aims’ of the ‘Design and
technology’ subject are: (Purpose) “Design and Technology is an inspiring, rigorous
and practical subject. Using creativity and imagination, pupils design and make
products that solve real and relevant problems within a variety of contexts,
considering their own and others’ needs, wants and values. They acquire a broad
range of subject knowledge and draw on disciplines such as mathematics, science,
engineering, computing and art. Pupils learn how to take risks, becoming
resourceful, innovative, enterprising and capable citizens. Through the evaluation of
past and present design and technology, they develop a critical understanding of its
impact on daily life and the wider world. High-quality design and technology
education makes an essential contribution to the creativity, culture, wealth and well-
being of the nation’ (UK Department for Education, 2013:1).
“The national curriculum for ‘Design and technology’ aims to ensure that all pupils:
1. Develop the creative, technical and practical expertise needed to perform

everyday tasks confidently and to participate successfully in an increasingly
technological world;
2. Build and apply a repertoire of knowledge, understanding and skills in order to
design and make high-quality prototypes and products for a wide range of
users;
3. Critique, evaluate and test their ideas and products and the work of others;
4. Understand and apply the principles of nutrition and learn how to cook.”
(UK Department for Education, 2013:1).
It must be recognised that although different factors, policies and procedures are
addressed at different periods of time, the core of the matter is, there will always be
reflecting upon curriculum design and implementation issues with the purpose of
monitoring the attainment of quality education for all.
2.13 Curriculum development features in Namibia since 1990
In order to better understand the curriculum developments after the independence of

Namibia, it is helpful to have an image of the general and educational circumstances
in colonial Namibia before 1990.
2.13.1 General and education circumstances before independence of Namibia

in 1990
Education in pre-colonial Namibia was an integral part of everyday life rather than a
formal, specialist activity carried out in a particular venue like a school with a national
curriculum. All the adults in an ethnic community were involved in the education of
the young as knowledge, skills, values, and the understanding of roles were
transmitted by means of conversations, imitation, stories, games, songs, and ritual
ceremonies (Namibia - Constitutional Legal Foundations, 2014:1).
The first Europeans to disembark and explore Namibia were the Portuguese
navigators, Diogo Cao in 1485 and Bartolomeu Dias in 1486 but the territory was not
claimed by the Portuguese crown. Like most of Sub-Saharan Africa, Namibia was
only explored extensively by Europeans in the nineteenth century. Traders,
missionaries and settlers from Germany, Sweden and later South Africa were the
first explorers (Wikipedia, 2014:5).
In 1884 the Chancellor of the German Empire, Otto von Bismarck, held a convention
in Berlin where European powers divided Africa among themselves and the
‘Scramble for Africa’ began. Germany claim ‘South West Africa’ as a colony with a
vision of establishing prosperous tobacco and cattle farming. In 1886 the border
between Angola and South West Africa was negotiated between the German and
Portuguese nations and in July1890 the British government apportioned the Caprivi
Strip to the Germans but Walvis Bay was annexed to the Cape Province of British
South Africa. In the same year (1890) the first military fort was built in Windhoek
which served as the German head quarters under Curt von Francois. Because of the
German occupation the area became known as ‘German South-West Africa’ (SAHO,
2014:1-2; Wikipedia, 2014:6).
The missionaries taught some indigenous people gathered in small communities, to

read and write in order to establish Christian communities, otherwise there were no
formal schools available for anyone in Namibia. In 1909 the German authorities
introduced organized education for the white population, however, little changed for
the indigenous population who were restricted to particular territories or ‘reserves’ for
the different ethnic groups after the 1904-1907 war against the Germans (Namibia -
Constitutional Legal Foundations, 2014:1; Namcol, 2005:8).
When the First World War broke out in 1914, international relations changed and
Britain supported South Africa to attack the Germans in South-West Africa. After 3
months of war the Germans surrendered on the 9th of July 1915, bringing the 31
years of German rule of Namibia to an end. By 1920 it was agreed that South Africa
would administer Namibia under a class C Mandate from the League of Nations. A
class C mandate meant South Africa had full power of administration over South-
West Africa, but was required to “promote the interests, well-being and social
progress of the territory” (Welldon, Willemse, Du Plessis and Riffel, 2010:177). The
‘reserve system’ was however still in place and very little development was
undertaken by South Africa in these ethnic reserves (SAHO, 2014:3).
In 1921, under the South African mandate, education for whites in Namibia between
the ages of 7 and 17 became compulsory. The government until 1940 built only two
primary schools for Africans, both in the central region of the country. In the northern
part of Namibia, where the majority of the African population lived, no state schools
were built. After 1945 changes in educational policy were gradually introduced.
Putting "native education" on a sound basis was then seen as a key to positive
relationships between the races (Namibia - Constitutional Legal Foundations,
2014:1).
In 1944 the United Nations (UN) was formed and they started to put pressure on
South Africa to transfer the administration of Namibia to the United Nations. In 1948
the South African National Party of Malan won the election and Namibia became sort
of a fifth province of South Africa with some six seats for the white population of
Namibia in the Lower House and four seats in the Senate (SAHO, 2014:3-4). The
Administrator General in charge of Namibia had however the final power, also over
education issues.
In 1949 the Eiselen Commission was set up in South Africa. Its report in 1951 and
the Bantu Education Act of 1953 formed the basis of education both in South Africa
and later in Namibia, namely segregation of the education of the different ethnic
groups. In 1958 the Van Zyl Commission introduced the system of Christian National,
apartheid-based education into Namibia. Black education was to be expanded so
that by 1988, approximately 80 percent of black children would have a basic four-
year primary school education. However, only 20 percent were to go on to higher
primary level. Thus, only one secondary school would be provided for each ethnic
group. Eleven separate education authorities were set up in 1980, one for whites,
one for "coloureds," and nine for different African ethnic groups. German language
schools were also supported, with the German high school in Windhoek
administering the German Abitur school-leaving and university entrance
examinations (Namibia - Constitutional Legal Foundations, 2014:1-2).
In practice, most primary education was done in Afrikaans and not in the mother
tongue, due to the lack of suitable teachers and materials in the different mother
tongues. There were not nearly enough qualified indigenous teachers to support the
system of 11 separate education authorities and the Cape Province curriculum and
examinations were applied in Namibia. Four times more money was spent on white
education per head than on black education. The History textbooks did not reflect the
African perspectives or included relevant Namibian and Africa continent history. The
classroom practices were mostly teacher-centred and focused on rote learning rather
than logical and critical thinking. Poverty, large classes, and poorly qualified teachers
all contributed to the high dropout rate of indigenous learners (Namibia -
Constitutional Legal Foundations, 2014:1-2).
The Apartheid system laws caused more and more resistance in the Namibian
society and schools, especially after the 1976 apartheid uprisings in Soweto in South
Africa. By 1988 there were ten secondary ‘schools of resistance’ where English was
the medium of instruction and curricula of Botswana, Lesotho or Swaziland were
taught as well as History from an Afrocentric perspective. At the same time,
thousands of Namibians received their secondary education in schools in Cuba, East
Germany or other African countries, including the two SWAPO refugee camps
respectively in Zambia and Angola (Namibia - Constitutional Legal Foundations,
2014:1-3). In addition, SWAPO created syllabi for the future Namibia secondary
education in the secondary Technical School in Loudima, Congo (Alberts in
publication edited by Avenstrup,1997:90). In 1988 a settlement was signed among
South Africa, Western Powers, the UN and SWAPO and a Joint Commission
supervised the implementation of UN Resolution 435 until Namibia gained
independence in 1990.
2.13.2 Curriculum developments after 1990 till 2014
The Constitution of the Republic of Namibia introduces important changes in the

education system of Namibia. Article 20 of the Constitution (1990:12-13) stipulates
that:
(1) “All persons shall have the right to education.”
(2) “Primary education shall be compulsory and the State shall provide
reasonable facilities to render effective this right for every resident within
Namibia, by establishing and maintaining State schools at which primary
education will be provided free of charge.”
(3) “Children shall not be allowed to leave school until they have completed their
primary education or have attained the age of sixteen (16) years, whichever
is the sooner …”
(4) “All persons shall have the right, at their own expense, to establish and to
maintain private schools, or colleges or other institutions of tertiary
education”, provided that there are no restrictions imposed based on race or
colour.
When the SWAPO government took office in March 1990, the 11 separate ethnic
education departments were merged into one Ministry of Education, Culture
and Training. The plan was to replace as soon as possible the South African Cape
syllabus with the Cambridge Local International GCSE (General Certificate of
Secondary Education).
The newly instituted NIED (National Institute for Educational Development)

established decentralized curriculum subject groups for the junior secondary phase
and these interim syllabi were implemented already in 1991 to get the reform process
going. Clear curriculum development models and experts might have been lacking
but syllabi aimed to accommodate the needs and views of all Namibians. Several
overseas funded projects like the one of the Florida State University (FSU), the In-
service Training of Namibian Teachers (INSTANT), the Centre for Applied Social
Sciences (CASS), the Overseas Development Administration (ODA), the Teacher
Education Reform Project (TERP), Namibia Association of Norway (NAMAS) and
IBIS of Denmark provided also expertise for establishing foundations for a national
curriculum development process and product (Alberts in Avenstrup, 1997:90-92).
English became the medium of instruction and some areas that needed to be
addressed were the under qualified and lack of accountability of teachers; poor
discipline in schools; inadequate textbooks and classroom equipment, and a
shortage of schools, especially in rural areas.
To develop a national curriculum the following guidelines were accepted:
(a) a spiralling approach in syllabus development where different grade levels and
phases are progressively linked;
(b) a democratic curriculum development process via subject panels;
(c) a curriculum that would foster democracy, non-racism, non-sexism, and equality;
(d) a holistic understanding of the nation and the world;
(e) what happens in the classroom must be relevant for the Namibian society and
(f) the establishment of ministerial policies to regulate, support and sustain the
curriculum development process (Alberts in Avenstrup, 1997:94).
To implement the above guidelines, the Ministerial Examination Board approved in

1991 the structures for NIED, the establishing of curriculum panels and the creation
of a Curriculum Coordinating Committee in NIED as mediator between the
Examination Board and the subject panels. NIED also embarked on the development
of a Pilot Curriculum for Formal Senior Secondary which was released in May
1993 (Alberts in Avenstrup, 1997:95). This curriculum was an adaptation of the
‘Cambridge International Examinations Certificate’ for secondary learners, called the
“International General Certificate of Secondary Education” (IGCSE). Apart from this
standard certificate there was also a “Higher International General Certificate of
Secondary Education” (HIGCSE), which would allow learners university access in
many countries, including South Africa.
According to January (2006:16) the idea was right from the start that the IGCSE and
HIGCSE curriculum would be localized but the localization only gained momentum
in 2001 after the Presidential Commission on Education, Culture and Training Report
in 1999 which advocated the importance of the localization of the IGCSE and
HIGCSE. NIED, the DNEA (Directorate of National Examinations and Assessment of
Namibia) and the Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) authority agreed upon
criteria and procedures to achieve the localization. The localization started in August
2002 and was completed by 2005. Schools were provided with the new syllabi
and secondary teachers were trained by NIED during 2005 and 2006 to teach
and assess the new localized syllabi. Additional support to strengthen the
implementation of the new localized syllabi were the provision of textbooks to
teachers and selected schools; the provision of micro-science kits and the
development of course work manuals for those subjects requiring course work, e.g.
Agriculture, Home Economics and Fashion and Fabrics.
The Education Act 16 of 2001 repealed all the colonial education laws and provided
policies for the provision of an accessible, equitable, qualitative and democratic
national education service; for a National Advisory Council on Education; for regional
educational forums and offices; for a National Examination, Assessment and
Certification board; for the establishment and functioning of school boards; for the
establishment and administration of an Education Development Fund; for the
establishment and administration of state schools and hostels; for the registration and
functioning of private schools; for policies regarding learner admission, punishment
other learner related aspects; regarding the national school curriculum and
examinations; for the inspection of schools; about adult education and literacy
programmes; policies regarding pre-primary institutions and support for pre-primary
education; policies for the service and behaviour by teachers; policies regarding
dealing with general offences and their penalties (Government Gazette of the
Republic of Namibia, 2001).
In 1995 the first draft policy for ICT in Education in Namibia was developed. This
policy was revised in 2000 and again revised in 2004. This policy document indicates
ICT curriculum levels, technical standards for software and hardware, training for
teachers, principals and administrative staff, the use of ICT for management, partners
in the provision of ICT, and qualitative estimates of costs for particular aims and
strategies for both short (3 years) and the long term (5 years) (Republic of Namibia.
no date. ICT policy for education). According to the NIED web site, there are already
25 schools with web sites in Namibia.
The first language policy draft was created in 1991 and the language policy
document for 1992-1996, specifies that teaching from grade 1-3 will be in the mother
tongue while beyond grade 3 the teaching will be through the medium of English.
This way the main Namibian languages are developed while English as the national
language of instruction will be established too (Ministry of Education and
Culture,1993). In 2014 the language policy changed and required that teaching in the
mother tongue will be expanded to grade 4 and 5 as soon as possible after 2015.
A policy document to create awareness of HIV and AIDS at all levels of the
education system was also introduced in Namibia. The school curriculum covered
topics how to prevent getting HIV, how to deal with it when you have attracted the
disease and how to treat other people with this ailment. In addition, a national
gender policy was introduced to balance gender in education and training and to
outline the framework for the implementation, coordination and monitoring of gender
issues. The policy on learners with disability strives to ensure that learners and
adults with disabilities have access to education and are supported in various ways
in special or mainstream classes or institutions. By 2013 there were also learning
support materials available for teachers in Life Skills, the Pre-Primary phase,
HIV/AIDS and Inclusive Education. The subject teachers for Afrikaans founded a
professional body for Afrikaans teachers (PVATN) and since 2001 they have a
yearly, well attended conference where in-service training take place and teachers
receive training materials and can also buy commercial teaching support materials.
After independence a democratic atmosphere in schools are advocated and corporal
punishment were abolished (Mutorwa, 2004).
Unfortunately an automatic promotion policy was introduced from 1996. Learners

were permitted to repeat only once in each school phase, e.g. lower primary. That
meant however that learners pass from grade to grade without being held
accountable to reach a minimum level of understanding as a pass requirement.
There was a semi external examination at the end of grade 10 and grade 7 from
2000. Automatic promotion even took place from grade 11 to 12 (Mutorwa, 2004).
Although this automatic promotion policy was very ‘humane’ and the repetition rates
dropped in schools, the quality of education dropped also considerably. In the end
grade 12 learners sit on street corners looking for odd jobs, partly because
employers have no confidence in the quality of the grade 12 certificate. Another
negative effect of the automatic promotion, was that teachers lost much of their
authority to maintain classroom discipline, because learners did not have to perform
at all and still get promoted to the next grade. Fortunately, the automatic promotion
policy is under scrutiny and hopefully a new policy that promotes quality learning and
requiring higher pass percentages will be implemented shortly.
In 2004 a strategic planning document with the title of ‘Namibia Vision 2030’
appeared and the section on education and training listed the following targets to be
achieved by 2030:
Table 2.6: Namibia Vision 2030’ - education and training targets
1. The education system is unified and adequate education infrastructure is

provided in all regions.
2. Access to lifelong learning exists for all when and where they require it.
3. Access to senior secondary education exists for at least 80% of learners.
4. Access to tertiary and career-oriented education exists for at least 75% of
school leavers.
5. Higher education will purposefully provide for professional manpower needs
of Namibia.
6. A large number of multi-purpose learning centres provide education, training
and access to the Internet.
7. There is well-qualified teaching staff available for all levels of education.
8. A national curriculum focussing on science and technology equips learners
with competencies to continue with post-school education.
9. Basic education concentrates on literacy and numeracy.
10. Early childhood education is provided.
11. A national education system allows learners to accumulate learning
achievements via modular units of learning.
12. Schools and tertiary institutions are enhancing competences and
competencies / skills, including skills of good governance and ICT skills.
(Namibia Vision 2030, 2004:90-95).
In order to realise these targets very comprehensive ‘Education and Training

Sector Improvement Programme (ETSIP) documents were compiled. In addition to
the issues above (gender, ICT, HIV…), the development and funding of NAMCOL
received attention to provide for lifelong learning opportunities. Vocational training
centres were supported and the Namibia Training Authority (NTA) system was put in
place to advance vocational education and training. A vocational education and
training levy for major companies was activated in 2014. A major challenge of the
VET system is to get the teaching and assessment standards to acceptable quality
levels. Another focus area of the ETSIP programme was the development of early
childhood and pre-primary education. Policy documents for the registration of
such education institutions and pre-primary education facilities, materials and
teacher training are now in place. The features of the new revised national
curriculum will be displayed further on, but this is another important milestone
towards better education for all Namibians. Since independence in 1990 the tertiary
education field progressed enormously as the next paragraphs reveal.
The University of Namibia has currently (2014) a ‘Faculty of Agriculture and Natural
Resources’ (active in the campuses of Neudamm, Ogongo and Henties Bay); a
‘Faculty of Economics and Management Science’; a ‘Faculty of Education’ active on
the main campus in Windhoek and another four campuses across Namibia; a
’Faculty of Engineering and Information technology’ operating on the Ongwediva
Campus; a ‘Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences’; a ‘Faculty of Law’; a ‘Faculty
of Health Sciences with a School of Nursing and Public Health (on Windhoek and
Oshakati campus) and a School of Medicine for training doctors, pharmacists and in
future dentists; a ‘Faculty of Science’. There is also a Centre for External Studies
that offer some of the faculty programmes on distance education mode (UNAM
Prospectus, 2014). A few South African Universities also offer distance education
programmes in Namibia and some Namibian students study in South Africa and
elsewhere in the world.
The ‘Polytechnic of Namibia’ has now received the status of a ‘University of applied
Science and Technology’ and has the following Schools: a ‘School of Management
Sciences’; a ‘School of Economics and Finance’; a ‘Graduate School of Business’; a
‘School of Engineering’, including civil, electrical, mining and mechanical; a ‘School
of Health and Applied Sciences’; a ‘School of Human Sciences’ covering
communication and legal studies; a ‘School of Computing and Informatics’; Graduate
School of Accounting’ and a ‘School of Natural Resources and Spatial Sciences’
focussing on Architecture, Agriculture, Land Management, Hospitality and Tourism
and Nature Conservation (Polytechnic of Namibia Web site, 2014).
Growing private higher education institutions are ‘The Institute of Open Learning’,
‘The International University of Management’ and ‘Welwitchia University’. The
Institute of Open Learning’ offers via distance education a range of teacher
education qualifications; a certificate in management as well as bookkeeping; the
ICDL computer literacy course and a certificate in policing. The International
University of Management’ has the following faculties and schools: Within the
‘Faculty of Strategic Management and Business Administration’ there are the
schools of a ‘Business Administration’, of ‘Human Resources Management’, of
‘Finance Management’, and of ‘Marketing Management’. The ‘Faculty of Information
Technology and Systems Management has the schools of ‘Business Information
Systems’ and of ‘Digital Communication Technology’. There is also a ‘Faculty of
‘Small Business and Entrepreneurship development’ and one of ‘Tourism, Travel,
Hospitality and Events Management’. The final Faculty is the one of ‘Humanities,
HIV/AIDs and Sustainable Development’. The latest tertiary baby, only a few months
old, is the ‘Welwitschia University’ which is currently only offering nursing
qualifications.
Overall there seems to be a lot of overlapping of similar qualifications, but at least

Namibia is providing in a lot of its human resources development on campuses
across Namibia. How excellent the quality of our tertiary education is, is a different
question and not within the scope of this book. The National Qualification
Framework, the National Qualification Authority (Act 29 of 1996) and the Higher
Education Council were established to regulate the standards of higher education.
With regards to teacher education, the National Professional Standards for Teachers
in Namibia was finalised in 2006 to guide all teacher qualifications in 30 competency
areas.
In order to get some overall perspectives on the development in education in

Namibia since independence, the following figures (the latest available statistics)
according to Education Management Information System (Emis, 2012), outline the
state of some affairs of the national school education system:
Table 2.7: Namibia 2012 education statistics

Number of Types of Total schools State schools Private
schools schools schools
Primary 1018 956 62
Combined 498 453 45
Secondary 196 184 12
Other 11 11 0
1,723 1,604 119
It would be interesting to observe the amount of schools per region, but the purpose
of the statistics is to note the growth and stage of development from 1990 till 2014.
Number of Types of Total learners State learnersPrivate

learners learners learners
Pre-Primary 17,572 14,452 3,120
Primary 415,454 390,866 24,588
Secondary 182,945 173,469 9,476
Other 1,856 1,701 155
617,827 580,488 37,339
These numbers demonstrate the accessibility to education as well as the wonderful
progress in the area of learners attending school.
Teacher Types of Total of Without With

qualifications qualifications teachers teacher teacher
training training
Less than 724 226 498
grade 12
Grade 12 or 1- 3,365 863 2 502
2 years tertiary
More than 2 20,571 119 20,459
yrs tertiary
24,660 1,208 23,452
As is the case with all the statistics above, it must be remembered that the facts are
from 2012. Nevertheless, the amount of teachers with a more than 2 years
qualification appears to be a positive state of affairs. The reality is however that for
more than 15 years since 1997 the four Colleges of Education delivered many of
those teachers with a three year Diploma while the subject content levels, teaching
staff and quality of the evaluation system were not on par. Based on the Crebbin, et
al report (2008) the Colleges of Education are now part of the UNAM Faculty of
Education and the quality of the qualifications and teaching has improved since
2013. Obviously, the role of UNAM and other external universities which also trained
teachers with level 8 degrees, offering specialisation in several areas must be
acknowledged. UNAM has also offered for many years a Mastep upgrading
qualification for Mathematics and Science teachers. The government is currently
also expecting some 800 teachers with unacceptable low qualifications to upgrade
their qualifications or leave the teaching profession. The introduction of a sound
performance appraisal system as well as a national school auditing system will really
promote better teaching and management in schools.
Learners per teacher Average teacher-learner ratio is 25.7
It is not clear whether this is the average teacher-learner ratio for a combined
primary and secondary situation. The ratio 25.7 appears very favourable on paper,
but the Namibian classroom reality rarely agrees with 26 learners in a classroom. In
fact the average class size for the pre-primary phase is 22.5 learners, for the primary
phase it is 29.5 and for the secondary phase it is 31.5 learners per class (Emis,
2012:30).
Percentage female Primary phase Secondary phase

learners in school 49.1% females 52.9% females
phases
Most of the 13 regions in Namibia have a good balance of about 50% between male
and female learners in the primary and secondary phases. These percentages of
female learners in Namibian schools are excellent compared to other Sub-Saharan
countries where girls are 50% less than boys. The higher percentage of females in
the secondary phase is due to school leaving by boys at the end of grade 7. After
grade 10 however, more girls than boys leave school (Emis, 2012:28).
Number of classrooms Permanent 18 800

Pre-fabricated 1 132
Traditional 1 303
Hired 139
Total 21 374
The number of classrooms appears to be a lot and represent huge progress since
independence, but there is still a considerable need for more classrooms. It is also
not clear what counts as a ‘traditional’ classroom, but the suspicion is that it is under
a tree. There are still schools without electricity, water and sanitation facilities. This is
not acceptable for 24 years after independence. It is also known that some schools
carry a double shift, which underlines the need for more classrooms.
Schools with electricity No electricity Have electricity

(% with electricity = 63.8) 623 1100
Schools with telephones No telephone Have telephone
(% with telephones = 56.4) 752 971
It is especially the schools in the northern regions (Kavango, Caprivi, Kavango and
Ohangwena) where electricity and telephone provision are lower than 50%. Clearly
that places huge constraints on quality teaching and learning in such schools and
these needs must be addressed urgently (Emis, 2012:91).
Schools with sanitary Toilets for learners Toilets for teachers

facilities
77.9% of schools 76.4% of schools
100% Percent of schools in the Hardap, Karas and Khomas regions have toilets for
both learners and teachers. It is again the schools in the northern regions (Kavango,
Caprivi, Kavango and Ohangwena) where toilet facilities are lacking in some
schools.
Schools with water

supply Caprivi region 76.5% Ohangwena 68.7%
Kavango 53.6% Oshikoto 85.5%
Hardap, Karas 100% Khomas, Omaheke 100%
‘A substantial number of schools only get their water supply from the nearby
communities’ (Emis, 2012:92) which means the water provision challenge is bigger
than the numbers would suggest. Perhaps parents, teachers and school boards
should take up their needs with regional directors and push hard to get their needs
met.
Apart from the above statistics which reflect the state of development in education,
one should also take note of the type of content that our curriculum incorporates.
The latest (as in 2014) national school curriculum has the following features
(NIED, 2011):
The 2014 Junior Primary phase (pre-primary and grades 1-3)
Previous time allocation p w 2014 Time allocation p w

First Language 10 First Language 10
Second Language 5 Second Language 6
Mathematics 8 Mathematics 8
Environmental Studies 3 Environmental Studies 3
Religious and Moral Education 2 Religious and Moral Education 2
Arts (music, dance, drama, visual ) 2 Arts (music, dance, drama, visual ) 2
Physical Education 2 Physical Education 2
Reading period 1
7 subjects. Total periods p w 32 7 subjects. Total periods p w 34

21 hrs 20 min 22 hrs 40 min
(NIED, 2011:6)
The 2014 Senior Primary phase (grades 4-6)

English 7 English 7
Another Language 6 Mother Tongue /Another Language 6
Natural Science and Health Educ 5 Natural Science and Health Educ 5
Social Studies 5 Social Studies 5
One of: Design and Technology One of: Craft and Technology
Home Ecology 3 Elementary agriculture 3
Elementary agriculture (Entrepreneurial skills are integrated in
each of these)
Life Skills 1 Life Skills 2
Arts (music, dance, drama, visual) 2 Arts (music, dance, drama, visual) 2
ICT literacy 1 Reading period 1
Information and Communication
Basic Information Science 1 (integrate ICT literacy and Basic 2
Information Science)
Physical Education 1
12 subjects Total periods p w 40 10 subjects Total periods p w 41

The new 2014 Junior Secondary phase curriculum for an academic stream
The new curriculum provides learners with the opportunity to explore a wider range
of subjects to enable them to make informed subject choices for future career
opportunities. The former 9 compulsory subjects will be reduced to 7, comprising 5
compulsory promotional (core) subjects and 2 optional promotional subjects. All
subjects have equal time allocation (7 x 5 periods) and all periods are 40 minutes
each.
The 2014 Junior Secondary phase (grades 7-9)
2 Optional promotional subjects from last 5 columns (2 x 5 periods)

Compulsory Career- Career-
promotional Language Sciences oriented oriented Arts
subjects (core) s subjects: subjects:
(5 x 5 periods) Technology Commerce
- English - Any - Agriculture -Computer -Accounting -Visual Art
- Another first, Studies
Language second -Life -Keyboard and -Integrated
- Mathematics or foreign Science -Design and Word Performing
or Additional language Technology Processing Arts
Mathematics -Physical
One of: Science -Entrepreneur-
-Natural ship
Science -Geography
-Physical
Science -History
-Life Science
One of:
-Social Studies
-Geography
-History
Compulsory support subjects: * Arts (1 period)

* Life Orientation (3 periods)
* Information and Communication Technology
(3 periods)
* Reading period (1 period)
Total number of periods 43 (28 hours and 40 minutes)
Note: 1. Geography and History cannot be taken with Social Science.

2. Agriculture, Life Science and Physical Science cannot be taken with
Natural Science.
*Take note that Unit 7 will discuss the secondary curriculum, while here it is
presented for taking note of the current curriculum affairs, 24 years after
independence.
Junior secondary curriculum for a career-oriented stream: (grades 7-9)
Select 4 optional promotional subjects from the last 3

columns, (take at least one subject from each group)
4 x 5 periods = 20 periods
3 Compulsory
promotional Sciences Career-oriented Career-oriented
subjects subjects: subjects:
(3 x 5 periods Technology Commerce
each per week
=15 ppw
- English - Agriculture - Computer Studies - Accounting
- Another - Natural Science - Design and - Keyboard and
Language (first, - Life Science Technology Word Processing
2nd or foreign) - Physical Science - Technical Drawings - Entrepreneurship
- Mathematics or - Social Studies - Building Construction
Additional - Geography (including Bricklaying,
Mathematics - History Plastering, Tiling
Painting, Carpentry,
Plumbing and Pipe
fitting)
- Electricity /
Electronics
(including Basic
Electricity/ Electronics,
Air Conditioning)
-Automotive (including
petrol and diesel, Auto
Mechanics,
Automotive Electricity)
- Engineering
(including Fitting and
Turning, Metalwork
and Welding)
- Hospitality, Tourism
and Tour Guiding
- Hairdressing
- Home economics
- Fashion and Fabrics
- Childcare

(8 periods in total) * Life Orientation (3 periods)
* Information and Communication
Technology (3 periods)
* Reading (1 period)
Note: 1. The 4 optional promotional subjects have each 5 periods per week, 20
periods in total.
2. Technical Drawings cannot be taken with Design and Technology.
3. Technical Drawing Skills are integrated in each of the subjects under the
headings of ‘Building Construction, Electricity / Electronics, Automotive,
and Engineering’.
4. The personal selection of their 7 promotional subjects should promote
interest in subjects and the same junior secondary subjects could be
taken in the senior secondary phase which enhances deeper
understanding in selected areas of career interest.
5. This new curriculum will be offered according to a 5- day week time table,
which reduces the complicated administration of the 7-day week time
table.
The new 2014 Senior Secondary curriculum (grade 10-11)

Until recently, junior secondary learners followed a very broad curriculum until the
end of grade 9 and then select their subjects of choice for grade 10-12. A national
external examination was written at the end of grade 10 and another one at the end
of grade 12 which could be on NSSC Ordinary or Higher level. The new secondary
curriculum allows learners to select their subjects already in the junior secondary
phase and write an external examination at the end of grade 11 on a NSSC Ordinary
level. Learners who intend to pursue further education could complete at least 4
subjects in grade 12 on a Higher level (NSSCH) to meet university admission
requirements.
The 2014 grade 10-11 senior secondary curriculum is as follows:
3 Promotional core subjects

- English First or Second Language
- Another Language (First , Second or Foreign)
- Mathematics or Additional Mathematics
2 Support Subjects
- Life Orientation
- Information and Communication
3 Promotional elective subjects

 One of 13 Namibian  Physical Science  Office Administration and
languages  Chemistry Key boarding*
 Accounting  Physics  Hospitality and Tourism
 Agriculture*  Design and Technology  Tour Guiding
 Art and Design  Technical Drawings **  Hairdressing
 Biology  Bricklaying, Plastering,  Home Economics*
 Business Studies Tiling  Fashion and Fabrics
 Computer Studies  Plumbing and Pipe fitting  Childcare
 Development Studies*  Electricity / Electronics
 Economics
 Air Conditioning
 Geography
 Fitting and Turning
 History
 Metalwork & Welding
 Mathematics
 Motor / Auto Mechanics
 Carpentry
Note: 1. Learners who opt for a one-language stream, must take English,
Mathematics and 4 promotional electives instead of the normal 3 electives.
2. The list of promotional electives makes provision for career-oriented
streams in senior secondary (grade 10-11) as well.
3. * Subjects are available on NSSC only and future decisions must determine
which career-oriented subjects might be available on both levels.
4. ** Subjects cannot be taken with Design and Technology.
5. All languages will be offered at Higher level, except for Namibian Sign
language.
6. Learners that continue with grade 12 must take at least 4 of the subjects
they passed in grade 11 on a Higher level to qualify for international tertiary
admission.
7. Learners who want to take Mathematics on a Higher level in grade 12 need
to take Additional Mathematics in grade 10 and 11.
8. Initially, one school per region with hostel facilities will promote career
stream subjects.
9. The grading structure and pass requirements need to be raised in the new
curriculum if Namibia is striving for better quality education.
10. Learners with severe special educational needs will be accommodated in
current Special Schools which will be transformed into Resource Schools.
Learners with special needs that can be accommodated in mainstream
classrooms will be supported in such classrooms.
In conclusion, education in Namibia has developed strongly on all levels since

independence. Many facilities, policies and structures have been put in place but as
the statistics show some basic facilities must be addressed urgently. The new
national school curriculum looks promising and the focus on career-oriented
education is an excellent step forward to reduce unemployment and thus poverty.
(See Unit 7 for a detailed discussion on career education ideas). Further
developments that could contribute to better quality education in Namibia are
the following:
Tabel 2.8: Developments to improve quality education in

Namibia
1. Additions of classrooms to secondary schools for career-oriented courses

2. Proper selection of teachers and higher admission marks required;
3. In-service training of teachers by an independent institution, linked to a
teacher licensing system and performance appraisal system;
4. Disciplinary actions against teachers and principals who do not perform as
required;
5. National school audits and rewards for excellent schools, e.g. bonuses for all
staff and provision of necessary resources;
6. Across curriculum development of study and thinking skills from pre-primary
to grade 12.
7. Salary structures for teachers according to management responsibilities,
(HOD’s, principals) teaching support responsibilities (sport, culture, life skills,
inclusive) and master teacher responsibilities (mentor in teaching and
assessment) as 3 possible career paths.
8. Financial support to schools for their teachers/ principals who attend yearly
Namibian Teacher Conferences.
2.14 Discuss the curriculum development contribution of selected

individuals such as John Dewey, Franklin Bobbitt, Ralph
Tyler, Allen Ornstein, et al. and William Spady
2.14.1 John Dewey (1859-1952)
In his own laboratory school at the University of Chicago, John Dewey introduced
manual training, shop work, sewing and cooking because he wanted school to take
on the character of community life. Younger children role played actual occupations,
while older children imitated primitive life situations of earlier times and places.
Children were to relate their activities to the consequences thereof. Still older
children reflected on the meaning of social forces and processes found in
occupations and had to discover means of solving problems. Dewey disagreed with
the Herbartian way of teaching morality formally and believed that children would
discover morals when noting relationships between means and ends in social
situations or when asked to judge presented real moral situations. Dewey thus
believed that morals should be developed via the method of social intelligence where
deciding on what is right is done by experiencing the situation. Dewey thought more
in terms of the child’s discovery and evaluation of knowledge than mere acquisition
of it. In contrast to the Herbartian views that there was a body of knowledge which
could be made interesting to learners, Dewey argued that subject matter must serve
the purposes of learners to be interesting. Therefore, learners must participate in
formulating the purposes of education which were the basis for selecting subject
matter (McNeil, 1990:376-377). Dewey’s educational theories were presented in ‘My
pedagogic creed’, ‘The school and society’, ‘The child and curriculum’ and
‘Democracy and education’ (Wikipedia, 2013:8).
Dewey’s schooling perspectives provide the background to understand his

curriculum ideas. The social, political, scientific and technological context of the first
half of the twentieth century influenced the education philosophy of Dewey. He
rejected Spencer’s emphasis on individual competition in favour of group learning.
The curriculum content for different ages must align with children’s experiences.
Learning materials must introduce new objects and events that would stimulate new
ways to observe and judge. Objectives and learning activities must logically
correlate. The overall purpose of a curriculum is not to acquire subject matter, rather
subject matter is the vehicle to develop understanding, intellect and abilities to reflect
and solve problems. The curriculum must not only educate learners to cope in
society after school but to be able to change society for the better (McNeil,
1990:379).
The teacher must apply the steps of the scientific problem solving method to lessons
in order to promote understanding and problem solving of real life problems.
Lessons, according to Dewey’s scientific method, should display the following
features:
1. The learner experiences or encounters a problem that interests him/ her.

2. The learner defines the problem.
3. By reflecting on prior experiences, by reading, research or discussions the
learner acquires information to solve the problem.
4. The learner constructs possible solutions that might solve the problem.
5. The learner chooses the best solution and tests it, thus validating his own
knowledge. (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and Vocke, 2008:106).
Dewey’s curriculum consists of three levels of learning activities: The first level of
‘making and doing’ engages children in project activities that develop sensory and
motor skills and socialising via group activities. The second level of project activities
broadens students’ concepts of space and time through history and geography. The
third level activities involve students in science subjects such as biology, chemistry,
and social studies that they can use in problem solving as described above.
How would you summarise and critique Dewey’s contribution to education? Dewey’s
impact on education can be seen in his ideas about social reform via education; that
learners should learn by doing / experiencing and that learners should develop
problem solving skills; and that teachers should use group activities, collaborative
learning and process-centred teaching activities. (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and
Vocke, 2008:105-108).
In order to evaluate the didactic theories of Dewey, a brief summary of his views on
particular didactic issues is necessary. Archambault’s book on John Dewey (1964)
combines Dewey’s views from different books written by or written on Dewey and
laborates on the following topics:
Dewey’s aims of
education
Dewey’s perspective
Dewey’s image of
on the role of the
the learner
teacher
Dewey’s view of Dewey’s image of

teaching methods the school
Dewey’s image of
the curriculum
Clarifications of the topics in the diagram above:
Dewey’s aims of education

 Education must bring about social change.
 It must develop creativity and other thinking skills of learners.
 It must develop social acceptable attitudes such as open mindedness and
responsibility.
 It must develop knowledge and skills applicable for employment.
 It must develop moral values.
 The aim of education is determined by the nature of reality in a particular
context, e.g. social characteristics and employment needs.
Dewey’s image of the learner

 The nature of the learner involves freedom to develop naturally, has
reasoning abilities and wants to be actively involved in learning.
 He is curious with a will power.
 He requires knowledge and skills to survive in society.
 The learner must participate in setting the aims of education.
 Each learner is unique and must be handled as such.
 The needs of learners must be positively guided.
Dewey’s image of the school

 The school must provide a balanced atmosphere which stimulates growth.
 It must not only prepare learners to cope in society but to be able to create
social change in society.
 The school must be democratically managed as a mini society which
prepares learners for the real society.
 The school atmosphere must promote positive attitudes towards others and
combat hate and judgement of others.
 Since learning experiences built upon each other the school must link up
with experiences outside school, e.g. with home and society experiences.
 Because reality and school are intertwined, school content must relate to
science and technology in reality.
 Open dialogues are important for learning, thinking and moral growth.
 The school must take the abilities and developmental need of learners as
point of departure for promoting effective learning.
Dewey’s image of the curriculum

 The organisation of the curriculum in subjects is ineffective. Knowledge
should rather be organised according to specific real life problems.
 Subjects like Geography, Biology, Science, History and Art are important.
 Because learners are unique the curriculum should provide for
differentiation.
 The teaching of science subjects should promote thinking skills and not
merely serve as the accumulation of facts.
 The curriculum should include the visual and emotional experiencing of
knowledge instead of only dealing with abstract information.
 The curriculum content must be relevant for the learner’s prior knowledge,
interests, life experiences and phase of development needs to have
motivational value.
 The curriculum content must develop insight of both knowledge areas and
the nature of society.
 Examinations limit the actualisation of the learner.
Dewey’s view of teaching methods

 Teaching methods involves the structuring of learning content and are thus
crucial for quality learning.
 Learners learn best via the project method as ‘self-directed learning' and
‘learning by doing’ which incorporates experiments and involve many of the
senses.
 Experiments and methods which demonstrate the cause-consequence
relationships among aspects are important for developing wisdom and
thinking skills.
 Dewey emphasises the relationship between aims and teaching methods as
well as between teaching methods and quality education.
 Methods based on working in groups are better for promoting understanding
and self-image than methods based on competition.
 Strict discipline influences teaching methods and learning negatively, because
it hampers the free will and natural learning activities of learners.
 Teaching methods must accommodate different individual learning methods
to provide fair opportunities for all to be actively involved in learning.
Dewey’s perspective on the role of the teacher

 The teacher should be a facilitator of learning, not an instructor.
 He has no authority over learners’ learning of moral behaviour, but he has
the responsibility to propose lines of activity, provide materials and ask
questions.
 He /she should not use the textbook as the only source for learning.
 He /she should create an atmosphere that stimulate and directs learning.
 The personality of the teacher is influencing the motivation of learners.
 The teacher should focus on developing abilities of learners via subject
knowledge rather than focusing on teaching the content as such.
 During teaching the teacher must observe the attitudes and reactions of
learners.
 Dewey maintains that teachers should prepare properly for their daily
teaching.
Critique against the views of Dewey
This topic provides an opportunity to learn how to evaluate the contribution of any
person in the field of education, not just to evaluate the contribution of Dewey. You
need therefore to focus on the thinking process of evaluating and criticising the ideas
of someone. Keep in mind that the verb ‘evaluate’ requires the cognitive functions of
‘determining the value / worth of something according to a set of criteria’, while the
thinking required to ‘criticise’ involves the ‘careful weighing of facts and ideas,
reasoning about the positive and negative points and drawing a conclusion’.
In order to evaluate the worth of the educational ideas of Dewey, the evaluation
process involves two areas of investigation, namely the immanent and the
transcendental area with their sets of logical and regulative criteria respectively
(Strauss, in Strauss, et al., 1978a:1-10): The following paragraphs clarify the
immanent area and its set of logical criteria as well as the transcendental area with
its regulative criteria.
Diagram no 4: Two areas of criticising someone’s ideas
• It involves evaluation of ideas according to 4

principles of logic:
Immanent • 4 principles of logic are: inconsequent use of
meanings of a concept; opposing logic; circle
criticism reasoning; insufficient evidence for
statements
• Evaluation of regulative ideas regarding: the
Transcendental origin of things; the purpose of things; the
relationship among things and
criticism • The ground motive or central belief
underpinning someone's ideas
Clarifications of the above two types of criticism
Immanent criticism
Immanent criticism is the first type of criticism that one could perform. The term
‘immanent’ means ‘internal, inherent’ and therefore it involves an evaluation about
the internal logic of an argument or statement. According to Strauss (in Strauss, et
al., 1978a:1-10) this type of criticism involves the evaluation of ideas according to 4
principles of logic, namely: the inconsequent use of meanings of a concept; opposing
logic; circle reasoning and insufficient evidence for statements.
A writer or speaker breaks the first principle of logic, for example, if he or she
maintains at one place that the overall purpose of education is ‘to change society’
and at another place say the purpose of education is ‘to assist the learner to develop
their interests freely’. The meaning / identity of the concept ‘education’ differs then in
meaning, which is an ‘inconsequent use of the meaning of the concept ‘education’. In
simple terms, a person cannot have two different definitions for the same concept.
The second logic principle of ‘opposing logic’ means that two opposing features of an
object can not be simultaneously present, for instance one ball can not be
simultaneously totally black and red, it can only be totally black or red. This
‘opposing logic’ principle does not yet deliver us the truth. It merely states that one of
two ideas / things can be present or possible but does not state which one is the
truth. (Strauss, et al., 1978a:3-4). Can you think of an example where the use of
different definitions for a concept could lead to opposing logic?
The third principle of logic, indicated as ‘circle reasoning’, implies that the start and
the end of the reasoning links up to form a ‘circle’ which is the opposite of ‘thinking
straight’ as proper logical thinking. Strauss, et al., (1978a:2) gives an example of
‘circle reasoning’ by the philosopher Descarte who ‘proves’ that God exists (=end of
reasoning) by accepting in the first place that God exists ( =beginning of reasoning).
The last principle of logic is ‘insufficient evidence for statements’. If the reasoning is
logical there must be acceptable scientific proof for claims, otherwise with insufficient
evidence the claim can not be accepted as logical or the truth. Modern computer
technology enables us to discover facts in many areas of life which often change
former ‘insufficient statements’ to ‘proven facts’ that carry sufficient evidence in
logical reasoning.
Transcendental criticism
This second type of criticism follows on immanent criticism and involves the
evaluation of regulative ideas regarding: (a) the origin of things; (b) the purpose of
things; (c) the relationship among things and the (d) ground motive or central belief
underpinning someone's ideas. The transcendental criticism regarding the (a) origin
of things includes views on ‘how can we know’, ‘what counts as reality’, ‘what is the
nature of humans’, and what is ‘right and wrong’. Answers to these questions will
influence your view of the overall goals of education, what content of reality is
important and what values guide our thinking on right and wrong perspectives and
behaviour. The transcendental criticism regarding the (b) purpose of education
includes views on the overall goal and aims of education and thus the goals of
schooling and what learning outcomes or aims teachers should strive to promote in
class and the school. The transcendental criticism regarding the (c) relationships in
education will cover views, for example, the relationship between the curriculum
goals and curriculum content, between the aims and the teaching-learning methods,
the relationship between the role of the teacher and the role of the learner and the
relationship between management of instruction and effective learning.
Although the principles of logic underpin the nature of scientific knowledge, the
philosopher Dooyeweerd maintains that such scientific knowledge can not be
independent from regulative ideas regarding the origin of things; the purpose of
things; the relationship among things and the ground motive/ central belief
underpinning someone's ideas, because the application of the principles of logic will
inevitably lead to thinking about the transcendental regulative questions above of
origin, purpose and relationships. These three transcendental questions are in turn
influenced by one’s (d) ground motive / central belief underpinning one’s ideas. Your
central belief is a subjective, super-natural belief and as such is more of
spiritual / religious nature than of cognitive or logic nature (Strauss, et al.,
1978a:5-6). Some of the main Western central beliefs are based on (i) the laws of
the natural world; (ii) beliefs in all kinds of cultural gods; (iii) the belief in the God of
the Bible with Jesus as creator, his cross death and resurrection and forgiver of sins
of those who accept him and obey his will; and the (iv) humanistic central belief
which elevate humans to a self governing god (creating its own laws), with its
intellect and its product of scientific knowledge.
Now that the details of Dewey’s views and the two forms of criticism are clarified, it is
possible to apply the immanent and transcendental forms of criticism to Dewey’s
ideas. This one example of evaluating the ideas of others demonstrates how you
could exercise criticism in future regarding any person’s ideas in the field of
education but also in any other field.
Immanent criticism against the ideas of Dewey
Visit the previous section on the ideas of Dewey as stated by Archambault (1964) to
understand the immanent criticism below which apply the four principles of logic to
the ideas of Dewey:
(1) Dewey allocate different meanings to the term ‘education’, namely ‘growth’
and ‘socialisation’ and in doing so, he transgresses two of the principles of
logic: he uses two meanings for the same concept which leads to opposing
or contradictory logic.
(2) He contradicts himself on the role of the teacher and the learner in the
education process. On the one hand he claims that the learner has the
freedom to develop naturally and the teacher’s role is therefore to facilitate
the growth of the learner. At the same time, the teacher powerful influence of
the teacher is recognized as the teacher selects content, stimulates
experiences and is seen as a key person in moulding the ideal humanistic
society.
(3) Dewey maintains conflicting views about the role of the school: on the one
hand the school is a vehicle of socialization of the learner and on the other
hand it is society that determines the purpose of schooling. It is therefore
‘circle reasoning’.
(4) Dewey has also a conflicting view about the relationship between the indivi-
dual learner and society. He emphasizes the freedom of the individual learner
to participate in setting educational aims and should make his own moral
decisions, yet the individual must sacrifice some of his freedom of will to
become the ideal social being which does not hate or judge others.
(5) Dewey views the nature of a child only in a positive light: the child will be cur-
ious; will be motivated to learn diligently without examinations requiring that;
will behave in a disciplined fashion and will make the best moral decisions on
his own. Parents and teachers would disagree with this positive view of the
nature of a child. Dewey’s view of the nature of a child is thus a statement
or argument that has ‘insufficient evidence’ in terms of the last principle of
logic. His view is simply not true and education cannot operate on that view.
(6) Related to the above contradictory views of Dewey is the fact that he does not
recognize the spiritual-dimension of humans like he recognizes the social,
logical, natural and physical dimensions of our existence. This perspective is
typical of the humanistic view of human nature which perceives the will and
the intellect as our tools that give us power and freedom to rule over nature
via our scientific knowledge, without being accountable to any higher set of
values or higher power. We are our own gods and have the ultimate decision
making power. This humanistic belief ignores modern sufficient evidence
about the existence of a spiritual dimension of human nature as well as a
spiritual realm and the importance of being morally accountable for our
decisions and behaviour. The humanistic view is simply not true and
education cannot operate efficiently and effectively on that view.
(Adapted from Schoeman in Strauss, et al., 1978b:22-36).
Provide immanent criticism on the ideas of John Dewey.

___________________________________________________________________
First you have to understand the four principles of logic that is involved in
immanent criticism. Apply the 4 principles to his ideas, using the text above to
guide you.
Transcendental criticism against the ideas of Dewey
A few paragraphs back under the section of ‘Transcendental criticism’ it was clarified
what this type of criticism entails. Let us recap in a different format the nature of this
criticism, if applied to education:
A. Regulative ideas with regards to the origin of things, includes

1. Views on how can we know and the nature of knowledge (Epistemology)
2. Views on what counts as reality (Ontology)
3. Views on what is the nature of humans (Anthropology)
4. Views on what is right and wrong (Ethics)
B. Regulative ideas with regards to the purpose / meaning of things, includes

1. Views on the overall purposes of education
2. Views on the aims and objectives (nowadays exit outcomes and learning
outcomes) of schooling
3. Views on what learning outcomes / objectives teachers should strive to
promote in class
C. Regulative ideas with regards to the relationship among things, includes

1. Views on the relationship between the curriculum goals and curriculum
content
2. Views on the correlation between the aims and the teaching-learning metods
3. Views on the relationship between the role of the teacher and the role of the
learner
4. Views on the relationship between management of instruction and effective
learning.
D. Ground motive or central belief underpinning one's ideas, includes

1. A subjective, super-natural belief in the laws of the natural world, or
2. A subjective, super-natural belief in all kinds of cultural gods, or
3. A subjective, super-natural belief in the God of the Bible with Jesus as
creator, his cross death and resurrection and forgiver of sins of those who
accept him and obey his will, or
4. A subjective, humanistic central belief which elevate humans to a self
governing god (creating its own laws), with its intellect and its product of
scientific knowledge.
Now let us apply these criteria to the education ideas of Dewey.
A. Regulative ideas with regards to the origin of things, includes

1. Views on how can we know and the nature of knowledge (Epistemology)
Dewey is a pragmatist and maintains that ‘learning by doing’ is the best

way to learn. It is true that ‘learning by doing’ is one way of effective
learning, because it incorporates experiments and projects, but learning
through experience is not the only effective way of learning. In addition, the
problem wit the pragmatist view is that it maintains that knowledge has no
intrinsic value in itself but its value lies in the practical, utility value of
knowledge. This pragmatist epistemological view is not acceptable in
modern times as we understand that the intrinsic value of knowledge is
real and very important because knowledge includes principles, insight,
aesthetics, logic, ethics and spiritual values. The empirical reality around
us is not the only reality and the supernatural reality offers deeper truths
than the empirical one.
2. Views on what counts as reality (Ontology)
Dewey accepts that the nature of reality in a particular context should

mainly determine the aims of education in that context. Surely, it is sen-
sible that Dewey proposes that the school curriculum content must relate
to the science and technology as well as the social reality of the time and
the geographical area. It is a different matter however if a pragmatist and
empirist ontological view of the world is accepted which perceives our
experiential reality as ever changing and as the only reality. The existence
of a supernatural world is thus denied and that belief is based on
‘insufficient
evidence’ in terms of our principles of logic. Modern education aims and
content must recognize the existence of both the physical and supernatural
realities and curriculum content should balance generic and particular
needs of different contexts.
3. Views on what the nature of humans is (Anthropology)
Dewey’s view of the child (see his ‘image of learner’ above) reflects his
view of human nature. He emphasizes the freedom to develop naturally,
the thinking abilities and the will power of humans/learners. It is correct
that humans are continuously developing beings, that they have a natu-
ral curiosity which guides their growth and that our knowledge and think
ing abilities are important tools to direct our behaviour and that we learn
a lot from our experiences. Parents and teachers would disagree with
Dewey that the nature of learners is ‘basically good’ or that learners’
learnt knowledge and skills make them necessarily virtuous (displaying
open minded, honest and moral behaviour). Educators could also not go
along with Dewey’s ‘freedom to develop naturally’. Learners’ natural
instincts need directing and it takes a lot of positive repetitions before
they eventually internalize the rules of acceptable behaviour based on
ethical and moral values. Learners must thus learn to obey guidance and
rules of educators and as such they do not have ‘freedom to develop natu-
rally’ although they must be treated with respect and love.
4. Views on what is right and wrong (Ethics)
Dewey agrees that learners should develop ‘social acceptable attitudes’

and ‘moral values’ which clarifies what is seen as right or wrong attitudes
or behaviour. Ones view on what is ‘right and wrong’ is related to your view
on human nature and your ground motive or central belief. Dewey’s view
of human nature is one on ‘naturally good’ and his central belief is one of
Humanism, which elevate humans to a self governing god (creating its own
laws), with its intellect and its product of scientific knowledge. For Dewey
the norms of what is right or wrong is thus determined by its practical value
and instead of by absolute spiritual values and that makes norms subject
tive and relativistic. What makes us human, is our spiritual values, not our
knowledge or practical skills. Education is about making us ‘humane’ and
therefore education should promote absolute values of right and wrong to
direct our instincts and not merely of what works in reality.
B. Regulative ideas with regards to the purpose / meaning of things, in-

cludes
1. Views on the overall purposes of education
Revisit the section on Dewey’s ‘aims of education’. For Dewey education

must bring about social change and develop social acceptable attitudes
and moral values as indicated already. In addition, knowledge, different
thinking skills and skills for employment must be focused on. Can you
see that the education aims of Dewey focus on features of Pragmatism
and Humanism: learners must have knowledge and thinking and other
employable skills to survive in society and to change society to operate
effectively. These aims are very acceptable, but they need to be more
holistic and incorporates body, mind and soul dimensions of human
nature as well. Even Dewey’s ‘moral values’ are created by humans on
what works in reality and are not based on an absolute spiritual nature.
The overall of education is to develop human character through spiritual
values otherwise the human race will never survive the acting of leaders
and citizens upon their instinctive desires of wealth / possessions, power,
status and sex.
2. Views on the aims and objectives (nowadays exit outcomes and learning
outcomes) of schooling. Purposes of schooling can be broken down into
aims and objectives which are smaller units of learning. Dewey rightly
thinks the school must provide an atmosphere conducive to learning
which will includes a democratic atmosphere and open dialogues that are
important for developing deep learning, thinking and morals. Dewey
believes subject content should not be taught for the purpose of
accumulating facts, but as vehicle to develop thinking and career oriented
skills as well as developing understanding of the nature of society. Revisit
Unit 1.6 and 1.7 and observe how Dewey’s aims compare to the holistic
aims of schooling. What categories of the holistic aims are missing from
Dewey’s aims? Revisit also Unit 1.7 and identify the three curriculum
orientations of Babin that Dewey subscribe to: cognitive development;
self-actualisation / humanism; and social reconstruction. Against the
background of the curriculum orientations and holistic aims of education
we could criticize Dewey’s aims of schooling as too narrow for modern
insight.
3. Views on what learning outcomes / objectives teachers should strive to

promote in class
Although Dewey prefers that the curriculum should not be organized into
subjects but rather be organized according to real life problems, he does
admit that the knowledge of subjects like Geography, Biology, Science,
History and Art are important for learners’ self-actualisation and
contribution to society. Today these subjects are still perceived as
important but the aims for their inclusion are better specified as in the
days of Dewey. One can agree with Dewey that the intrinsic value of
knowledge is not the only purpose of acquiring knowledge, but also for
the use of knowledge to promote thinking and other subject skills and
even employable skills.
C. Regulative ideas with regards to the relationship among things, in-

cludes
1. Views on the relationship between the curriculum goals and curriculum
content
The curriculum goals should correlate with the aims and objectives of
education / schooling. For Dewey the overall aim of education is to de-
velop knowledgeable and effective thinkers that could not only cope in
society, but also make a positive contribution to society and create
change in society. To achieve this, the curriculum content of Dewey
should preferably be organized according to real life problems. Subject
content is a vehicle to develop an understanding of society, thinking abili-
ties and employable skills needed in society. Attitudes that promote har-
monious relationships in society should also be developed. The content
should be experienced practically and emotionally and not merely
intellectually. The curriculum should provide for differentiation and the
content must be relevant for learners’ prior knowledge and experiences
(in the home and society) and their phase of development to have moti-
vational value. Dewey was critical of examinations, because it limits the
‘actualisation of the learner’. In terms of the hidden curriculum, Dewey
wants the school to operate as a mini democratic society which prepares
learners for the real society. Nowadays we understand the importance of
the hidden school curriculum via its rules, rewards, sport and culture
events. Most of these ideas were very new in Dewey’s time and are still
important today. The problem often lies in the details of the implementa-
tion of ideas such as ‘forms of assessment’ like examinations and the
degree of democratic participation of learners in school management.
Perhaps Dewey would have been very pleased with our modern forma-
tive and summative forms of assessment, the involvement of learners
in school management via class captains, prefects and student councils
and our focus on a learner-centred approach to teaching-learning.
2. Views on the correlation between the aims and the teaching-learning

methods
There should be a relationship between what type of education aims you

want to achieve and the type of teaching-learning activities and methods
you choose. Dewey already understood that and maintained that teach
ing methods must structure the learning content in order to ensure quality
learning. Dewey emphasized practical learning experiences like projects
and experiments, but also cooperative group learning methods to devel
op understanding, thinking and social skills. Dewey furthermore pointed
out that learning activities must accommodate individual learning styles to
be fair to all learners and discipline must be maintained in a manner that
does not hampers the free will and natural learning activities of learners.
Educators today still agree with most of Dewey’s ideas on teaching
methods: learners must be actively involved; learn in creative ways; ex-
perience emotions too; understand rather than memorizing content; focus
on more than the content to develop intellectual abilities and practical
skills. His methods elements that are challenged, has to do with the ‘con
sequences for methods’ due to his view of the ‘nature of the learner’, e.g.,
the extent of the free will and how discipline must be implemented.
3. Views on the relationship between the role of the teacher and the role of
the learner
Dewey advocated a new paradigm in education, namely that the teacher-

centred approach must be replaced by a learner-centred one. That would
change the role of the teacher as an authoritarian instructor one to a facili
-tator of learning that will create an democratic atmosphere that stimulates
learning; that observes the attitudes and reactions of learners; that use
more resources than the textbook and prepares for daily lessons. If the
role of the teacher changes the role of the learner changes. The learner-
centred role recognizes the active role that learners should play in lear-
ning and that they must be treated with respect and caring rather than
with a tough authoritarian attitude. Many educators today can agree with
Dewey’s changes in the role of learners and teachers, because learners
self- image are developed more positively and their motivation could be
better. What some educators would question about Dewey’s role of the
learner and the teacher, is that Dewey shift a lot of the authority of the
teacher to the learner in terms of setting learning aims, making moral de-
cisions and maintain discipline. The teacher as a facilitator must still have
the final authority to direct learning and maintain discipline, although these
actions must be executed in a democratic and caring manner. The teach
er must be ‘friendly’ towards learners but is not their ‘buddy’. They are not
equal, the teacher has the maturity and training as well as the responsibil-
ity to direct the education in a positive manner, and he cannot abdicate
this responsibility, just like a parent cannot surrender his responsibility.
4. Views on the relationship between management of instruction and effect-

tive learning.
Dewey proposes daily preparation by teachers. This involves planning of

aims and objectives, selecting of learning activities, assessment
questions as well as learning materials. All these are part of
‘management of instruction’ and it is clear that it directly impacts on
effective learning.
D. Ground motive or central belief underpinning one's ideas, includes

1. A subjective, super-natural belief in the laws of the natural world, or
2. A subjective, super-natural belief in all kinds of cultural gods, or
3. A subjective, super-natural belief in the God of the Bible with Jesus as
creator, his cross death and resurrection and forgiver of sins of those who
accept him and obey his will, or
4. A subjective, humanistic central belief which elevate humans to a self
governing god (creating its own laws), with its intellect and its product of
scientific knowledge.
The central belief of Dewey is the humanistic one. Like Humanism views,
He also reduces the human to an intellectual and social being which uses
his thinking and knowledge to manage life and society. Like the natural
reality, human nature can be understood via the laws that apply to us.
There is no recognition of supernatural values or a super natural being
and that human nature has a spiritual dimension that interacts with the
supernatural realm. There is scientific evidence that human nature has a
spiritual dimension and that a supernatural realm exist, therefore humans
cannot be free and completely autonomous. One is only free if your ac-
tions abide by the natural and supernatural laws and utility guidelines
alone can not be applied to determine what is the truth or valuable. Only
a supernatural perspective clarifies the purpose and meaning of humani-
ty, the origin of the world and laws for people to live by in society.
(Adapted from Schoeman in Strauss, et al., 1978b:22-36).
Overall, Dewey made valuable didactic discoveries and proposals, some of which
are still applied today. It is his humanistic central belief and the consequences of that
for his view of human nature and the aims of education that one could not agree
with.
Provide transcendental criticism on the ideas of John Dewey.

___________________________________________________________________
First you have to understand the four dimensions of transcendental criticism,
namely the origin, the purpose, relationship with and ones ground motive. Apply
the 4 dimensions to Dewey’s ideas, using the text above to guide you.
14.2 Franklin Bobbitt
Bobbitt articulated for the first time the importance of studying the process for
designing a curriculum rather than focusing on the content of a curriculum. His
curriculum project in the Philippines made him realised the process of curriculum
design need to have objectives, but these objectives must meet the needs of a
particular culture and level of socio-economic development. His book ‘How to make
a curriculum’ reflect his Philippine insights and as such advocated the idea of
curriculum study as a new area or discipline within Education.
Bobbitt’s steps in curriculum making were guided by the assumption that education
prepares us for adult life, not for childhood’ and included the following:
Bobbitt’s steps in curriculum making
(1) Analysis of human experience
The first thing to do, is to separate the range of adult human

experiences into major fields, such as language, health, citizenship,
social life, recreation, religious life, home, and occupation.
(2) Job analysis
The identified human experience fields must now be broken down into
more specific activities. Dewey turned to Charters for help of how best
to determine this ‘activity analysis’ of fields. Charters suggest the use of
the format of the then existing ‘job analysis’ process where job duties
and from them job tasks were derived.
(3) Deriving objectives
The third step is to derive the objectives of education from statements of

the abilities required to perform the activities. In his book ‘How to make
a curriculum’ Bobbitt presented over 800 objectives for the 10 fields of
human experience. Here is a partial list of the derived objectives within
the language field:
 To pronounce words properly;
 To use voice in agreeable ways;
 To use grammatically correct language
 To effectively organise and express thoughts
 To express thoughts to others in conversation, formal discussion,
oral reports, in giving directions and before an audience;
 To command an adequate reading, speaking and writing
vocabulary;
 To write legibly with ease and speed;
 To spell correctly words used;
 To use good technical format and order in all written work
Bobbitt realized that objectives could be broken down further into its
component parts.
(4) Selecting objectives
Select from the list of objectives the final curriculum objectives.

Bobbitt’s guidelines for selecting the final objectives were: Abilities that
are not sufficiently developed by chance should be included as
objectives; select objectives that will help learners to cope in the adult
world and involve theoretical and practical experts in the community in
the selection. Avoid objectives opposed by the community; differentiate
between core and elective objectives and sequence objectives per year.
(5) Planning in detail

Once one has selected the final objectives, one should plan the kinds of
activities, experiences and opportunities involved in attaining the
objectives. Day-to-day activities for learners per grade must be compiled
(called a syllabus and scheme of work these days).Cooperative
planning with community members involved in project activities, services
or part time work is important and plans must then be approved by the
schools management system (McNeil, 1990:379-383).
2.14.3 Ralph Tyler
Ralph Tyler published his book ‘Basic principles of curriculum and instruction’ in
1949. Tyler was a curriculum designer and specialist in evaluation curricula. Tyler
promoted the scientific process of designing a curriculum by proposing the following
questions that designers or evaluators must asked.
1. What educational purposes (objectives) should the school seek to attain?

2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these
purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organised?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
By purposes, Tyler meant objectives and he maintained that for the objectives to be
valid, they must be selected in the light of information about learners’ psychological
needs and interests, relate to contemporary life and relate to subject matter with
practical use for learners. His concept ‘educational experiences’ refers to a plan for
providing learning experiences and situations that are linked to learners’ previous
knowledge and intellectual mentality. The learning situations must be ordered /
sequenced according to the objectives. He was occupied with how the curriculum
organisation of knowledge, values and skills from grade 1-12, could produce the
maximum cumulative effect, helping students to learn more and more effectively.
Tyler identified alternative ways of organising the curriculum, e.g. in subject courses,
or in broader fields of language and arts, or relating content or real life through
projects that allowed for broader grouping of learning opportunities. Tyler regarded
evaluation of the curriculum as an important process for finding out the success of
results and weaknesses of curriculum planning and implementation. The evaluation
processes should include a range of tests, not just the pen and paper ones, but also
evaluation of the products, performances, observation of behaviour, records of
student participation and other evaluation methods (McNeil, 1990:388-389).
Criticism of Tyler’s contribution to curriculum development theory (referred to as his

rationale) was about the formulation of behavioural objectives which relates to the
weaknesses of the behaviourism school of thought. Tyler prescribed three sources
from which objectives can be derived, e.g. the student, society and the subject. The
sources could be seen as too narrow and Tyler did not spell out which philosophical
or psychological criteria should be used to select objectives for sources and which
criteria could be applied to decide on the more important objectives. Although Tyler
built his ideas on the groundwork of the McMurry’s, Dewey, Bobbitt and Charters, his
four questions for developing the curriculum established a sound curriculum process
as it emphasised thinking about what should be taught, how should it be taught,
how could curriculum content be organised and how to evaluate the success in
terms of the learning objectives and curriculum implementation.
2.14.4 Allan Ornstein
St. Johns University (2013) provides the following abbreviated resumé of Dr. Allan
Ornstein:
Allan Ornstein is the author of 55 books and 400 articles. He received his doctorate
from New York University, and he served as an inner-city teacher and subsequently
as a consultant for more than 60 different government and education agencies. Dr.
Ornstein is a former Fullbright Hayes Scholar and screening committee member,
ETS test designer, and guest editor for ten professional journals including Phi Delta
Kappan, NASSP Bulletin, and Educational Forum. One of Dr. Ornstein’s books,
Foundations of Education, is in the 32nd year of print and tenth edition. His books on
Educational Administration and Curriculum are in their fifth edition and are leading
books in their respective fields. Since arriving at St. John’s University in 1999, he has
published the following books:
1. Contemporary Issues in Curriculum, 2nd ed. (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1999).
2. Curriculum: Foundations, Principles and Issues, 3rd ed. (Boston: Allyn &
Bacon, 1999).
3. Foundations of Education, 7th ed. (with Daniel Levine), Houghton Mifflin, 2000
4. Education Administration, 3rd ed. (with Fred Ludenburg), Wadsworth 2000
5. Strategies for Effective Teaching, 3rd ed. (with Thomas Lasley), McGraw-Hill,
2000
7. Contemporary Issues in Education, 3rd ed. (with Linda Behar and Ed Pajak),
Allyn and Bacon, 2003
8. Pushing the Envelope: Crucial Issues in Education, Merrill, 2003
9. Teaching and Schooling in America: Pre-and-Post-September 11, Allyn and
Bacon, 2003
10. Curriculum: Foundations, Principles, and Issues, 4th ed. (with Thomas
Lasley), McGraw-Hill, 2004
11. Strategies for Effective Teaching, 4th ed. (with Thomas Lasley), McGraw-Hill,
2004
12. Educational Administrations: Concepts and Practices, 4th ed. (with Fred
Ludenburg) Wadsworth, 2004
13. K-8 Instructional Methods: A Literary Perspective (with Richard Sinatra), Allyn
and Bacon, 2005
14. Secondary and Middle School Teaching Methods (with Thomas Lasley), Allyn
and Bacon, 2005
16. Contemporary Issues in Education, 4th ed. (with E. Pajak, and S. Ornstein),
Allyn and Bacon, 2007
17. Class Counts: Education, Inequality and the Shrinking Middle Class,
Rowman & Littlefield, 2007
18. Educational Administration: Concepts and Practices, 5th ed. (with Fred
Ludenburg), Wadsworth, 2008
19. Foundations of Education, 10th ed. (with Daniel Levine), Houghton Mifflin,
2008 Curriculum: Foundations, Principles and Issues (with Francis Hunkins),
(Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2009).
His books reflect a thorough exploration of the historical, philosophical,

psychological, and social context for the field of curriculum. In addition to analyzing
foundational forces impacting on the curriculum Dr. Ornstein also evaluates ,
Principles and Issues related to the curriculum process and encourages both the
student and the professor of curriculum to consider how new thinking impacts
curriculum deliberation, development, and implementation.
His books cover a comprehensive treatment of the field: solid coverage of the
principles and procedures for conceptualizing, developing, implementing the
curriculum; issues, theories and practices of curriculum evaluation; recent research
and thinking in curriculum foundations as indicated above; curriculum approaches;
roles of curriculum workers and key players; the impact of schools of Philosophy and
Educational philosophies on the curriculum; models and principles of curriculum
design, taxonomy levels; managing curriculum change; standards-based curriculum,
school reformation, sex, thinking, moral and emotional intelligence education and so
forth. His texts engage the reader in discussion of perspectives of curriculum
development, not to urge acceptance of a narrow view of curriculum, but to allow
students to comprehend the assumptions behind these perspectives and to evaluate
applications of perspectives.
His books also include practical curriculum tips which give meaning to the research
and insights into the curriculum process. ‘Focusing questions’ orient the reader and
set the stage for the main ideas in a chapter and ‘overview tables’ provide
summaries of the major ideas conveyed in chapters (Pearson, 2013).
Dr. Ornstein’s philosophical, social, and economic views are best represented by his
recent book, Class Counts, written as trade book. It examines the slow economic
decline of the nation; growing inequality between the rich (top 10% taxpayers) and
remaining populace (bottom 90%); struggling and shrinking middle class;
evaporation of the American dream, and inability of education to act as the “great
equalizer.” You can learn more about the book by visiting the website:
classcounts.org.
2.14.5 William Spady
Overview of his life’s achievements
Spady’s life began as the son of a hard-working pig farmer in a little town outside of
Portland. He qualified at the University of Chicago and taught at Harvard and the
Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. He was a member of the American
Educational Research Association where he and others helped to create around the
sociology of education, ‘Division G’ of which he was the third president. He worked
for the American National Institute of Education and served as director of the
National Center for the Improvement of Learning at the American Association of
School Administrators. Spady was Director of the Far West Laboratory from where
he introduced schools in the Western states such as Utah, Oklahoma, Oregon and
Arizona to outcomes-based education (OBE). At one stage 26 American states
applied some version of OBE in their schools until furious attacks from Pennsylvania
halted the OBE applications. In 1997 the OBE paradigm was adopted in South Africa
by the African National Congress ruling party and OBE also took root in Australia.
Recently Spady turned his attention away from OBE and exclusively towards US
education and policy (Hader, 2011: vi-vii).
Some of the writings of Spady about OBE included:
1. Spady, W. (1988). ‘Organizing for Results: The Basis of Authentic

Restructuring and Reform’. Educational Leadership. Vol. 46, No. 2 pp. 4–8.
2. Spady, W. (1993). Outcome-based Education. Belconnen, ACT: Australian
Curriculum Studies Association.
3. Spady, W. (1994a). ‘Choosing Outcomes of Significance’. Educational
Leadership. Vol. 51, No. 6, pp. 18–22.
4. Spady, W. (1994b). Outcome-based Education: Critical Issues and Answers.
Arlington, VA: American Association of School Administrators.
5. Spady, W. and Marshall, K. (1994). ‘Light, not Heat, on OBE’. The American
School Board Journal. Vol. 181, pp. 29–33.
6. Spady, W. (1995). ‘We Need More ‘Educentric’ Standards’. Educational
Leadership. Vol. 53, No. 1, pp. 82–84.
Key features of OBE

The written works above obviously clarify the key features of OBE. Acharya (2003),
uses these sources of Spady to clarify Spady’s 4 basic principles of OBE:
(a) Clarity of focus about outcomes
 Always have the significant, culminating exit outcomes as the focus.

 Let the students know what they are expected to learn / aiming for.
(b) Designing backwards
 Design curriculum backward by using the major outcomes as the focus and
linking all planning, teaching and assessment decisions directly to these
outcomes.
(c) Consistent, high expectations of success
 Set the expectation that ALL learners can succeed.
 Expect students to succeed by providing them encouragement to engage

deeply with the issues they are learning and to achieve the high challenging
standard set.
(d) Expanded opportunity
 Develop the curriculum to give scope to every learner to learn in his/her own
pace.
 Cater for individual needs and differences, for example, expansion of

available time and resources so that all students succeed in reaching the exit
outcomes. (Acharya, 2003).
* See Unit 4 for discussions of more features of CBE /OBE.
Personal reflections of Spady
On the afternoon of June 15, 2010, Spady reflected on his 37 years dedicated to
educational change in the U.S., Canada, Australia and South Africa. These few
statements display his passion for education and empowerment of people:
When you're in the educational change business and you really have a vision to
bring to the world, it better be bulletproof, or they're just going to decimate it if they
possibly can. My work has always been based on being absolutely solid and yet
relating to common sense. I may have made my life and my career way harder than
it needed to be because I wasn't willing to take the intellectual shortcuts or the moral
shortcuts.
My thinking was always systemic. I typically tried to put things into models and
systems and both seeing them simultaneously in terms of the big picture and the
little details, that's how it all had to work for me. I wanted education to move toward a
transformational model, not regress into an even more entrenched narrow industrial
age factory model like it has done. The initial or traditional OBE had some flaws and
some applications of the traditional model were unacceptable to Spady. The
transformational model of OBE was better for promoting real educational change in
schools. Spady’s mission was ‘to really make a big difference in the world via
education which meant making a real difference in the world of education and
making a difference in the world through education’.
Spady concluded his reflections: I am not writing anymore about education. I have
other things to bring to the world. My work is now about helping civilization evolve
and heal and maybe that's what this has all been about anyway. It's been about
empowering people to see more and be more than the conventional institutions have
ever allowed them to be. (Hader, 2011:136-142).
Personal life and work snippets
The fact that Spady was raised in a Wolgadeutsch household was probably the
first circumstance that had a profound influence on Spady, especially regarding his
embrace of ‘schaffen’ which means ‘hard, productive work’ in German. Spady’s
father was particularly industrious, building the largest pig farm in Oregon. From his
father’s example, Spady learned early in his life the importance of hard work, as was
evident in his career at the University of Chicago where he worked in the Admissions
Office while attending school full-time and writing a thesis and a dissertation.
Productive work drove Spady at Harvard and OISE. Spady worked harder than most,
throughout his life and career, taking the reins of any group he joined, whether it was
Division G, the Network for Outcome-Based Schools, Heart Light International or the
New Possibilities Network. Spady produced the frameworks. He wrote the
newsletters. He marketed the approaches.
Spady‘s mother was very demanding. Spady‘s mother expected the best from her
son in music, sports, education, and anything else that Spady was involved in.
Spady delivered in all three pursuits. He played in the Oregon All-State Orchestra
and on the stage of Carnegie Hall. He seriously considered the trumpet and music
as a career until his conversation with Rapier steered him to education. Spady was a
star athlete who played in a state title game and who was recruited to play with the
best athletes. Spady taught at Harvard, and the curriculum he popularized was
adopted as the national curriculum of South Africa. Like his mother, Spady was
demanding of others throughout his career, and he could be difficult. He expected
commitment and support from his teammates such as Glazer, Block and Walsch and
Asmal (Hader, 2011:143-144).
In line with his work ethics, Spady valued persistence although his persistence at
times became a kind of single-mindedness which brought good and bad results. On
the positive side, his persistent single-mindedness kept Spady pounding at the doors
of the statehouses in Utah, Arizona, Minnesota, and Pennsylvania to change schools
for the better. It kept him on the road 220 days a year advocating OBE. It made him
return to Australia and South Africa again and again in hopes of transforming
educational systems that were time-bound and rigid. Spady had been profoundly
influenced by the Coleman Report, seeing it as the first document that championed
educational access for all, regardless of gender or ethnicity or anything else that
formerly held individuals back. In the wake of the Report, Spady traded the
quantitative research he excelled in at the University of Chicago for curriculum
innovation that he believed would guarantee learning for every student.
However, his single-mindedness at times worked to the detriment of the

organisations which Spady helped to create to produce educational change. His
challenge to the mastery learning assembly split the group in two during its rapid
emergence in the 1970s. His difficulties with Block and others spelled the end of the
Network of Outcome-Based Schools during the rise of OBE in the U.S. He was
unable to negotiate a change to the direction of Curriculum 2005 in South Africa
because of his single-minded demand for his ideas of excellence. The New
Possibilities Network failed because of personality conflicts between Spady and
others when self-effacement was to be the guiding ethos of the Network (Hader,
2011:145).
Spady‘s work still affects the Catholic schools in Queensland. Spady teamed with
Walsch, the best-selling author of millions of books world-wide, to create learning
communities around their tenets. However, with the high-profile successes came
some failures. Spady believed that Pennsylvania embodied the worst for him
because he was so close to changing things at the state level. Then, the rug was
pulled out by traditionalist forces that saw OBE as social engineering and mind
control. Spady called what happened to him in Pennsylvania a crucifixion. He
admitted that he was idealistic and possibly unrealistic, but his passion for education
was such that he was willing time after time to put his neck out. In his mind, he was
trying to do great good for people through transformational OBE, and he was bitterly
wounded by the response from its detractors. In Pennsylvania, Spady realized that
educational change was extremely difficult and there were few benefits reaped for
the agent of change (Hader, 2011:146-147).
Spady’s contribution to education and the curriculum field was enormous and OBE
theory has much good features although some of the features, such as assessment
and individualisation, might be very difficult to implement in practice. Unit 4
evaluates the features of OBE and deals with the criticism against OBE.
Write a descriptive essay on the life and work of Spady, focusing more on his
work and contribution to education.

___________________________________________________________________
The verb is ‘describe’ so what thinking is expected ? The rest is easy: focus
more on Spady’s work and contribution to education than on his life. How long
you ask? Until the job is done properly.
2.15 Summary
It is understandable that the preliterate society education up to 5000 years before

Christ focused on teaching survival skills. The Chinese from 3000 BCE and the
Egyptians’ overall goal of education was to prepare elite officials as rules of the
empire. The Greek (1600 BCE) and the Roman (750 BCE – 450 CE) education
strived to cultivate responsible citizens and good soldiers. The Medieval period (500
CE- 1400 CE) focused for 900 years on developing the spiritual dimension of people,
general literacy and still military tactics through subjects like Theology, Philosophy,
Reading, Writing, Arithmetic and Military tactics. Education of the Renaissance
period (CE 1350-CE 1500) moved away from spiritual education (Theology) towards
intellectual education (Philosophy, Latin and Greek, Science, Art) in schools and
universities. The Reformation period (CE 1500 – CE 1600) restored the focus on
spiritual education (Catholic and Protestant) and introduced the vision of literacy
education for the masses. Between 1600 - 1700 Comenius continued to advocate
development of Christian values while pointing out that learners’ development
features must be understood and media must be used in class.
The strong focus on the scientific method and the discoveries made in various fields
between 1700 - 1800 must have had an influence on the philosophy and education
of the time. The technological discoveries benefitted the industrial revolution which in
turn lead to the emerging of a middle class. The expansion of the middle class
required the planning of mass education systems. The main philosophical school of
thought was the one of Rationalism which emphasised knowledge and reasoning.
Intellectual development was thus the main aim of education rather than moral
development. Two renowned educators of this century were Jean-Jacques
Rousseau (1712-1778) and Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746 -1827). Pestalozzi
believed that if properly organised, schools could be effective centres of learning,
e.g. schools must display a caring homelike environment which nurture learners self-
esteem, have objects and pictures to learn from and learning must not be hurried.
Pestalozzi’s key contribution was in this ‘direct learning experiences’.
During 1800 – 1900 there were several key educators that emphasised curriculum
design or implementation issues. In addition to his systematised teaching method,
Herbart advocated that teachers should help students to construct relationships
between ideas, that is advocating insight, but should also develop ethical behaviour.
Froebel’s contribution to the curriculum field included his introducing of pre-primary /
Kindergarten education which should develop learners’ inherent intellectual, ethical
and emotional abilities and talents via a caring environment and lots of objects and
materials.
Spencer (1820-1903) believed that people in an industrialised society needed a

utilitarian education in order to learn useful scientific subjects and skills. He thus
advocated a curriculum based upon science and technology that prepared
individuals via life-oriented activities to be efficient producers in a competitive
industrial society. Dewey (1859-1952) saw education as a social process and its
purpose was social growth. The purpose of knowledge is to support the solving of
problems. Children must be challenged to solve real life problems to develop their
intelligence and expand their knowledge. For Dewey, the scientific method is the
most effective method to solve our problems but lessons should also follow this
format to ensure learning with understanding. Montessori (1870-1952) as female
medical physician in Italy used her experiences with mentally handicapped children
to established schools for pre-primary children with rich environments featuring
methods, materials and activities suitable for children’s interests. Montessori’s
curriculum included three types of learning activities: practical, sensory and
intellectual / knowledge outcomes.
During 1900-1909 three types of curricula and thus schooling, were competing. The
‘intellectual traditionalists’ curriculum of ‘education for all’ focused on reading, writing,
arithmetic and subject knowledge. A second type of curriculum and schooling
emerged, namely the ‘social behaviourists’. A faith in the method and products of
science entered also the world of education, especially after Alfred Binet and
Theodore Simon developed the first test in 1906 that claimed to determine
intelligence. Curricularists suddenly felt that curricula for schools should be
determined scientifically by carefully analysing activities of adult life and then induce
the young into society by teaching them tasks involved in such adult activities. This
curriculum process was referred to as the ‘scientific curriculum making’ or ‘activity
analysis’. A third group of curriculum beliefs was known as the ‘experientialists’ and
their views were built upon the work of Johann Friedrich Herbart who died in 1841
but his ideas were converted, including by the McMurry brothers, into a Herbartian
curriculum development process. The ‘experientialists’ followed essentially John
Locke’s ideas of the ‘tabula rasa’ which meant that the mind is an empty space to be
written on by educational experiences. Their repertoire of accumulated knowledge
and experience enable learners to perceive and interpret the world. A major
curricular implication of this view was that teaching and learning methods were the
important processes of organising the content to make it relevant to the students’
repertoire. The study of child development was consequently important for
curriculum developers in order to use the methods best suitable for students’
learning. Herbart’s five stages of method, namely preparation, presentation,
comparison, generalisation and application were seen as the process stages of
knowledge acquisition and impacted instructional methods for many years.
During 1910-1919 the same three curriculum perspectives of the previous decade
continued. Franklin Bobbitt advocated the social behaviourist cause with his book in
1915 on ‘What schools teach and might teach’ and his even more important book,
‘The Curriculum’ in 1918. Bobbitt’s work introduced a new emphasis in curriculum
science on what the curriculum should be versus what it is. Weeks (1913) also
focused on a curriculum for the future while Heckert emphasised in1917 the
relationships between the organisation of instructional materials and the elementary
school curriculum. This relation between curriculum and instruction became a
perennial debate. The experientialist school of curriculum thought was supported
directly and indirectly by Dewey’s book ‘Democracy and Education’ in 1916 which
set curriculum issues in a political, scientific, philosophical, psychological and
educational context. Dewey’s views of the curriculum thus united school with life and
living. W. Kilpatrick (in 1918) based his ‘Project method’ on his interpretation of
Dewey’s work. This method advocated the idea that learning activities should be
based on student interest. The publication, ‘Cardinal principles of secondary
education’ (1918), displayed strong tendencies of the ‘intellectual traditionalists’
curriculum views. This document stated the goals of secondary education such as
vocational preparation, citizenship and development of ethical character.
It is clear from the above, that the evolution of curriculum science was gradual, not
abrupt. From the preliterate period onward for thousands of years educational
knowledge and experiences were build upon the main aim to ensure the survival of
the individual and the cultural group. Oral teaching and imitation of model members’
skills and behaviours were a logical and natural process. As early civilisations
evolved so did the educational aims, content and methods. These aims, content and
methods are clearly curricular issues that were decided upon without realising that
there is a possible scientific process and curriculum field of study involved. First
Education as a science became differentiated from philosophy, social sciences and
literature and then areas within the Education developed into disciplines such as
‘curriculum studies’.
Although Educational and Philosophical writings influenced curriculum ideas, it was

not yet formal scientific curricular thought. Concerns for and reflection on actual
processes and issues of designing or implementing a curriculum developed much
later when scholars from the early 1800’s such as…..addressed curriculum issues
purposefully. One could say that curriculum science matured between 1900 and
2000, starting with curriculum books by Dewey, Bobbitt, Kilpatrick, Charters, Caswell
and followed by other books in each mentioned decade. Each decade brought
additional ideas to the curriculum as an area of study. The date 1918 is often
acknowledged as the starting point of curriculum studies as an independent
discipline of study within the field of Education, because it is the date of Bobbitt’s
‘The curriculum’ and the ‘Cardinal principles of secondary education’. However, not
all curriculum scholars agree with this 1918 birth date, because about 20 curriculum
books appeared between 1900 and 1918 (Schubert, 1984:323-325).
New perspectives and topics during the Twenties (1920-1929) were: the
experientialist progressive curriculum emphasised the importance that the needs and
interests of individual students be addressed by the curriculum. Another curriculum
trend of this decade was to explore curricula for particular school phases, e.g. junior
high school. The social behaviourist school of curriculum thought explored
curriculum goal statements and ways to group students based on biographical data.
Stratemeyer and Bruner (1926) started the realisation that if one has objectives they
must be evaluated and thus the means-end of accountability were introduced.
Bobbitt continued his ‘activity analysis’ curriculum that focused on ‘social efficiency’
and W. Charters produced a well received book, Curriculum making in Los Angeles’
in 1922. C. A. McMurry (1923) was concerned about the organisation of learning
experiences in the curriculum, while Phillips (1923) highlighted the instructional
methods in the curriculum implementation and Burke (1924) stressed moral
development. Two other thrusts in the curriculum literature of this decade are worth
noting. The first deals with the study of curriculum practices and the second thrust
was to provide curriculum documents for practitioners to guide their design and
implementation of curricula.
In the Thirties (1930-1939) curriculum writers, like Caswell and Campbell (1935),
increasingly geared their theoretical writings towards writing for teachers, school
leaders and administrators. These books presented guidelines or principles and lists
of ‘how to’s and when to’. The curriculum literature of the Thirties highlighted the
relation of teaching methods with outcomes and outcomes with assessment,
curriculum organisation, administration, students and teachers.
The Forties (1940-1949) explored in America the core curriculum features of the
‘common school’ which provided ‘general education’ for most of the children at
school. Extensive analysis and comparisons of curricula in schools was done to
determine the best core curriculum and curriculum changes occurred based on this
research. Part of the core must be salable skills, health promotion, competent
citizenship, democratic values and rational thought. The American National
Commission on Cooperative Planning also highlighted the involvement of
stakeholders in curriculum planning which included selection of subject fields and
subject matter for subjects. In 1949 Ralph Tyler’s book ‘Basic principles of curriculum
and instruction’ discussed and related earlier curriculum ideas and proposed 4
categories as basics for curriculum development: e.g. purposes; experiences;
organisation of experiences; and evaluation.
The Fifties (1950-1959) produced 151 curriculum books which emphasised the
relationship among culture, community values and changes and economic
considerations and the curriculum. Furthermore, criteria were formulated for
determining outcomes, sequencing content and selecting learning experiences. The
Fifties also presented 3 orientations to curriculum organisation, e.g. subject, activity
and core organisation. In addition, the role of interpersonal politics in curriculum
decisions was pointed out and curriculum viewpoints were debated so that better
grounded theories were established. In 1957 the Russians launched the Sputnik and
the perceived educational superiority of the USSR elicited criticism about the
American education and massive funding was provided by government to improve
the curriculum. In 1959 James Conant produced ‘The American High School Today’
which influenced the high school curriculum in subsequent years. He proposed a
high school with a college preparatory stream; vocational stream and general
education. He proposed counselling, core and electives for individualisation, reading
development, special attention to the gifted and emphasised foreign languages and
sciences.
The Sixties (1960-1969) produces 173 more books than the Fifties and emphasised
accountability in education which required from curricularists to pre-specify what they
planned to achieve and to prove that they did. Objectives and assessment of it thus
received attention. Robert Mager’s book (1962) treated the formulation of accurate
objectives. In 1962 Hilda Taba’s book ‘Curriculum Development: Theory and
Practice’ explored general curriculum development rather than curriculum
development of a particular level or subject area. A humanist focus (child centred,
whole person, interest- based curriculum) and consequent personalised education
re-emerged in the 1962 ASCD Yearbook. Alternative forms of curricular organisation
such as individualised instruction, open education, ability grouping, team teaching for
multigrade classes, peer teaching, schools without walls and alternative schools
received growing interest in 1963. The concept of the ‘hidden curriculum’ referred to
as the ‘unstudied curriculum’ was introduced. Krathwohl et al., (1964) created the
taxonomy for the affective domain of objectives. In 1965 McNeil’s book focused on
the ‘administration and the curriculum’ and Leeper promoted the issue of
assessment in the curriculum. Jerome Bruner (1966) highlighted instructional issues
as implementation of the curriculum while John Goodlad clarified the role of society,
institutions and the individual in curriculum changes. A monograph series was begun
to stimulate ideas on ‘curriculum evaluation’. Robert Gagne (1967) proposed a
hierarchical structure of learning (from simple and specific to complex and general)
and this learning theory could serve as a basis for curriculum design. Also in 1967
D. Wheeler contributed to curriculum science with his concept of ‘situation analysis’
as another element of the curriculum development process.
The Seventies (1970-1979) brought to the curriculum field increased diversification

of types of curriculum books and a resultant decline in the comprehensive type of
book. Curriculum books included more international examples and authors. Study of
real cases, schools and curricula emerged as well as qualitative research, although
quantitative research with its statistical analysis still dominated, for example, large
scale empirical research that portrayed data quantitatively carried influence and
social and political forces impacting on education and the curriculum received much
attention. Factors predicting school achievement were the focus of many studies,
e.g. the impact of socio-economic status of the home, time on learning tasks and
knowledge and skill levels at specified ages. Several curriculum books about the
process of change or innovation appeared, e.g. by Lawler, 1970, Hoyle and Bell,
1972, Harris, et al, 1975, and Werner, 1979. Harrow (1972) developed a taxonomy
for the psychomotor domain of objectives and many books were written on
curriculum evaluation, e.g. Bellack and Kliebard (1977) pointed the way to a holistic
evaluation of the curriculum and Eisner (1979) provided a more qualitative evaluation
of the curriculum as opposed to the common quantitative evaluations of the time.
Eisner and Vallance (1974) Introduced the concept of curriculum orientations and
identify 5 orientations which determine the overall purpose of a curriculum. Books
also appeared that emphasised special education curricula and international
cooperation in education. In 1978 Michael Schiro clarified four curriculum
orientations (then referred to as ideologies) and their impact on curriculum
development, e.g. academic scholar; social efficiency; child study and social
reconstruction.
The two decades between 1980-2000 displayed a growing emphasis on quality

curriculum issues such as policies, school resources, instructional time, organisation
of the curriculum, teacher effectiveness and the pace and complexity of the
classroom life. Another trend was the focus on comparative studies of educational
achievement which were done with regards to quality curriculum issues and
educational achievement analyses. Additional influences on curricula involved the
work of Gardner who identified 8 types of intelligences. The theories about multiple
intelligences imply that curricula should address individual differences and the
cultural context. Shortly after the mid-1980s a huge amount of books and materials
start to appear on thinking skills types and ways to develop it independently and
across school curricula. The thinking development movement influenced amongst
other dimensions of education, the lesson aims and plans, teaching strategies and
questioning techniques and resources to develop core / micro thinking skills, meta-
cognitive thinking skills such as planning and evaluation, critical thinking, logical
thinking, creative thinking and problem solving and decision making skills.
The two decades between 1980-2000 also experienced the birth of the competency-
based movement (1990s) which stimulated research into ‘employability skills’ which
should be promoted by schools. Such general employable skills could be developed
across the curriculum and include ‘organising and analysing information; planning
and organising activities, time and resources; working with others, solving problems;
using technology and having desirable personal qualities and values. After 2005 the
focus on general employable skills developed into specific job skills. This holistic
wellness aims of schooling (from 2000 onwards) which demonstrate that education
must develop the whole person, because then schooling will develop social wellness,
physical and emotional wellness, occupational and intellectual wellness, and
environmental and spiritual wellness. To have a holistic set of wellness goals for
education at last, is an important curriculum development feature. Daniel Goleman
introduced the concept of ‘emotional intelligence’ in 1996. Emotional intelligence (EI)
can be defined as a learned ability to identify, experience, understand and express
human emotions in healthy and productive ways. This implies that we must learn to
be aware of our emotions; manage / control our emotions like anger or fear;
recognise and understand the impact of emotions in others and maintain healthy
relationships with others. Schools should develop features of high emotional
intelligence in learners such as deal with emotions, act morally, assertively and
respect others’ feelings. Working conditions of teachers can de-motivate them which
could lead to poor quality teaching. Similarly, if learners’ emotions are not positively
managed their motivation to learn will be reduced and poor quality learning is the
result.
The 5 recommendations of the USA ‘nation at risk report’ in 1983 was followed by
another report early in 1990 with 8 recommendations stated as ‘America 2000 goals
for improving education’. These recommendations can be seen as reflecting more or
less the international curriculum issues in schools of the time. The 8 goals to be
achieved by the year 2000 included: pre-school education available, a 90% high
school graduation rate, competency about challenging subject matter, including
English, mathematics, science, foreign languages, civics and government,
economics, arts, history and geography. Every school in America will ensure that all
students learn to use their minds well, so they may be prepared for responsible
citizenship, further learning and productive employment in the nation’s economy.
Programmes will improve the professional abilities of teachers. U.S. students will be
first in the world in mathematics and science achievement. Every adult American will
be literate. Every school in the U.S will be free of drugs, violence and unauthorised
presence of firearms and alcohol and will offer a disciplined environment conducive
to learning. Every school will promote partnerships that will increase parental
involvement in the growth of their children.
There were three distinct groupings of curriculum scholars: the social behaviourists,
the experientialists and the intellectual traditionalists. The number of supporters for
these three groups changed through the decades but the intellectual traditionalist
curriculum dominated all the time in practice.
The period after 2000 reflected the following features, especially in American
education: introducing a longer day and school year; provide tutoring; established
different types of schools; create smaller class sizes; address quality teacher
education; the use of computer technology; attention to drop-out rate and
absenteeism; improvement of school textbooks; funding of schools related to
success ratio; adequate supply of resources to schools and addressing the rights of
students.
Namibian curriculum developments after 1990. The 11 separate ethnic education

departments were merged into one Ministry of Education, Culture and Training. The
plan was to replace as soon as possible the South African Cape syllabus with the
Cambridge Local International GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education).
A Pilot Curriculum for Formal Senior Secondary was released in May 1993. The
newly instituted NIED (National Institute for Educational Development) established
decentralized curriculum subject groups for the junior secondary phase and these
interim syllabi were implemented already in 1991. English became the medium of
instruction from grade 4 onwards. To develop a national curriculum the following
guidelines were accepted: a spiraling approach in syllabus development; a
democratic curriculum development process via subject panels; a curriculum that
would foster democracy, non-racism, non-sexism, and equality; a holistic
understanding of the nation and the world; what happens in the classroom must be
relevant for the Namibian society; the establishment of ministerial policies to regulate,
support and sustain the curriculum development process. Policy documents for ICT,
HIV/AIDS, gender, learners with disabilities, learning support and promotion were
drafted.
The Education Act 16 of 2001 repealed all the colonial education laws and provided
policies for the provision of an accessible, equitable, qualitative and democratic
national education service. In 2004 a strategic planning document with the title of
‘Namibia Vision 2030’ appeared and the section on education and training listed 12
targets, some of which are: Early childhood education is provided; Access to tertiary
and career-oriented education exists for at least 75% of school leavers; Schools and
tertiary institutions are enhancing competences and competencies / skills, including
skills of good governance and ICT skills and there is well-qualified teaching staff
available for all levels of education. The University of Namibia trains teachers for
Namibia across five campuses in the country. The Polytechnic of Namibia provides
in other manpower needs in the field of applied science and technology. There are
also three private higher learning institutions.
In 2012 there were already 1,723 schools in Namibia, 24, 660 teachers and 617, 827
learners. Yet there is still a need for more schools and 623 of the 1,723 still have no
electricity, 752 of them have no telephone, and 22 % of schools have no toilets and
even more than 22% have no water supply. In the Kavango region only 53.6% of
schools have water supply. These statistics are not acceptable.
The newly proposed curriculum changes from 2014 onwards compare on paper
positively with international school curricula. A positive development is the
introduction of a career oriented stream from junior secondary onwards. This allows
for individualised education on a much larger scale. Senior secondary learners can
now also choose to do grade 12 on a higher level that will let them qualify for further
tertiary education or leave school at the end of grade 11 with a standard academic or
career level. In conclusion, education in Namibia has developed strongly on all levels
since independence. Many facilities, policies and structures have been put in place
but as the statistics show some basic facilities must be addressed urgently. The new
national school curriculum looks promising and the focus on career-oriented
education is an excellent step forward to reduce unemployment and thus poverty.
John Dewey (1859-1952) made a valuable contribution to the curriculum features of

schools as experientialist, pragmatist and empirist. His contribution to teaching
methods such as learning by doing, linking experiences and problem solving was
excellent. However, his humanistic ground motive impacted his view of the aims of
education, the nature of learners, the image of the school and the curriculum
negatively if immanent (logical) and transcendental (regulative criteria) criticism is
applied to this ideas.
Franklin Bobbit articulated for the first time the importance of studying the process
for designing a curriculum rather than focusing on the content of a curriculum. He
proposed 5 process steps for curriculum making which boosted the science of
curriculum design. Ralph Tyler published his book ‘Basic principles of curriculum
and instruction’ in 1949. Tyler was a curriculum designer and specialist in evaluation
curricula. Tyler promoted the scientific process of designing a curriculum by
proposing the four key questions that designers or evaluators must asked from what
are the objectives to how to evaluate the achievement of them. Allan Ornstein is the
author of 55 books and 400 articles. His books on Foundations of Education and
Educational Administration and Curriculum are leading books in their respective
fields. William Spady’s contribution to education and the curriculum field was
enormous and his competency-based education curriculum theory (later changed to
Outcomes-based education) OBE theory has many good features although some of
the features, such as assessment and individualisation, might be difficult to
implement in practice.
2.16 References
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February 7, 2014 .
UNIT 3
Discuss the foundations / forces that influence
curriculum issues and trends
Contents
Introduction
Learning outcomes
3.1 Analyse the historical foundations that influenced curriculum issues and
trends…………………………………………………………………………… 198
3.2 Discuss the philosophical foundations that influenced curriculum issues

and trends ……………………………………………………………………… 205
3.3 Discuss the psychological foundations that influenced curriculum issues
and trends……………………………………………………………………… 212
curriculum issues and trends……………………………………………........ 215
3.5 Analyse the social foundations that influenced curriculum issues and
trends…………………………………………………………………………… 222
3.6 Examine the relationship between curriculum ‘foundations’ and
‘orientations’ and curriculum designs’……………………………………… 227
3.7 Explain the role of political powers in curriculum design and
implementation………………………………………………………………. 228
3.8 Explain the roles of different stakeholders in curriculum design
and implementation …………………………………………………………. 229
3.9 Analyse the role of educational leaders in curriculum design and
Implementation ……………………………………………………………… 240
3.10 Discuss why curricula are changed and how this change could be
managed ……………………………………………………………………… 244
3.11 Summary…………………………………………………………...………… 249
3.12 References……………………………………………………………………. 250
Introduction
Unit one clarified ‘curriculum orientations’ and Unit two explored how the ‘science of
designing and implementing a curriculum’ progressed over thousands of years. This
Unit relates to the previous two units by analyzing mentioned factors or foundations
that typically influence curriculum design and practice. We will analyse and discuss
how historical foundations, social foundations, political, economical and legal factors,
psychological foundations and philosophical foundations impacted upon curriculum
theory and practices over time. This is very important for curriculum scholars to
understand the role of these foundations, so that we can recognize and manage the
impact of these forces in our current local and international contexts. You will also
reflect upon the leadership role of educators in developing curricula and study why
and how to manage changes in school curricula.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this Unit, you are expected to be able to:
3.1 Analyse the historical foundations that influenced curriculum features.

3.2 Discuss the philosophical foundations that influenced curriculum features.
3.3 Discuss the psychological foundations that influenced curriculum features.
curriculum features.
3.5 Analyse the social foundations that influenced curriculum features.
3.6 Examine the relationship between curriculum ‘foundations’, ‘orientations’ and
‘designs’.
3.7 Explain the role of political powers in curriculum design.
3.8 Explain the role of other stakeholders in curriculum design.
3.9 Analyse the role of educational leaders in curriculum design and implementa-
tion.
3.10 Discuss why curricula are changed and how this change could be managed.
1. Clarify how some local and world historical events impacted on the features of
school curricula.
2. Explain how politics before and after Namibia’s independence influenced school
education.
3. Analyse how economic factors influence the quality of education locally and inter-
nationally.
4. Discuss the influence of the psychological foundation on the design and imple-
mentation of curricula.
5. Evaluate the impact of the Essentialist and Progressivism educational
philosophies on the Namibian school curriculum.
6. Analyse the role of Namibian educational leaders in local curriculum design and
implementation.
3.1 Analyse the historical foundations that influenced curriculum

issues and trends
The ‘foundations’ that influence curriculum features are the factors or forces that
impact upon curricula. The historical foundation is the first of several foundations and
explores the historical development of types of schools, aims of education, methods
of teaching, how politics and social circumstances influenced curricula.
3.1.1 Education features of historical periods

The pre-literate societies (7000-3000 BCE)
The pre-literate societies (7000-3000 BCE), before reading and writing were
invented, transmitted their cultural history, myths and traditions via oral songs,
stories and dancing. Survival skills were transmitted to the young by practising the
skills modelled by the adults. Stories were an engaging teaching method through
which victorious and painful cultural events and heroes were relived but the stories
also contributed to the development of the language and signs and symbols
representing oral language (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and Vocke, 2011:53).
The invention of writing was a gradual process initiated by the simple pictures
(glyphs) in caves representing objects or concepts. The pictures developed into
symbols which have specific sounds. The spoken sounds at first represented a
whole word but later the sounds represented a syllabus. It is generally agreed that
the first true writing of language (not only of numbers) was invented in Mesopotamia,
specifically Sumer around 3200 BCE. Writing was also invented in Egypt around the
same 3200 BCE and in China around 1200 BCE. The first pure alphabet, mapping
single symbols to single phonemes, emerged around 1800 BC in Egypt. After 1050
BC the Greek alphabet introduced for the first time explicit symbols for vowel sounds
(Wikipedia, June ,2014).
Education in ancient China
The Chinese empire was ruled by a series of dynasties for over four thousand years,
from 2200 BCE to 1912. Unlike the Egyptian culture of the time, the Chinese
philosophy was concerned about ‘living on earth’ rather than about ‘afterlife and
immortality of the soul’. Three competing philosophies proposed different purposes
of education. The Legalism philosophy advocated an authoritarian (controlling)
government that maintained order ruthlessly and imparted their culture via
indoctrination. The Taoism philosophy opposed the control of others and events and
advised people to live simply and spontaneously. Taoism’s purpose of education
was to reflect and find one’s true self. In 207 BCE the Han dynasty came to power
and Confucianism officially replaced the Legalism philosophy. Confucianism
proposed hierarchical relationships and ethical behaviour in those relationships so
that a harmonious society will be created. The purpose of education is to maintain
this harmonious society by teaching people their duties and expected proper / ethical
behaviour in society. Confucius ideas promoted formal relationships among teachers
and learners, but teachers were respected, maintained classroom discipline and
expected ethical behaviour from learners. The national written examinations
introduced by China, the memorisation of information and no equity for access to
education were copied by the world for hundreds of years (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek
and Vocke, 2011:55-60). In Europe, South Africa and in Namibia access to schooling
was also reserved for the members of the ruling party but that situation is now
corrected. Unfortunately, memorisation instead of understanding is still practised in
Namibian schools and should be addressed urgently.
Education in ancient Egypt
About 3000 BCE the Nile river tribal kingdoms consolidated into a highly organised
and centralised political empire with a pharaoh of ‘divine origin’ at the head. The
priests as part of the elite rulers controlled the formal education which focused on
medicine, anatomy and embalming, but also on building of pyramids, on agricultural
technologies and reading and writing of their hieroglyphic language and civil
administration. Writing was done on paper made from reeds growing along the Nile.
The different schools had different curricula, e.g. the temple and court schools train
scribes in reading and writing. Special advanced schools prepared priests,
government officials and physicians. Advanced students studied mathematics,
astronomy, religion, poetry, literature, medicine and architecture. The overall goal of
education was to create a competent elite leadership. This means Egyptian
education was a means to an end and education prepared elite people for coping
with work life (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and Vocke, 2011:61).
Western culture and education is also rooted in the religion of Judaism and
Christianity. Until independence in Namibia, Christianity was taught in our schools
via a subject, Religious education’ and some ceremonies. Now the subject ‘Religious
and moral education’ covers different religions and does not advocate Christianity
alone. The subject ‘Life skills’ in Namibia also promotes the development of ethical
values and behaviour in line with our Constitution.
Ancient Greek education
What did the ancient Greek and Roman civilisations contribute to the development of
our Western education features? The Greeks and Romans sought to answer
questions such as ‘What is true, good and beautiful?’They also believed that
education was to serve the social, economic and political views of the time so that
education would produce good citizens. The Sophists (500 BCE) introduced the idea
of ‘education for all’ (e.g. women, slaves and middle class) and not just for the elite.
The Sophists’ curriculum emphasised logic, grammar and rhetoric as the study of
persuasive speech. Socrates (469-399) emphasised critical thinking to discover the
meaning of things, the truth and justice. Teachers should ask thinking questions, and
use dialogues and discussions to reflect on these things. Plato’s (427-346 BCE)
educational purposes were to maintain the social class structure, women should also
be educated and the curriculum for learners from 6- 18 included reading, writing,
arithmetic, literature, morals, singing and dancing as well as obedience to authority
and control of emotions. After mastering mathematics, learners should study
geometry and astronomy, do gymnastics, fencing, javelin throwing and horseback
riding. Beyond 18 years of age, students pursued intensive physical and military
training. Plato’s student, Aristotle (384-322 BCE), emphasised sensory learning
while his curriculum was based upon subjects which reflect our understanding of
reality. For Aristotle the overall purpose of education was to develop rational people
who could make appropriate decisions to govern society (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek
and Vocke, 2011:64-72).
Ancient Roman education

While Rome was growing from a small republic to a large empire they were pre-
occupied with war and politics. After they became an imperial power, the education
concentrated on developing skilled generals, proper administrators which understand
the extensive Roman laws and were good orators that could apply diplomacy.
Schools were private institutions and attended by boys only that could pay for their
tuition. From 14-17 the curriculum looked similar to that of the Greek secondary
phase: Latin, Greek, grammar, literature, history and mythology, music, geometry,
astronomy and gymnastics. Important to note is that the Greek and the Romans
emphasised physical education, moral and thinking skills and recognised the
connection between education and establishing a proper society (Ornstein, Levine,
Gutek and Vocke, 2011:72-74). The Greek and Roman curriculum features can still
be seen in our Namibian curriculum today because having knowledge of history,
languages, moral values, mathematics and geometry is still perceived to help
learners cope with reality. Fortunately our schooling system does better than the
Romans, because schooling is now compulsory for all citizens, irrespective of gender
and social class. Perhaps in the near future we will like the Greeks and the Romans
did, focus more on the development of thinking abilities.
Medieval education
Historians designate the period between the fall of Rome and the Renaissance (500-
1400) as the Middle Ages or medieval period. After the Roman Empire collapsed the
Catholic Church became the main leader in the field of primary, secondary and even
tertiary education. Parish, monastic and cathedral school offered religious and liberal
arts curricula. Universities such as Paris, Bologna, Salerno, Oxford and Cambridge
provided higher education in the fields of theology, law and medicine. Merchant and
craft guilds established vocational schools to train apprentices in specific trades.
Social class and gender still limited schooling to a small elite minority, although some
women of the noble class were educated as nuns in convents. Hildegard of Bingen
(1098-1179) was a noted female scholar and head of a convent. Thomas Aquinas
(1225-1274) was a theologian at the University of Paris and influenced education
with his focus on both philosophy and religion (Scholasticism) which were part of the
formal curriculum comprising typical Greek-Roman liberal arts subjects (Ornstein,
Levine, Gutek and Vocke, 2011:76-79).
The humanistic education of the Renaissance
The Renaissance (1400-1500) is the transition period between the medieval and
modern ages. The term ‘Renaissance’ relates to the Latin word ‘renascentia’ which
means ‘rebirth’. The Renaissance reflects a period of growth / rebirth in many areas,
such as scientific discoveries (e.g. the compass, printing press, gun powder), art,
establishment of universities, more schools, new goals of education and national
parliaments. The Catholic spiritual focus (theo-centric = God focus) of the medieval
time was replaced by an anthropocentric (= human centred) focus which emphasised
the human intellect, earthly life, material prosperity, happiness and power. The trade
and industry boomed and created a new social ‘middle class’, that could due to the
printing of books get access to the classical Greek literature. The schools
unfortunately attended mostly to the education of the elite via Latin as teaching
medium and strived to develop the intellect, humanistic values and fit bodies.
Desiderius Erasmus (1469-1536) was promoting humanistic education which
included: a learner-centred focus, developing understanding rather than memorising,
use of books and teaching methods that stimulate learners’ interest (Pistorius,
1971:104-119).
The religious education of the Reformation (1500-1600 CE)
The name of this Reformation period is actually referring to the Protestant reformers
such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, Phillip Melanchthon and Ulrich Zwingli who
broke away from the pope and the Catholic Church and established their own
Protestant religious doctrine, schools and curricula (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and
Vocke, 2011:83).It was especially Luther (1483-1546), a German priest and lecturer
in Philosophy that advocated universal primary schooling for the masses, including
girls, so that everybody could learn to read and write and thus also read the Bible.
Protestant primary schools also instructed learners via their mother tongue rather
than via Latin as in Catholic schools. The Reformation primary schools’ curriculum
focused on reading, writing, arithmetic, moral values, the content of the Bible and
singing (Pistorius, 1971:121-125). Schools were to cooperate closely with parents
and teachers were carefully selected according to their religious doctrine. Due to the
strong focus on religious education the question-and-answer method of catechism
dominated teaching methods and promoted memorisation rather than understanding
in secular subjects like history and geography (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and Vocke,
2011:84).
The contribution of the Reformation to modern education is that religious values

were emphasised as part of character building, that education for the masses were
introduced where learners between ages 7-12 were taught in their mother tongue
and that girls were admitted to education as well. Literacy rates across Europe were
raised enormously due to the universal primary education of the Reformation.
Teachers were carefully selected, licensed and supervised. Cooperation between
parents and schools were advocated.
A quick way to see how different eras influenced education is to look at the
overall goals of education for the periods. Compile in table format the goals of
education for the different historical periods.

___________________________________________________________________
It is interesting to note in the following table how the overall aims of education
throughout the ages correlate with the perceived roles that humans had to
perform in each period in history. Observe how the historical aims emphasized
this or that dimension while nowadays we at last realize that humans must be
developed as a whole person. This holistic development captured by the
‘wellness perspective’ ensure that the relevant modern ‘survival skills,
citizenship skills and occupational skills’ are also addressed.
Table 3.1: Historical goals of education
Historical Period Overall goal of education

1. Preliterate societies 1. Teach group survival skills and group culture, e.g.
(7000 – 3000 B.C.) history and traditions
2. Greeks 2. Cultivate responsible and well rounded citizens
and good soldiers
(1600-300 B.C.)
3. Middle ages 3. Develop religious knowledge, social order and
preparation for particular roles/ occupations
(500-1400 A.D.)
4. Renaissance 4. Humanistic focus develops aristocratic learners’

Latin
(1400-1500 A.D.)
and Greek language and literacy abilities
5. Reformation 5. Cultivate general literacy and religious commit
ment
(1500-1600 A.D.)
6. Twenty-first century 6. Holistic education covering many areas, including
personal development and occupational skills,
captured by the ‘Wellness focus’
(Adapted from Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and Vocke, 2011:56, 57)
The education of the period between 1600-1900
Revisit Unit 2, from section 2.2, to explore the education contribution of Comenius
(e.g. his principles of teaching) between1600-1700, the impact of J. J. Rousseau and
the emphasis of Pestalozzi on the ‘learning environment’ and ‘practical learning
experiences’ between1700-1800. Revisit also the contributions of the educators
between 1800-1900, such as the ‘instructional steps’ of Herbart; the introduction of
‘Kindergarten education’ and ‘stimulating methods’ of Froebel; the promotion of
‘private schools’ and ‘science and technology’ by Spencer; the focus on ‘social
development’ and the ‘scientific method of learning’ by Dewey and the emphasis on
‘learner’s development phases’ and an ‘enriched learning environment’ by
Montessori.
The education of the period between 1900-2014

The more recent historical developments in education such as from 1900 till 2014
are also available in Unit 2. Pay attention to the contributions of the five selected
educators and especially the developments in Namibian education after 1990.
Discuss the curriculum developments in Namibia after independence in 1990.

___________________________________________________________________
Remember that the verb ‘discuss’ involves reasoning about facts. Your facts
should include the following:
 The Namibian Constitution provides the right to education for everybody;
 There is one Ministry of Education, Culture and Training;
 NIED was established to develop national curricula via panels;
 National curriculum development guidelines were formulated after
independence;
 The South African Cape syllabi were replaced with Cambridge HIGCSE
and IGCSE senior certificates;
 Curricula were further localised;
 Education Act 16 of 2001 was promulgated which regulate via policies all
issues in education;
 Policies for ICT, language of instruction for up to grade 3 and beyond,
policy for gender and disability cases, HIV/ AIDS policy, textbook and
support materials for teachers and a promotion policy were established;
 Strategic planning for education was included in the national Namibia
Vision 2030 document;
 ETSIP documents planned the implementation of 2030 education goals;
 Early childhood and pre-primary education were implemented;
 Public and private tertiary institutions were established with UNAM
responsible for teacher education;
 A National Qualification Authority and a National Qualification
Framework were established;
 National Professional Standards for Teachers were established;
 More schools were built but some schools still lack basic facilities such as
water and electricity;
 The latest national curriculum changes strive to improve quality of the
education and career education is promoted in junior and senior secondary
schools.
3.2 Discuss the philosophical foundations that influenced curricu-

lum issues and trends
The word ‘philosophy’ originated in Greek: ‘phil’ meaning ‘love’ and ‘sophy’ meaning
‘wisdom’. Thus philosophy is the ‘love for wisdom’. The word philosophy can also
refer to:
 A subject which is divided into branches such as Logic, Ethics, Epistemology,
Metaphysics and Aesthetics;
 Investigation of the nature, causes, or principles of reality, or knowledge or
values, based on logical reasoning rather than empirical methods;
 The critical analysis of fundamental assumptions or beliefs;
 A system of values and beliefs by which one lives, your philosophy of life or of
education (Answers.com, 2006).
The search for truth in the Western World began about 600 BCE when inquiry and
reasoning independent from theology dogma become a practice. Originally, science
as such did not exist and Philosophy covered the entire field via philosophical
branches such as Logic, Ethics, Epistemology, Metaphysics and Aesthetics. The
Greek and Roman philosophy was concerned with the nature of reality and the issue
of virtue in politics; the medieval philosophy was virtually inseparable from early
Christian thought while the philosophy of the Renaissance mainly focused on
epistemology. As facts became available in the modern natural and social sciences
these sciences broke away from metaphysical speculation to pursue the discovery of
facts as subject disciplines (Answers.com, 2006).
The field of Philosophy produced different schools of thought. The philosophical

schools of Idealism, Realism, Humanism, Existentialism, Rationalism, Pragmatism,
Naturalism and Post-modernism made different contributions to our perspectives
about issues. These schools of Philosophy have given rise to schools of philosophy
in Education (Shaw, 2006). The contributions of the schools of philosophical thought
will not be dealt with in this book but in level 8 Curriculum Studies modules. What will
be dealt with in this module are the five schools of ‘educational philosophies’,
namely, Essentialism, Progressivism, Perennialism, Existentialism and
Behaviourism.
3.2.1 Features of the Essentialism educational philosophy

Essentialism refers to the ‘back to basics’ approach in education which means to
instill the ‘essentials of academic knowledge and character development’. The term
‘essentialism’ was originally popularised by the American educator, William Bagley,
although the features of Essentialism are rooted in the Philosophical school of
Realism. Essentialist schools should on the one side, develop traditional moral
values such as respect for authority, perseverance, consideration for others and
practicality rather than trying to reshape society. On the other side, the model citizen
should also have an understanding of the physical world via the natural sciences.
Traditional disciplines such as mathematics, natural science, history, foreign
language and literature form the foundation of the essentialist curriculum.
Essentialists frown upon vocational courses as ‘watered down’ academic content but
they do support computer literacy as part of the basic skills learners should have to
become knowledgeable, disciplined and practical citizens. Learners are assessed
and must pass each grade in order to be promoted to the next grade of more
complex and detailed discipline knowledge. The essentialist schools emphasise
rigorous academic programmes with a long school day and year and challenging
textbooks. Teachers must be subject experts. The teacher is a transmitter of
knowledge rather than a facilitator of learning and his / her focus is more on the
achievement results than on the learning process (Shaw, 2006). According to
Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and Vocke (2011:178) the essentialists created the
‘standards movement’ that specify and assess prescribed standards to determine the
progress of learners. In summary, essentialist education is subject-based and
teacher-centred with strict academic standards.
3.2.2 Features of the Progressivism educational philosophy
The Progressive education movement started in the 1920s and John Dewey was the
person most responsible for the success of the Progressivism. Dewey’s beliefs, and
thus the features of Progressivism, were rooted in the Philosophical schools of
Humanism and Pragmatism which involved ‘respect for individuality’, a ‘high regard
for science’ and ‘receptivity to change’. Dewey regarded the physical universe as
real, that change must be controlled and that society must be democratic with free
thinking and intelligent citizens. The key features of the Progressive education were
of humanistic nature:
Table 3.2: Key classroom features of Progressive education
1. School curricula were broadened to accommodate the relevant needs and

interest of all learners. Instruction in industrial arts and home economics were
therefore included to make education useful and interesting for more
learners.
2. The purpose of education was to prepare learners for their current as well as
for future living as democratic, capable citizens.
3. Teaching methods must rely on the Dewey proposed steps of the scientific
method of inquiry to solve problems.
4. Because education is ‘reconstruction of experience’, learning through doing
or experiencing is best, and therefore the progressive curriculum is designed
around the interests, experiences and abilities of learners.
5. Learners will be motivated if what they must learn is perceived as important
to their lives. Arousing curiosity and motivation must therefore be planned by
teachers.
6. Fieldtrips promote learning by doing.
7. Thought-provoking games will stimulate interest.
8. Learners are encouraged to interact to develop social skills such as
cooperation and tolerance for different points of view.
9. Interdisciplinary perspectives / answers by teachers and learners on issues
are advocated.
10. Teachers should expose learners to scientific, technological and social
developments because ‘change is a constant of the universe that can be
controlled’.
11. Democratic values and behaviour must be developed to minimize
discrimination against gender (especially women), race or minorities.
12. The subject problems to be solved in class must be set in real life contexts to
develop practical problem solving skills (Shaw, 2006).
It is clear that the humanistic features of progressive education enhanced the quality
of education back then and nowadays too. It is the right thing to recognise learners’
development phases and their human and educational rights and relate our teaching
methods, study materials and learning environment to these features. Learner-
centred education in Namibia and elsewhere emphasises these humanistic features
but these features can also be applied in an unbalanced manner.
Discuss the contribution of the Progressive education philosophy to the

development of better education across the world.
___________________________________________________________________
To be able to ‘discuss’ the value of the Progressive philosophy, we need to
describe the progressive features first and weigh some advantages and
disadvantages of the features and come to a conclusion. Do you agree? The
table above and the paragraph following it will assist you to perform this
learning activity.
3.2.3 Features of the Perennialism educational philosophy
The word ‘perennial’ means ‘everlasting’, like flowers that comes up year after year.
A perennial curriculum would then include knowledge that was important over
centuries and that is still relevant today. This important universal core of knowledge
aims at a general (a ‘paideia’) not specialised; a liberal not vocational; a humanistic
not technical education.
Perennialists are generally divided into two groups: those who supported the
religious approach of Thomas Aquinas and those who followed the secular approach
of Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler. The overall aim of education of the secular
approach was to develop our rational powers while for the religious group it was to
develop our religious morals first. The essentialists and the perennialists have similar
aims of education, namely to develop academic knowledge / intellectual powers
firstly and then the moral / character qualities. Both these educational philosophies
also have a teacher-centred approach to subject-based teaching. Both these
educational philosophies have an inflexible curriculum. In 1982 the ‘paideia
curriculum’ of Mortimer Adler recommends a single elementary and secondary
curriculum for all students with no electives except in the choice of a second
language. The reason behind such a universal curriculum for all is the belief that all
human beings possess the same essential rational nature. To allow learners to take
vocational or other courses would deny them the opportunity to fully develop their
rational powers. Nowadays we would rather belief that ‘man is an emotional being
with the capacity to think’ and we can develop many features holistically.
Perennialism differs from essentialism: (a) Essentialism beliefs that the real world is
the physical world while perennialists acknowledge both the physical and the
spiritual world as real worlds. (b) Perennialism supports learners to discover insights
of the physical universe and human nature via philosophical reasoning and scientific
empirical processes, while the essentialists belief that knowledge is discovered via
scientific empirical findings only. (c) The progressivists and the perennialists criticise
the vast amounts of factual information that students are required to absorb and
maintain that schools should rather teach about concepts, their meaning and
relationships to each other. This will shift the focus from memorisation to
understanding of knowledge. (d) Perennialists suggest that greater emphasis should
be placed upon learners’ self study and teacher-guided seminars where analytical
reading and teacher-learner interaction will promote understanding while the
essentialists focus more on lecturing and memorisation of facts (Shaw, 2006). Can
you clarify the difference for someone between the perennialists and essentialists?
The issue of memorising facts versus understanding concepts and the thinking
processes to deal with knowledge is still rife today. It makes sense to understand
concepts and have a basic arsenal of facts, but it is even more important to be able
to process information via proper thinking skills. Perennialism is visible in the
curriculum of Namibia with its mainly academic stream as a core for all. It is only now
(2014) that career education is emerging as another stream for individuals who have
different intelligences as an academic intelligence. (Unit 7 deals with a career
education stream for Namibia).
3.2.4 Features of the Existentialism educational philosophy
The Existentialist philosophy was born in the nineteenth century Europe and is
associated with diverse thinkers such as Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855, a
passionate Christian), Friedrich Nietzsche and Jean Paul Sartre. Nietzsche wrote a
book entitled ‘The Antichrist’ and coined the phrase ‘God is dead’ while Sartre
maintained that ‘existence precedes essence’. That meant for him that we are born
and as we exist we determine our innermost nature or essence. Sartre thus denies
that there is a universal inborn nature in humans. The one thing that the
existentialists did agree upon is that the traditional schools of Philosophy did not
respect ‘individualism’ enough (Shaw, 2006).
Educational existentialism rejects the traditional essentialist philosophy or approach

to education which focused on developing the ‘essentials of academic knowledge
and character development’. The existentialists deny that there is a ‘universal form of
human nature’, rather each person has a free will to develop as one sees fit. For the
existentialists the overall purpose of education is to support learners in their
discovery of their unique personality features, cognitive and other abilities. Learners
must accept responsibility for their decisions, emotions and behaviour but the values
underpinning their decisions, emotions and behaviour may not be prescribed to
them. They must determine for themselves what is ’true or false, right or wrong or
beautiful or ugly’. Truth is thus in the eye of the beholder and there is no objective,
absolute truth, God or values. People and society determines for itself what is right
or wrong.
The existentialist teacher is a facilitator that must create a democratic and

stimulating environment which would guide learners through questions, experiences
and opportunities for decision making to define their own values and nature. The
existentialist curriculum provides a wide variety of subject options from which
learners can choose. The purpose of acquiring subject knowledge is in the first place
to develop their own nature, talents, creativity and behaviour. For example, in History
the behaviour and decisions of individual leaders are important models for learners;
Mathematics and Science may be seen as too objective and less helpful to develop
self-awareness and behaviour. In teaching Art, existentialists encourage individual
creativity and even vocational subjects are seen as a means to ‘teach learners about
themselves and their potential’ rather than as a way of earning a livelihood.
Existentialist teaching methods focus on the individual and learning is self-paced,
self-directed and includes a great deal of individual contact with the teacher (Shaw,
2006). It is clear that the features of Existentialism are rooted in the Philosophical
school of Post-modernism that believes ‘man is his own god’. In Unit 2, section 2.14
which deals with a discussion of Dewey’s ideas, are some ideas about immanent
and transcendental criticism that can be applied to evaluate the contribution of the
Educational Existentialism. Our modern scientific understanding can not agree with
the existentialist view of human nature or the view that there is not a spiritual reality.
3.2.5 Features of the Behaviourism educational philosophy
While the educational existentialism is based on the notion that our free will shape
our innermost nature, behaviourists belief there is no such thing as free will and the
external environment shape our thoughts, feelings and behaviour. For example,
positive reinforcement of desired learner behaviour causes learners eventually to
perform the behaviour on their own.
Behaviourism has its roots in the early 1900s in the work of the Russian
experimental psychologist, Ivan Pavlov (1848-1936) and the American psychologist
John Watson (1878-1958). By refining their studies, professor B.F. Skinner (1904-
1989) ensure the spread of behaviourism and programmed learning into modern
education. Behaviourists belief the physical world is the real world. Moral values
must therefore be deducted from the physical world, not from a spiritual world.
Human nature is not good or bad, but develops as good or bad due to the
environment: our nature is thus a product of our environment in which we grow up.
The nature of the school environment should thus be thoughtfully created to develop
the learners’ potential. The emphasis on the importance of the learning environment
is the one positive contribution that the behaviourists made. Teachers across the
world still use media, class decorations, praise and positive discipline as part of the
learning environment to ensure learning growth (Shaw, 2006).
3.2.6 Features of the Critical educational philosophy
Critical theory is a contemporary educational philosophy advocating the evaluating of

schools and society to uncover exploitative power relationships in order to bring
about equity and social justice. Many of its assumptions are derived from post-
modernist, existentialist, Neo-Marxism, feminist and multicultural theories, while
leading critical philosophers are Henry Giroux and Peter McLaren. Critical theorists
recognise that the dominant group in a society that controls social, political,
economic and educational institutions uses its power to maintain its position and to
subordinate others. Critical theorists thus want to raise the consciousness of people,
especially of those forced into subordinate positions in society, not to accept
conditions that disempower them. The formal curriculum is mostly influenced by the
dominant ruling group and political content is commonly not open for critique
although the ideal is that teachers in a democracy should be expected to critically
discuss all issues so that learners can learn to interpret situations of their lives
(Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and Vocke, 2011:188-190). Namibian teachers should be
allowed within our democracy to speak out against suppression of any nature in
education and ask for rectification of such situations without fear of being dismissed.
3.2.7 Construct your personal philosophy of education
We have now explored educational philosophies and amongst others their views
about the purpose of education, the role of knowledge, the role of the teacher and
learner, the focus on values, the importance of the teaching methods and the
learning environment. Even though we may have strong criticism against the
philosophies they emphasised important issues in education. You need to reflect
upon all the issues that the philosophical perspectives highlighted and crystallises
your own ‘philosophy of education’. Use the following guidelines to help you
formulate your education philosophy that is appropriate for contemporary times:
 Indicate key goals of your education – what your subject content should
develop in learners, e.g. understanding, thinking skills, moral values…
 Clarify your conceptualisation of the learning process, e.g. motivation, deep
learning, resources…
 Clarify your beliefs about the role of the teacher, e.g. transmitter or facilitator,
teaching strategies and methods, subject expertise, classroom management
 Clarify your beliefs about the learning environment, e.g. the ideal relationship
between teacher and learners, praise, resources for active involvement,
dealing with discipline, role of the learner
 Clarify your beliefs about assessment, e.g. types, quality standards, feedback,
use of results as input for improving teaching-learning
 Clarify your ideas about monitoring your effectiveness and professional
growth, e.g. feedback from learners, colleagues, upgrade subject knowledge,
attend professional development opportunities.
Construct your own educational philosophy.

___________________________________________________________________
Use the guidelines above in 3.2.7 to formulate your own education philosophy.
You can use knowledge from many modules in your course to formulate your
philosophy. You could especially Google for examples of a teaching philosophy.
3.3 Discuss the psychological foundations that influenced

curriculum issues and trends
3.3.1 The psychological influence in education between 1600-1900
Revisit Unit 2, from section 2.2, to explore the education contribution between1600-
1700 of Comenius, e.g. his principles of teaching, the impact of J. J. Rousseau and
the emphasis of Pestalozzi on the ‘learning environment’ and ‘practical learning
experiences’ between1700-1800. Revisit also the contributions of the educators
between 1800-1900, such as the ‘instructional steps’ of Herbart; the introduction of
‘Kindergarten education’ and ‘stimulating methods’ of Froebel; the promotion of
‘private schools’ and ‘science and technology’ by Spencer; the focus on ‘social
development’ and the ‘scientific method of learning’ by Dewey and the emphasis on
‘learner’s development phases’ and an ‘enriched learning environment’ by
Montessori. Many of these education pioneers contributed new developments in
education which have a psychological basis.
3.3.2 Modern psychological influences in education
1. The learning theories developed by the behaviourists, the humanists and the
cognitive psychologists highlighted many different issues that make learning
successful and what are barriers to effective learning.
2. Psychology clarified the dimensions of ‘deep’ and ‘surface’ learning and how the
transfer of ideas to other contexts, relates to deep learning.
3. Biological Psychology research assisted educators to understand the learning

functions of the left and the right brain and how to achieve ‘whole-brain’ learning.
4. We discovered the visual, audio and kinaesthetic learning approaches and the
importance of especially visual learning materials.
5. The understanding of the cognitive features of the learning process led to the
proposal of lesson structures and steps that are aligned with the learning
process.
6. The understanding that motivation is the first step of learning stimulated research
into motivation theories and activities which enable us to inspire learners.
7. The Developmental Psychology promoted educators’ understanding of the

features of learners at all ages and phases. Recognising learners’ cognitive,
language, emotional and physical abilities enable teachers to adjust teaching
methods, maintaining of discipline, question levels and learning activities to suit
particular ages and genders.
8. Our understanding of the brain’s learning functions and the learning processes,
guide our perceptions of the strengths and limitations of different teaching-
learning methods and activities, e.g. methods for active involvement of learners,
games, projects, group methods, self-directed learning, field work, experiments.
9. Psychology clarified the thinking involved in different thinking skills from basic
information processing skills to meta-cognitive ones and how verb’s required
thinking can be categorised into lower and higher levels of thinking. Such levels
of thinking influence our ideas of the standard of education (via the classification
of objectives) which assessment must measure.
10. Our scientific knowledge of the learner and the learning process enable
educators to establish teaching principles. Adhering to teaching principles will
create good practices that work for different kinds of students (race, gender
socio-economic level) and settings (e.g. pre-primary, senior primary). In a
previous module (Classroom Teaching and Management) the following 7
principles were clarified:
 Focus the attention of the learner
 Understand the learner
 Understand the learning process
 Provide a supportive and challenging environment
 Establish learning partnerships
 Respond to and shape a variety of social and cultural contexts
 Reflect on, monitor and improve teaching-learning practices
11. Our Psychology knowledge assists teachers to be effective in multicultural

classes, to communicate well and apply praise and criticism according to
particular criteria.
12. The Psychology knowledge also assists schools how to recognise and treat
gifted and disabled learners.
13. The understanding of counselling approaches and processes enable teachers to
counsel learners in personal and academic matters. We are all aware how great
the need is in (Namibian) schools for personal and academic counselling.
It is accepted that you have studied other modules like ‘Classroom Teaching and
Management’, ‘Learner Development and Learning’, ‘Inclusive Education and
Specific Difficulties’ or ‘Counselling and Learner Support’ that all covered some
topics in Psychology. The background knowledge of the above 13 contributions of
Psychology to quality education should therefore be known to you and was not
repeated in this module. But just to make sure that you understand some
background of these 13 contributions let us remind you of the following:
Freud, Jung and Adler pointed out how unconscious motives and childhood
experiences influence personality and mental disorders; Sperry, Hubel and Wiesel
argued that bio-chemical processes underlie certain behaviours; Max Wertheimer
and the Gestalt Theory described some aspects of our perceptions; Linda Bartoshuk
and others researched the role of the senses on information processing; the
behaviourists such as Thorndike, Watson and Skinner promoted the importance of
positive learning environments that include lots of praise and learning materials;
development psychologists such as Piaget suggested stages of learners’ abstract
thinking development while Kohlberg suggested ways of moral development. Robert
Sternberg, Howard Gardner, Richard Paul and many others clarified respectively our
understanding of our intellectual features, eight intelligences and types of thinking
skills; Atkinson and Shiffrin, Ebbinghaus and others contributed towards our
knowledge of the relationship among motivation, deep learning and types of
memories and remembering; David McClelland, Boyatzis, and Maslow explored
motivational theories; Erikson and Vygotsky highlighted the features of the stages of
human development; Mead, Allport, Bertalanffy and Winiarski enlightend us on self
concept and counselling models; Banks expanded the science on multicultural
education while Heider, Weiner and Asch developed our insights into social
behaviours (Weiten, 2011).
To summarise, we could list a lot more details than the 13 above, but it is clear that
our modern psychological understanding has an enormous impact on the quality of
the curriculum design and implementation in schools and classrooms: it guides our
teaching and learning, our relationships, our management and assessment
practices.
Write an essay which discusses the value of the Psychology foundation in

education universally and in Namibia.

___________________________________________________________________
Remember that the verb ‘discuss’ involves reasoning about facts. The 13 facts
above show the advantages (and thus the value) of applying psychology
knowledge in education. Note the extent of the value of psychology knowledge:
it benefits many areas in education and thus also many stakeholders: teaching
and learning, our relationships, our management and assessment practices. Do
you see the stakeholders that benefit? The teachers, learners, school
management, parents, departments in government that plan and budget for,
support and assess progress in education.
3.4 Evaluate the political, legal and economical foundations that

influenced curriculum issues and trends
3.4.1 Political influences

The Catholic Church provided and ruled over the institutions and curricula of
education for the elite until the Protestant Reformation. Nowadays the role of the
church and the state are separated and education is accepted as a constitutional
human right. Consequently public schools are provided and controlled by the state:
e.g. the curricula, the textbooks, the appointment of teachers, the policies and
procedures, the teacher-learner ratio per class, teacher salaries, and so forth. Let us
look into some more detail how the political factors influence education.
1. It is a universal phenomenon that schools have school boards which are elected
by parents and on which parents, the principal and some teachers serve. In
Namibia the powers of the school board are to develop a mission and goals of
the school; advise school management on the extra-mural curriculum; advise the
regional director on educational needs of the school; request the permanent
Secretary for permission of the use of the school facilities for community
purposes; to consider any case of misconduct by a learner or staff member and
to monitor the generating and spending of school funds (Government Gazette of
the Republic of Namibia, 2001:15-16). In most developed countries the school
board also set general policies and rules in the school; interview and select
teachers; promote staff relations and interests; address issues of learners’ rights
and responsibilities; analyse the curriculum effectiveness and assessment
results and
address the needs of parents and the requirements of government (Ornstein,
Levine, Gutek and Vocke, 2011:200).
2. In many developed countries school boards hire or dismiss a principal, but in

Namibia school boards interview applicants and recommend their first choice to
the government which may or may not appoint the selected person. The
appointing of principals in schools across the world is sometimes more based on
political or personal affiliations than on selecting the most competent person.
The principal’s job includes nowadays functions of leadership and management.
As a leader the principal must evaluate the prescribed curriculum and
government policies; set a vision and mission for the school and align
stakeholders (parents included) to achieve the vision. As a manager the principal
must oversee the daily implementation operations of the school, manage the
staff well and evaluate the quality of the education.
3. The political foundation influences where schools are erected and what the size
of the schools will be. Experience has shown that learning is best in secondary
schools with a 600-900 learners and that schools with populations larger than
900 learners have more performance and behaviour challenges (Ornstein,
Levine, Gutek and Vocke, 2011:209). Namibia not only has not enough schools
but many of the available ones must accommodate more learners than the
physical facilities can serve and some secondary schools have a shortened
school day to fit in a second intake of learners.
4. It is common perspective that the state has the legal responsibility to provide free
basic education for all which can be seen as free education till the end of grade
10 or the end of secondary schooling. In many developing countries the ‘free
education policy’ is difficult to implement fully due to its economic implications for
the state. In Namibia there is still a lack of enough schools; enough textbooks
and other learning materials are not provided by the government and some
schools lack basic facilities such as water and electricity. (See Unit 2 for some
statistics about schools in Namibia). Namibian parents who can pay school and
examination fees are expected to do so and schools need to generate their own
funding in order to pay for copy paper and maintenance of the school.
5. It is also acceptable practice that the state set the national school curriculum and
the minimum standards for promotion. In Namibia, like elsewhere in the world,
there are national professional standards for teachers which all teacher training
qualifications must adhere to. In this manner the government regulates the
design and implementation of the national schooling curriculum. In many
countries parents of some communities establish private schools when they
doubt the quality of the curriculum design or the effectiveness with which a
school implements it. In Namibia there are 119 private schools and a total of
1604 public schools. Private schools are by law required to have open access for
all but the parents must be able to pay the compulsory expensive school fees,
which are above N$ 2200 per child per month in 2014.
6. The government set the standards of teacher appointments, the remuneration

scales for qualifications and experience, the code of conduct for teachers and
the rules of dismissal. In Namibia a teacher must have at least a three year
recognised qualification. We do not yet have a teacher licensing system and
performance appraisal system as many international countries have. What
Namibia needs to manage effectively is the taking of disciplinary actions against
teachers and principals that do not perform as required. Hopefully this will be
addressed soon by either the government or school boards that exercise their
mandate.
7. Typically, the ruling power of a country determines the prescribed historical

perspectives in textbooks, whether or how religious perspectives are included in
the curriculum, and whether or not evolutionism or creation of the earth by God
is accepted. In Namibia the content of ‘Religious education’ changed after
independence from teaching Christianity to teaching about different religions,
including Christianity.
8. Learning materials like textbooks should meet government specified syllabus

criteria, including depicting local environments and circumstances, national
information and people and do not discriminate against any culture or gender.
9. Principals, regional directors and Ministry of Education staff are in many
countries appointed very much according to political connections or affiliation
with the ruling party instead of according to competence for the job.
10. Across the world the ineffectiveness of Ministries of Education and school
management slow down the development of quality education and often
communities step in and establish private schools to ensure quality education for
their children. The ideal solution to poor management in schools is however to
have a national school auditing system and action against educators who do not
meet the prescribed requirements and standards.
3.4.2 Legal influences
1. The Constitution of the Republic of Namibia (1990) introduces important

‘education for all’ changes in the education system of Namibia to be on par with
the rest of the world. Article 20 of the Constitution (1990:12-13) stipulates that “all
persons shall have the right to education”; “primary education will be provided free
of charge”; children shall not be allowed to leave school until they have completed
their primary education or have attained the age of sixteen (16) years, whichever
is the sooner …”; “all persons shall have the right, at their own expense, to
establish and to maintain private schools, or colleges or other institutions of
tertiary education, provided that there are no restrictions imposed based on race
or colour”. In most developed countries access to school education is guaranteed
in constitutions although in some developing countries cultural traditions still block
access of girls to education.
2. The Education Act 16 of 2001 repealed all the colonial education laws and
provided Namibian policies for the provision of an accessible, equitable,
qualitative and democratic national education service; for a National Advisory
Council on Education; for regional educational forums and offices; for a National
Examination, Assessment and Certification board; for the establishment and
functioning of school boards; for the establishment and administration of an
Education Development Fund; for the establishment and administration of state
schools and hostels; for the registration and functioning of private schools; for
policies regarding learner admission, punishment other learner related aspects;
regarding the national school curriculum and examinations; for the inspection of
schools; about adult education and literacy programmes; policies regarding pre-
primary institutions and support for pre-primary education; policies for the service
and behaviour by teachers; policies regarding dealing with general offences and
their penalties (Government Gazette of the Republic of Namibia, 2001). All
countries have these kind of legal policies to regulate these education issues and
by which courts can enforce them.
3. Legal criteria for the selection of teachers into teacher education programmes
are very vague if they exist at all in a country. Teachers are mostly admitted by
tertiary institutions if they have no criminal record, meet the necessary academic
prerequisites and are able to pay for the education. In some countries teachers
who do not meet the academic requirements are assisted via developmental /
bridging programmes to qualify for admission.
4. Legal practitioners in different societies created a Code of Conduct for Teachers

that spell out their rights, responsibilities, policies and procedures for disciplinary
actions (the due process rights) to the benefit of all relevant stakeholders in
education. The Code of Conduct cover issues such as immorality,
insubordination and unprofessional conduct which are key issues in dismissing a
teacher.
5. The development of legal perspectives until now ensure that children‘s human
and educational rights are officially documented to ensure their fair treatment
and to prevent abuse by any person or institution. In some countries teachers
are expected by law to report symptoms of abuse either to the school or to
relevant national organisations.
6. Human rights laws also prohibit corporal punishment, verbal or emotional abuse
of learners in schools in most developed countries. Corporal punishment is also
prohibited in Namibia.
7. Teachers and learners are protected by sexual harassment laws. Guidelines for
educators to deal with potential sexual harassment are: (a) Do not ignore the
situation (b) Find out exactly what happened (c) Do not embarrass or humiliate
any party involved in an incident (d) Initiate steps to support the alleged victim
(e) Apply consequences according to the school behaviour codes (f) Explore the
possibility that the incident was not an isolated occurrence (g) Provide sexual
harassment awareness programmes in school (h) Refer learners or parents to
counsellors if need be (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and Vocke, 2011:272).
8. Religious indoctrination as in the Medieval times is now illegal in schools of most

democratic countries. The democratic system allows individuals freedom of
religious beliefs and practices and the public schools must uphold this
constitutional right. This means for example, schools may not actually read from
the Christian Bible, song Christian songs or pray in school gatherings.
Fortunately many schools in Namibia actually still follow these Christian
traditions without anybody complaining about it. In Namibia, a subject such as
‘Religious and Moral Education’ replaced the former ‘Religious Studies’ and now
introduces learners to perspectives of different religions rather than advocating
one religion. Further possible ways of handling the ‘democratic rights’ versus
‘educating the spiritual dimension of learners’ is to allow public school parents
and learners of different religious views, to be excused from Christian-oriented
ceremonies and to have an alternative ‘Religious and Moral Education’ subject
with pure Christian views. Private schools can offer ‘Religious Studies’ based on
pure Christian views if a particular community prefer that. Life Orientation or Life
Skills as a public school subject in Namibia do teach proper civic values and
behaviours according to our laws, the dangers of drugs and alcohol, the
disadvantages of teenage pregnancies and how to prevent attracting HIV and so
forth. Most of our civic laws are in agreement of values promoted by different
religions.
9. There are international laws that protect people (thus also teachers and learners)
with HIV or AIDS against discrimination.
10. Teachers are allowed to belong to teacher unions and professional organisations
but because teaching is considered as a vital public service the law in many
countries prohibit teachers to strike (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and Vocke,
2011:249).
11. Teachers are still perceived as models for learners and are expected to follow a
prescribed dress code in schools and live exemplary lives.
12. Teachers can be taken to court if their lack of supervision caused learners to be
injured in class or on the playground. Especially in developed countries the
original practice of ‘in loco parentis’ (where school authorities assume the
powers of the child’s parents) have declined and schools and teachers are taken
to court by parents or learners more readily (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and Vocke,
2011:259). It is therefore important for schools to monitor the access to the
school and ensure that learners bring no kind of weapon into the school grounds.
Several cases are known of learners that shot teachers and fellow learners in
America and that must clearly be prevented in future.
13. Teachers must respect copy right laws which regulate the reproduction and
distribution of educational materials. Sometimes authors and publishers apply
‘fair use guidelines’ which allow teachers / schools to copy a certain amount of
pages of their publications for free (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and Vocke,
2011:258).
14. Modern technological developments lead to government and school policies

about the use of cell phones in school, the use of computers and the access of
learners to immoral Internet websites and materials.
15. In developed countries laws are in place to allow schools to search students,
cars and lockers if there is a reasonable suspicion that such students are
involved in taking or selling drugs. Trained drug sniffing dogs may also be used
as long as the dogs do not touch the learners. Schools are also allowed to test
their members of sport teams for drugs. (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and Vocke,
2011:268-269).
3.4.3 Economic influences
1. The fact that basic education is a human right means that governments have to
spend an enormous amount on education. Formal pre-primary education was
recently activated in Namibia and is an additional education expense. The
Namibian government has spent for the past few years more than 20% of the
national budget on education. Unfortunately most of this money goes into
salaries for Ministry of Education officials and teachers. There is not money
available for schools for buying teaching-learning materials, for staff
development courses, for sport facilities or a school bus, or resource centre and
many more. One solution to channel more money to the schools is to design
more effective structures for the education system with less unproductive staff.
2. Especially in developing countries the population growth is higher than the

economic growth rate and such countries often struggle to meet the physical
facilities demands for educating the fast growing populations. Even in Namibia
there are not yet enough schools and some existing schools lack water,
electricity, telephones and sanitation facilities. (See Unit 2 for statistics about
schools).
3. In developed countries governments have formulas of funding different kinds of

schools and certain portions of various taxes are allocated to education. It is
especially difficult for rural schools in developing countries to generate funds
within their poor communities with the result that quality of education suffers and
the needs of special education learners are mostly not addressed at all. In
Namibia donor agencies from Finland, America and Germany have made huge
contributions to the upgrading of quality education in Namibia by donating funds,
building schools, paying for textbooks and computer laboratories and providing
teachers in scarce subjects. Some businesses in Namibian cities donate funds to
especially private school projects but many public schools struggle to generate
funding from businesses and parents.
4. In Namibia, private schools / educational institutions are as a rule, not supported

by government, but in some countries governments do support private schools
or parents to enrol their children in private schools.
5. In Namibia many of the prospective teachers in teacher training institutions study
with government bursaries while these teacher education institutions are also
heavily subsidised by government. UNAM lecturers in the Faculty of Education
are expected to produce ‘Study guides’ for students in order to reduce their
textbook expenses and thus study costs.
6. Economic circumstances cause unequal quality of education for learners in

countries. Learners with home circumstances where there is not enough food, a
warm place to sleep, a room with a table and light to do homework, will not fully
benefit from school education. Private schools have commonly better physical
facilities and well qualified teachers as most public schools, and only rich parents
can afford such high quality private school education for their offspring and pay
for extra tutorial classes for their children.
7. Economic conditions not only influence the availability of textbooks / resources in

schools, the teacher-learner ratio and the maintenance of schools, but influence
the salaries of teachers which influence the attrition rate of teachers, their
motivation and ultimately their quality input into education.
It is clear from the above that the political, legal and economical factors exercise a
strong positive or negative influence on the quality of education.
Evaluate the influence of political, legal and economic foundations on school

education and curricula.

___________________________________________________________________
Remember that the verb ‘evaluate’ involves determining the value or worth of
these three foundations according to some criteria. These criteria in this case
should be ones that are used to determine ‘quality education’ (See Unit 1.5 for
quality criteria). The worth / impact of the political, legal and economic
foundations are clearly spelled out for you in the numbered paragraphs above
under 3.4. There is no need for me to repeat those ideas here.
3.5 Analyse the social foundations that influenced curriculum

issues and trends
To understand the impact of ‘social foundations’ on education or schooling, we must

be clear about the meaning of the term ‘society’ and ‘social’. According to the
Longman Dictionary of contemporary English (2011:1669-1670) the term ‘society’
could mean a small group of people (like a club or section), or a large group of
people who share an area or space (from town to country), laws, organisations,
customs, aims or interests. The term ‘social’ refers to features of a society such as
political structures and activities, economic structures, sport, religious, education
structures and activities, entertainment activities, languages, food, clothing,
technology in use and so forth. Although there are subgroups within societies with
differences in ethics, customs and social class, as a nation there are common
values, aims and laws shared by all.
Societies developed from homogeneous to multicultural ones and schooling became

multicultural. Comenius and Luther advocated education for all not only for the elite
and today access to basic education is viewed as a constitutional right of humans
irrespective of gender, race or social status. Society has a culture which education
develops and transmits in conjunction with parents and churches but schools often
feel that a proper behaviour education basis at home is lacking.
Let us explore the 21st century features of societies and how these society features
directly or indirectly influence ‘schools’ as mini societies.
1. Some of the key issues in society today (2000-2014) are:
 Alcoholism, drug abuse, steroids use, tobacco addiction, HIV / AIDS

 Health issues due to a fast lifestyle with little healthy cooking and
exercise, e.g. obesity, diabetes, eating disorders,
 Safe and nutritious food production, organic food and genetic tampering
 Family and city violence, terrorism, gun control laws
 Racism, gender equality, ageism (discrimination against old age),
affirmative action, discrimination against minorities,
 Nuclear contamination of environment, embryonic stem cell research,
environmental abuse via pollution, recycling and conservation, natural
disasters across the world
 Unaffordable health care for the poor, poor availability of welfare
 Poor quality of education for some learners, communities, regions
 Gay marriages, prostitution, pornography, sexual perverse media and
entertainment venues, unwanted pregnancies, abortions
 Divorces, single parents, double jobs to survive, little attention to
children
 Urbanisation and its problems of housing, employment, safety, crime,
economic competition, transport, water and sanitation, etc.
 World population growth consequences, military expenses, war in
countries, immigration tendencies due to war, refugee camps
 Child neglect and abuse, human trafficking, HIV /AIDs orphans
 Stress overload, absenteeism from work, suicide, depression, loneliness
 Human and educational rights of children, corporate downsizing
 High consumer debt and bankruptcy, global financial crisis, strikes,
poverty, inflation
 Global warming gases, climate change dangers, bulk food production
rates, energy usage rate and price
 International communication networks, social media, cell phones,
Internet immoral television content, face book, skype
 Fast transport, airplane transport, prices of cars
 Knowledge explosion, necessity of computer literacy for employment,
multicultural societies and schools, social class differences, lack of
education at home
 The love of money, instant gratification, selfish lifestyles, you tube,
tattoos
(Adapted from Buzzle, 2014).
2. Most of the above society features have a direct or indirect impact on schools
and the quality of education. Let us clarify this impact for a few of the features:
Learners using drugs disrupt school activities and drop out sooner than later;
dietary issues may cause lack of energy and paying attention in class; poor
parents and single parents may struggle to afford proper housing, food and
paying attention to children which all effect children’s self-image and motivation
for learning; the overemphasis of sex by the media and entertainment world
direct learners’ attention away from the importance of learning and let them
focus on sexual relationships instead; alcohol abuse in homes lead to poverty
and abuse of family members instead of receiving loving care which keep one
emotional stable and courageous; car crashes, divorces and AIDS leave many
orphans and ‘welfare children’ with little stability, loving care and hope for a
future; modern communication technology and the Internet occupy learners
attention and time and distract them from their education activities.
3. Schools may lack resource materials and enough well qualified teachers in some
societies which reduce attention to learners and their active involvement in
learning. The democratic and caring atmosphere of a school, the extra-curricular
activities available and the style of school management as part of the hidden
curriculum must be consciously applied to promote quality education. Personal
attention, guidance and loving care can be demonstrated to learners during
cultural and sport activities.
4. Learners which lack morals, decency and live instinct driven lives often bully
other children in school or abuse them emotionally because they are of a
different race, gender, for being poor or for being a good scholar. Teachers must
combat abuse vehemently and support all learners emotionally while giving
sound direction for proper personal and social behaviour.
5. Schools need to support parents who need advice about parenting and refer
them to available professional government services and assistance.
6. The goal of education changed from cultivating survival skills to obtain

knowledge for the sake of knowledge, then to knowledge serving a purpose of
coping with life (e.g. driving, sex education, life skills, global understanding) and
developing some employability skills and preparing one for further study. The
fact is however, the goals of developing character, emotional maturity /
intelligence and thinking skills are neglected in schools and tertiary institutions.
7. Television, cell phones with games and videos or Internet movies are much
more exciting than school lessons and teachers have to prepare well to make
lessons interesting, meaningful and explain the value of the knowledge to be
learned. Teachers must be able to motivate learners intrinsically by showing
them our human mandate to grow by learning and the role of the spiritual
dimension in shaping our humanness. Living according to your instinctive
desires leads to unhappiness and self-destruction. Just look around you in the
world to confirm this truth.
8. Technology is here to stay and learners must be taught how to use the Internet
safely and the dangers of pornography, viewing violence regularly and being
exposed to satanic oriented entertainment. One must learn to consciously select
proper viewing sites and stay away from ones which stimulate carnal desires.
Schools must teach about our purpose on earth, what our gender roles are and
how to maintain healthy relationships. Leadership in boys and girls must be
developed and girls must have equal access to educational opportunities.
Fortunately, developed societies do not reserve some jobs and careers for men
or women only as it was in the past. Parents and teachers must be made aware
gender equality, of not gender stereotyping jobs, of not stereotyping
performances in mathematics or science or vocational subjects and of
encouraging females to complete their studies after school before getting
married.
9. Capitalistic societies favour winning, competition and selfish living to achieve

comfort, wealth and status. The noble motives of cooperation, caring for and
helping others and ‘doing the right thing’ even if it hurts must be taught as well.
10. A challenging problem of modern technological societies is the postponement of
adulthood of school leavers because the economy has little need for untrained
youth. This causes the youth to live off their parents while they have no job or
income and can not live independently. The results are alcohol and drug abuse,
drunken and reckless driving, joining of gangs, suicide, early pregnancy,
abortions, feeling useless and doing menial jobs without discovering their talents
or calling. Schools should address these problems of the youth by moral and sex
education, developing of emotional maturity to combat anti-social behaviour, to
go against peer pressure and thinking skills to make logical decisions in future
(Adapted from Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and Vocke, 2011:312-315).
11. There is a correlation between social class and educational achievement scores
in reading, maths and science and other subjects. Ornstein, et al., (2011:319,
323) clarify the social classes as follows: Social class is based on socio-
economic status factors. Four social classes are identified. The upper class
includes the wealthy people with property and investments; the middle class
refers to professionals, managers, small business owners, technical workers and
technicians while the working class is generally divided into the upper working
class (including skilled craft workers) and the lower working class (unskilled
manual workers). In recent years social scientists have identified an underclass
group within the working class. The underclass resembles the lower working
class but its members are the third or fourth generation to live in poverty and
depend on public assistance to survive. Racial and ethnic minority groups are
commonly low in academic achievement, high school and further graduation
rates and have higher drop out rates than upper or middle class members.
These statistics-based conclusions show that a nurturing environment with
resources, love and moral values make a difference in achieving learning
success. Hopefully societies will address this lack of nurturing environments at
home and at school in future. Compulsory pre-primary education and older age
admission to primary school for learners can rectify a lot in this regard.
12. Classrooms are multicultural and teachers need to apply particular principles to
ensure fair treatment to all learners, e.g. show empathy for background
circumstances; discuss social justice; create a democratic atmosphere; provide
examples from different cultures; pose questions to all members in class; give
more personal attention to those with academic or emotional problems; discuss
racism and how to develop anti-racist attitudes; use sport, cultural and group
learning to bond different cultures; protect low or high achievers from being
ridiculed by peers; discuss in class the purpose and importance of rules in life
(Engelbrecht, 2013:130-131).
13. Counsel learners how to overcome socio-economic circumstances: stop playing

a victim; improve their study methods and apply deep learning; focus on
improving your vocabulary; be aware of their emotional reactions and manage
their emotions; study diligently towards your future plans; live by moral values
not instincts; stand up to peer pressure that would like to keep you from breaking
out of the victim mode, stop blaming others and take responsibility for creating
your own destiny, stop comparing your life to those of others, be friendly and
caring towards others, clarify to learners that bullies are scared and emotionally
hurting people, etc.
14. School management (especially in Namibia) needs to use school boards to

inform government about their school needs, e.g. they need to negotiate with
government to receive enough teachers in order to prevent classes and teachers
from being overloaded. School management also needs to manage school time
well to avoid unproductive days. In fact, school management should make
available the criteria for the whole school auditing to all staff so that each
member understand their responsibility. Management should also provide
professional development opportunities for teachers, e.g. how to motivate
learners intrinsically; clarify the difference between to educate versus teaching
subject knowledge; how to focus on recognising and rewarding good learners
behaviour and to build up learners with praise and encouragement; using peer
teaching tutors; how to involve teachers; how to prevent dropout of learners; how
to perceive and address learners’ emotional and academic issues.
It is clear from the above that the social factors exercise a strong positive or
negative influence on the quality of education. I belief the Namibian pre- and lower
primary learners need more learning of English vocabulary so that the change from
mother tongue to English medium of instruction after grade 3 has a sound
foundation. In addition, I belief that the national curriculum focuses so much on
transmitting subject knowledge that real education of developing morals, emotions,
and thinking skills are not taking place. In fact, the few subjects that could contribute
to developing the Namibian nation’s life orientations and life skills are not even
perceived as ‘promotional subjects’ and are often not taught in schools, because the
system says ‘they are not really important and no examination of them is necessary’.
Not enough schools are caring institutions that develop / educate people but rather
focus on ‘teaching’ and ‘memorising’ instead of on ‘educating’ and ‘what is learned’.
Our school societies need to promote ‘understanding’ because only if we understand
what we learn, can that knowledge change our behaviour and attitudes. Namibian
schools do include universal and indigenous knowledge. It is important that we
develop ‘global citizens’ but also address our ‘local circumstances and needs’. The
modern social focus should shift from ‘education for all’ to ‘quality education for
all’. (Revisit section 1.5 and decide what you think of the quality of the Namibian
education). School management needs drastic improvement, e.g. there should be
school auditing criteria to guide school management; the 7-day school timetable has
no advantage above a 5-day timetable and this system should be discarded by our
school societies. Many schools in Namibia do not succeed in really getting parents
involved in many ways in school activities. Schools need to support parents in how
they could support their children’s education and learning.
3.6 Examine the relationship between curriculum ‘foundations’

and ‘orientations’ and curriculum ‘designs’
Curriculum orientation: Revisit section 1.7 about the 5 orientations of Eisner /

Babin. Remind yourself what is a ‘curriculum orientation’. We said “A curriculum
orientation refers to the ‘overall direction’, the ‘position or bearing that a curriculum
takes’ in terms of the core function of schooling / education”. The 5 curriculum
orientations thus propose different ideas about the main aims of school education.
This implies that the school curriculum would place different importance ratings on
subjects and topics from the cognitive to the competency-based to the academic
rationalisation orientations. The problem is that each orientation claims that their
view is the best view on the aims of education. Each of these ‘best views’ have a too
narrow focus for a school curriculum. The ‘wellness orientation’ aims however cover
all features of human nature and are therefore more complete and accurate than any
other single curriculum orientation which has a narrow perspective.
Curriculum foundations: Unit 3 analysed and discussed how historical foundations,

social foundations, political, economical and legal factors, psychological foundations
and philosophical foundations impacted upon curriculum design issues and
curriculum implementation practices over time. This is very important for curriculum
scholars to understand the role of these foundations, so that we can recognize and
manage the impact of these forces in our current local and international contexts.
Curriculum design: We said in section 1.2 “To design a curriculum would then
mean to conceive and plan it; to create it by outlining its broad structure which will
include details related to curriculum components, such as overall aims, subjects,
learning outcomes, admission and assessment policies and so forth. The design of a
curriculum seems therefore to refer to the birth of a new curriculum”.
The relationship among the three: Many of the curriculum foundations / forces
influence curriculum design components such as the aims, content, teaching-
learning methods and assessment, e.g. the historical, social, psychological and
philosophical foundations. The curriculum orientations are also related to the
philosophical and social development perspectives of a society which influence the
national curriculum aims of education. Thus: curriculum orientations are part of the
curriculum foundations which influence the nature of curriculum designs and
implementation thereof in schools.
3.7 Explain the role of political powers in curriculum design and
implementation
Revisit section 3.4.1 where it is clarified how political factors influence the curriculum
and education. It was indicated that the political party in power in a country can direct
and influence education via the appointments of (a) individuals such as principles,
regional directors, permanent secretaries; (b) via introducing laws and policies, e.g.
Education Act 16 of 2001 in Namibia which amongst other things abolish corporal
punishment; (c) formulating policies about assessment, school admission, teacher-
learner ratios; (d) via establishing education structures and how they relate to each
other; (e) via prescribing procedures to be followed by parents, schools and school
boards. In addition there is (f) the provision or withholding of funds for schools that
influences education strongly and (g) the selection of curriculum content and
prescribing of what counts as ‘promotional’ and ‘non-promotional’ subjects. In short,
political powers regulate the design and implementation of the curriculum and if they
do not consult with enough qualified educators, parents and learners, the political
power can be misused and the nature of the education system can be based upon
inappropriate motives as well as insights in education.
3.8 Explain the roles of different stakeholders in curriculum design

and implementation
The roles of political powers are already dealt with above and will not be addressed
here as part of the range of stakeholders in education. There are many different
stakeholders in education, such as the principal, heads of departments, teachers,
administrative staff in schools, security and cleaning staff, parents, learners, school
board members, businesses, regional directors, NIED (National Institute for
Educational Development), NIED syllabus panels, the DNEA (Directorate of National
Examinations and Assessment) education officials in the Ministry of Education, the
permanent secretary of the Ministry of Education and the Minister of Education.
The next section (3.9) highlights the stakeholders that play a major leadership role in
education and therefore that section will deal with the Minister of Education, the
Directorate of National Examinations and Assessment, the National Institute for
Educational Development and the leadership roles of principals.
3.8.1 The roles of heads of departments

Heads of departments support the principal with the strategic planning and the daily
operational management of the school which includes:
 As part of school management participate in setting the vision, mission and
yearly programmes of the school
 Induction and mentoring of beginning teachers in their professional
development
 Manage relationships among staff of his department
 Address the teaching-learning needs of staff in the department
 Stay ahead of subject knowledge and professional developments
 Monitor that teaching and assessment policies are met
 Evaluate assessment results of the department in order to determine what must
be improved
 Motivate teachers and provide professional development opportunities
 Do performance appraisals of teachers
 Chairing meetings to discuss teaching-learning challenges and successes
 Maintain positive relationships with parents
 Monitor the standards of tests and examinations
 Follow a democratic management style
 Maintain accurate records of all relevant issues, e.g. learner results, staff
development and achievements, resources needed and available, minutes of
meetings, syllabi, government policies, e.g. Act 16 of 2001, teachers’ code of
conduct, school rules, school auditing checklists, etc.
 Take disciplinary actions against staff and learner’s
(Adapted from Clarke, 2008:143-147)
3.8.2 The roles of teachers

A good teacher must be clear about the key duties that he or she must be able to
perform. What do you think are your main duties or roles as a teacher? Here are the
roles that a Namibian teacher is required to perform.
The main duties or roles of a teacher
He / she must be:
 A facilitator of learning
 A producer and user of learning materials
 A subject specialist
 A learner phase (e.g. pre-primary) and learning specialist
 Advisor to learners and parents regarding physical, social and mental
wellness
 An assessor of learning
 A professional leader and manager
 A model citizen and
 Community development agent
(Engelbrecht, 2007; National Qualifications Authority, 2006:9)
These roles are internationally (e.g. in Canada, Australia and South Africa) accepted
as key roles for teachers, which suggest the Namibian teacher education is on par
with international perspectives and standards. The above roles show that teachers
are active in implementing a curriculum. In Namibia teachers can also get involved in
developing syllabi via the syllabus panels of NIED. Teachers can also (through the
school board) request NIED to make syllabus or curriculum changes.
It is interesting to note that the roles of teachers could be categorised in terms of
‘standard occupational roles’ (e.g. facilitator), ‘leadership and management roles’, ‘job
environment roles’ (guidance and counselling), and general education roles, e.g.
model citizen and community development agent). The standard occupational roles
will however carry more weight during the initial education, but the other roles should
not be ignored.
The above roles can be analysed into tasks and responsibilities of teachers.
Teachers have the responsibility to:
 Maintain a safe and supportive learning atmosphere
 Exhibit qualities of competency, creativity and self-control
 Respect each student as a person
 Demonstrate understanding and concern for the individual learner and
his or her needs, including referring learners for special education
evaluations
 Inspire in learners the desire for personal growth
 Guide learners toward the development of self-discipline
 Keep informed about current rules and policies
 Enforce policies and rules in cooperation with parents, learners and
administrators
 Record data on learners, e.g. about results, disciplinary actions, as
required by policies
 Communicate with students and their parents about successes and
challenges
 Be conscious of professional ethics in relationships with learners,
parents, fellow teachers and national education administrators
(Boston Public Schools Committee, 2013)
In order to perform these roles and responsibilities competently, teachers must
possess particular ‘knowledge’, ‘skills’ and ‘attitudes’. The Namibian ‘National
Professional Standards for Teachers” describe the competent teacher in terms of the
following headings:
‘professional knowledge’, ‘professional values’,
Features for
curriculum
implementation
‘professional practice’ (skills), ‘professional relationships’.
Discuss the impact of the roles and their related tasks of a teacher with
regards to the implementation of a curriculum.
3.8.3 Roles of school board members

It is a universal phenomenon that schools have school boards which are elected by
parents and on which parents, the principal and some teachers serve. In Namibia the
powers of the school board are to develop mission goals of the school; advise school
management on the extra-mural curriculum; advise the regional director on
educational needs of the school; request the permanent Secretary for permission of
the use of the school facilities for community purposes; to consider any case of
misconduct by a learner or staff member and to monitor the generating and spending
of school funds (Government Gazette of the Republic of Namibia, 2001:15-16). It is
time that school boards in Namibia take their role seriously and take on government
about overruling their school board decisions; about enough teachers and resources;
the low passing policy and the fact that there is no disciplinary action against
principals or teachers who should have been dismissed.
In most developed countries the school board also set general policies and rules in
the school; interview and select teachers; promote staff relations and interests;
address issues of learners’ rights and responsibilities; analyse the curriculum
effectiveness and assessment results and address the needs of parents and the
requirements of government (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek and Vocke, 2011:200).
3.8.4 Roles of administrative staff in schools
The Namibian schools do not have enough administrative staff with the result that
teachers and heads of departments must perform a wide range of planning, organising
and controlling tasks that leave them less time to focus on actual teaching-learning
tasks. A Namibian school normally has at least a receptionist and a secretary. The
receptionist needs to be informed about school regulations and rules to answer
enquiries of learners and parents. In addition, she must have a friendly personality to
make people feel welcome and respected. A receptionist can even influence the
motivation and hope of learners and encourage parents to be involved in school
activities. If schools are clever the receptionist’s job description includes her assisting
heads of departments or even teachers in the tasks of organising and controlling
things. The secretary is commonly allocated to the management team of a school and
assists them in executing all kinds of administrative tasks, such as typing letters and
examination papers or e-mails, filing reports, making telephone calls, producing photo
copies, make appointments and enquiries and so forth. As in the case of the
receptionist, the secretary saves the teaching and management staff a lot of time and
trouble so that they have some time left for preparing and teaching well. It is a pity that
these two posts do not have a proper salary attached to it in Namibia.
3.8.5 Roles of security and cleaning staff

Namibia is relatively free from shootings and drug smuggling on school grounds, but
having effective school entrance security will become more important in the future. In
some oversees countries learners walk through metal detectors to prevent guns and
knives from entering the school grounds. Many schools in developed countries require
learners to wear indentity badges so that security guards and teachers can identify
outsiders. Security guards can also contribute to combat the smuggling of drugs onto
the school grounds. Security guards can also assist with directing the flow of traffic at
some school events and watch over the cars of parents during the events. Overall,
security guards play an important part in creating a save education environment by
protecting people and property.
Cleaning staff create a clean and healthy environment for staff and learners. Dirty and
unhygienic circumstances do not inspire anyone to teach or learn. The toilet facilities
need especially to be hygienic to prevent spreading of disease. Cleaning staff need to
be encouraged to educate en reprimand learners that misbehave in the toilet facilities
and must be requested to report such learners. Cleaners must receive the necessary
cleaning materials and report out of order facilities immediately. My perception of
cleaning staff in Namibia is that many of them do not do a good job and their work is
not properly monitored. This must not happen in our schools.
3.8.6 Roles of parents

Each child’s maximum potential can best be achieved through a partnership between
parents and schools. Parents can get involved in schools by donating their time for
particular activities, donating their expertise in committees and classrooms and by
donating resources or funds. To foster active engagement between parents and
schools, parents’ responsibilities and rights as part of their roles in the design and
implementation of a curriculum need to be explored.
Parents and guardians have the responsibility to:
1. Share the responsibility for the behaviour of their child in school, at school-
sponsored activities, and on the way to and from school.
2. Prepare the child to assume responsibility for attending school, and for his or her
own behaviour.
3. Foster in the child positive attitudes toward himself / herself, others, school, and
the community.
4. Communicate with school personnel about the child, explain absences and
enquire about assessment policies, school rules, curriculum issues. Respond
timely to school communications and ensure that the school is updated with your
contact information.
5. Attend conferences and training opportunities at school and participate in school
activities, e.g. donate your time, expertise, or resources to the school.
6. Recognize that the school staff has the right to enforce the policies, rules, and
regulations.
7. Behave in a civil and non-disruptive manner when visiting the school.
8. Assure that their child brings to school only those things that are appropriate in a
school setting.
9. Parents need to support the learning process of their children in the following
ways:
 Provide a loving and caring home setting where education is a priority;
 Motivate them intrinsically and extrinsically, e.g. clarify the value of
education, praise, celebrate successes;
 Promote values and self-discipline in your child to respect property and
others and refrain from selfish and discriminating behaviour;
 Monitor your child's educational progress and progress reports;
 Take note of effective study methods and teach it to your child;
 Ensure that s/he understands and completes her/his homework;
 Ensure that s/he attends school punctually and is healthy;
 Liaise in a respectful manner with the school staff.
10. Parents/ guardians have the responsibility to monitor and evaluate school
policies and practices and if necessary to file complaints and /or appeals
regarding
matters affecting their child’s education.
11. Participate in decision-making processes affecting school policies and proce-
dures, e.g. attend meetings, serve on ad hoc-committees, serve on school
board.
(Adapted from Boston Public Schools Committee, 2013; Tucson Unified School
District Board, 2014).
Parents have the following educational rights:
Although the following paragraphs are based upon the bill of rights for parents of
New York City’s Department of Education, it provides sound guidelines for perceiving
the rights / future rights of Namibian parents. The fact that parents have these rights,
prompt school staff to manage schools well and thus create a positive learning
environment.
1) The right to a free public school education for their child
Parents have the right to:

a) a free public school education for their child, from kindergarten until age 16;
b) an evaluation for their child with a disability and, if found to be in need of special
education, receive a free, appropriate education;
c) have their child receive his or her full instructional schedule in accordance with
the school year calendar;
d) have their child learn in a safe and supportive learning environment, free from
discrimination, harassment, bullying, and bigotry;
e) have their child receive courtesy and respect from others and equal educational
opportunities regardless of race, colour, religion, age, creed, ethnicity, national
origin, citizenship status, disability, sexual orientation, gender or weight;
f) have a child accorded all the rights set forth in the Namibian Constitution and
Ministry of Education policies.
2. The right to access information about their child

a) access of their child’s education records and any available information on
educational programmes and opportunities;
b) information regarding all policies, plans and regulations which require parent
consultation at the school or district level;
c) access to current information regarding services which are provided by the
school system, eligibility requirements for these services, and how to apply for
them (e.g., transportation, food services, health services, remediation, special
education services);
d) be informed about required health, cognitive and language screening
examinations
e) information concerning expectations for their child with respect to their child’s
educational programme, attendance and behaviour;
f) written information regarding the grading criteria that will be used to evaluate
their child’s academic performance;
g) access to information concerning their child’s options within the instructional
programme / curriculum;
h) be assured the confidentiality of their child’s records;
i) access and review their child’s education records within a specified number of
days from putting in their request;
j) make an appointment to have their child’s education records explained by
designated school staff and to have such a meeting within a reasonable time
after making such a request;
k) have their child’s education records sent in a timely manner to another school to
which their child has transferred;
3. The right to be actively involved and engaged in the education of their

children

a) be given every available opportunity for meaningful participation in their child’s
education and thus feel welcomed and supported in their schools;
b) be treated with courtesy and respect by all school personnel, and to be accorded
all rights without regard to race, religion, national origin, gender, age, ethnicity,
marital status, sexual orientation, or disability;
c) participate in regular written or verbal communication with teachers and other
school staff and share concerns regarding their child’s academic, social and
behavioural progress;
d) meet with their child’s teachers and principal in accordance with established pro-
cedures and parent-teacher conferences to discuss their child’s progress and
support;
e) be informed on a regular basis, both informally and through formal progress
reports, of their child’s academic, emotional and behavioural progress in school;
f) due process (legal procedures) as set forth in the Discipline Code when their
child is subject to discipline;
g) be accompanied by a friend, advisor, or interpreter at hearings, interviews and
other meetings concerning their child, in accordance with established procedures
without pre-approval from staff or school administration;
h) have school staff make every reasonable attempt to ensure that parents receive
important notices from the school;
i) receive a copy of the school policies (e.g. learners and teachers rights and re-
sponsibilities; disciplinary procedures and punishments) and school rules;
j) be informed about the school curriculum core and options and the assessment
policy requirements;
k) participate on school committees, e.g., Safety, Nutrition, Sport, Cultural, Aca-
demic, Facilities and Resources or School fund;
l) be a candidate for or vote for members of the School Board;
4. The right to file complaints and appeals regarding matters affecting their
child’s education

a) appeal a transfer to another school based on residency
b) file a complaint regarding corporal punishment or unfair punishment
c) file a complaint regarding verbal or emotional abuse, harassment
d) appeal a principal’s or superintendent’s suspension
e) appeal promotional decisions
f) appeal for or against curriculum changes
g) file a complaint and or appeal regarding against the actions and inactions of
school management;
h) appeal decisions regarding eligibility for public school transportation
i) appeal decisions regarding eligibility for free and reduced price meals in the
school cafeteria;
j) request amendment of an entry in a child’s records on the grounds that it is inac-
curate, misleading or in violation of their child’s privacy rights;
k) file a complaint alleging discrimination or sexual harassment by school
employees
l) file a complaint alleging student-to-student discrimination, harassment, intimida-
tion and / or bullying;
m) file a complaint regarding the selection process for a principal or assistant princi-
pal. (Adapted from New York City Department of Education, 2013).
3.8.7 Roles of Learners

As in the case of all stakeholders, the rights and responsibilities of a stakeholder
have an impact on the design and implementation of a curriculum. Let us see how
rights and responsibilities of learners influence the design and implementation of a
curriculum. For each statement under the rights and responsibilities determine
whether it is a having an influence on the curriculum design or implementation or
both.
The rights of learners

1. No learner shall be excluded from or discriminated against in: admission to any
public school, or in obtaining the advantages, privileges and courses of study of
such public school.
2. Learners have the right to an education of the highest standards in a clean,
orderly and positive environment – one that is caring, supportive, non-
judgemental free from verbal abuse or harassment.
3. Learners have the right to a meaningful curriculum and the right to voice their
opinions in the development of such a curriculum.
4. Learners have the right to physical safety and protection of personal property.
5. Learners have the right to safe and sanitary facilities.
6. Learners have the right to consult with teachers, councillors and administrators
and anyone else connected with the school if they so desire at appropriate times.
7. Learners have the right to free election by secret ballot of their peers in student
government and the right to seek and hold office.
8. Learners have the right to have their voices heard in matters affecting them.
9. Learners have the right to participate in the development of rules and regulations
to which they are subject and the right to be notified of such rules and regula-
tions.
10. Learners in their own schools may exercise the rights of free speech, assembly,
press, and association. In exercising these rights, students shall refrain from any
expression which is libellous or obscene according to current legal definitions, or
which is intended to and likely to incite the commission of illegal acts, or which can
reasonably be forecast to cause substantial disruption of school or classroom
activity. Consistent with the foregoing, and subject to applicable law, students
have the right to:
10.1 Distribute printed materials and to circulate petitions regarding their
education on school property, including inside school buildings, without
prior authorization by school administrators, except that:
(a) materials distributed and petitions circulated on school property shall
bear the name and address of the author or group chair person;
(b) the person(s) distributing materials or petitions must be a learner in
the school; and
(c) the time for such distribution shall be limited to periods before school
begins, after dismissal and during lunchtime to prevent interference
with the school program; and
(d) the places for such distribution in each school shall be reasonably re-
stricted so as to permit the normal flow of traffic within the school and
at exterior doors; and
(e) the manner of such distribution shall be reasonably restricted so as to
prevent undue levels of noise and disruption; and
(f) learners shall be subject to reasonable requirements for removing lit
ter resulting from such distribution.
10.2 Use their own bulletin board(s) without censorship, provided:
(a) all materials, notices, and other communications posted shall include
the name and address of the author or disseminator;
(b) all materials, notices, and other communications shall be dated before
posting and removed after a reasonable time to assure full access to
the bulletin board(s).
10.3 Reasonable use of the public address systems and other school media
facilities, except that announcements shall be limited to before school,
after dismissal and other times when classes are not in session.
10.4 Form social organizations and conduct activities in this connection,
provided that group membership shall be open to any student.
10.5 Present petitions, complaints, or grievances to appropriate school authori-
ties regarding disciplinary and other school-related issues.
11. Is treated respectfully and fairly by teachers and administrators.
12. Is taught in ways that are responsive to learners’ individual needs, learning
styles, cultural backgrounds and abilities.
13. Have school rules that are enforced in a consistent, fair and reasonable manner.
14. Any disciplinary process follows the due process of law.
15. Learners have the right to school administrators who communicate regularly
with parents and learners, supporting learning and teaching via necessary
facilities and resources and hold teachers and learners accountable for proper
management and diligent learning and maintain discipline in a reasonable and
fair manner.
16. Use restrooms, locker rooms, and other facilities consistent with their gender
identity.
17. Be addressed by the name and pronoun of their choice.
18. They are protected from unreasonable search and seizure, however, with reaso-
nable cause, designated school administrators may search lockers, automobiles
and personal belongings.
19. Learners are protected from unlawful corporal punishment. That means under
specific circumstances the principal may use reasonable physical punishment to
maintain order and control in a school. (The specific circumstances may include
two attempts to direct a learner’s behaviour before deciding on corporal
punishment. Corporal punishment is also an option instead of turning a learner
over to the police to face criminal charges.) This approach to corporal
punishment should be lawful in Namibia as well. At the moment the Constitution
is interpreted by government to rule out all corporal punishment, but not all
lawyers agree with this interpretation and not all educators agree that corporal
punishment can not be applied according to specified rules.
(Adapted from Boston Public Schools Committee, 2013; Tucson Unified
School District Board, 2014).
The responsibilities of learners
Students have the responsibility to:

1. Respect the rights, feelings and property of all persons involved in the educa-
tional process.
2. Respect the authority of school staff.
3. Respect the diversity of staff and learners with regard to ethnicity, national origin,
religion, sexual orientation, gender, primary language, disability, special needs,
age and economic class.
4. Contribute to the maintenance of a safe, orderly and supportive educational
environment without discrimination, harassment or physical / cyber bullying, no
name calling, no belittling and embarrassing of others.
5. Apply their abilities and interests to the improvement of their future.
6. Exercise the highest degree of self-discipline to the best of their ability in
observing and adhering to rules and regulations, thus conduction themselves in
an appropriate and respectful manner on and off the school grounds.
7. Recognize that responsibility is inherent in the exercise of every right.
8. Assure that they exercise their voice in student government.
9. Attend school daily, well groomed, arrive on time and wear their identity badges.
10. Bring the relevant materials and be prepared to participate in class.
11. Strive for academic growth and understanding and to achieve their personal
best.
12. Participate fully in the classroom and in extra mural activities.
13. Protect and take good care of the school’s property, no stealing, vandalizing,
destroying or defacing school property.
(Adapted from Boston Public Schools Committee, 2013; Tucson Unified School
District Board, 2014).
3.8.8 Roles of businesses

Businesses are part of the school community and nowadays businesses are
expected to perform a ‘social responsibility’ function whereby they support some
organisation that maintains a crucial function in society, such as education.
In Namibia businesses can support schools to buy some form of school transport
especially useful for sport and cultural extra mural activities. Relevant donations of
building materials can be used for maintenance of school facilities and perhaps the
adding of some classrooms. The relevant businesses can be approached for an air
conditioning machine for the principal’s office or the staff room. The school could
perhaps get a sizable discount on buying teaching-learning resources from a
business or get books donated as prizes for school awards. Radio and newspaper
businesses usually provide free airtime or articles to support educational activities.
Computer shops that assist schools in equipping a computer laboratory make a
precious contribution to preparing learners for the technological world. Businesses
selling and installing security systems can play such an important role in creating a
safe environment where persons and property are protected. Paint shops can
contribute to the maintenance and beautifying of the learning environment by
donating or reducing paint prices for schools. Businesses that invest in schools reap
eventually some form of benefit too when the manpower quality of a country is well
educated in terms of values, skills and behaviour. Some countries allow businesses
to deduct donations made to educational institutions from their income tax. Schools
can reward supportive businesses or persons by having their photos and
contributions made public in different media as well as inform all parents about such
contributions. Can you see from the above how important the impact is of supportive
businesses on the quality of the implementation of the school curriculum?
3.9 Analyse the role of educational leaders in curriculum design

and implementation
The following four stakeholders play a leadership role in the design and
implementation of education in Namibia: The Minister of Education; the DNEA, NIED
and principals. Let us explore the roles of these stakeholders.
3.9.1 Roles of the Minister of Education

According to Act 16 of 2001, the Minister of Education in Namibia must (a) determine
the national policy on basic education after consultations with consultative bodies
established for this purpose or other organisations recognised by the Minister; (b)
secure the effective co-operation of all public and private bodies concerned with
education in formulating and implementing the national policy on basic education in
terms of this Act; (c) direct, co-ordinate, supervise and control the basic education
system and related matters; (d) promote basic education and the establishment and
development of schools; (e) The Minister may consult whomsoever the minister
wishes for advice on the determination of education policy and related matters; (f) The
Minister must table the national policy on basic education in the National Assembly
within 90 days after the determination of the policy or within 30 days after the
commencement of the session of the National Assembly (Government Gazette of the
Republic of Namibia, 2001).
3.9.2 Functions of the Directorate of National Examinations and Assessment

(DNEA)
Reflect for a moment on what is typically happening before, during and after
examinations in a school. Yes, there must be syllabi upon which examination papers
are based; there is an examination timetable; there are invigilators necessary; there
is marking and moderating to be done and results must be sent to the parents. This
and more functions are undertaken by the DNEA. The fact that the DNEA attend to
national needs require some additional functions not normally observed in schools.
The Directorate of National Examinations and Assessment (DNEA) as critical

component in the structure of the Namibian examination system takes responsibility
for the:
 Conducting of all external and semi-external school examinations.
 Issuing of certificates to those who meet the minimum requirements specified
by the Examination Board.
 Formulation of assessment schemes and examination syllabuses for the
various examinations.
 Arrangement and conducting of centralized marking sessions for the external
examinations.
 Capturing, processing and archiving of examinations data and the publication
of results.
 Development of professional procedures to ensure the quality and validity of
examinations.
 Development of administrative procedures and regulations for the secure
conducting of examinations in all educational regions.
 Evaluation and appointment of examiners, moderators and markers.
 Provision of training for examiners, markers and invigilators.
 Publishing of examiner reports and the provision of statistics about national,
regional, school and subject performances.
 Evaluation of full-time and part-time centres to become examination centres.
 Maintenance of a register of examination centres for full-time and part-time
candidates (Van der Merwe, 1999).
These are obviously very important tasks seen in the light of the role that
assessment plays in the maintaining of quality education standards.
3.9.3 The National Institute for Educational Development (NIED)
In Namibia under the Ministry of Education we have NIED, the National Institute for
Educational Development, and the curriculum leadership roles of NIED are:
Table 3.3: Leadership roles of NIED

 Analyse international curriculum developments and advocate new trends via
the Curriculum Coordinating Committee chaired by NIED
 Establish curriculum panels for all subjects that revise syllabi and make
recommendations to the NIED Curriculum Coordinating Committee
 Setting direction by providing guidelines for the operations of the syllabus
panels
 Provide guidelines for the selection of textbooks
 Have a resource centre that support syllabus groups and subject advisors
 Produce national syllabi documents incorporating subject aims, content and
outcomes, examination guidelines and the assessment policy
 Maintain a website to assist teachers and other education stakeholders
 Communicate electronically and connect schools with Internet access
 Create the format of syllabi according to CBE features
 Disseminate policy documents and syllabi to tertiary stakeholders that
design teacher education qualifications
 Provide Teacher Manuals for pre-primary and primary teachers
 Provide in-service training for especially pre-primary and primary teachers
 Develop teaching-learning resources for curriculum implementation, e.g.
lesson preparation forms, assessment forms, guidelines for dealing with
special needs learners and the said teacher manuals
 Manage the acceptance of curriculum changes by teachers
 Evaluate proposed teacher qualifications and make recommendations about
them
 Propose budgets for improving curricula
 Identify schools that perform well and not so well
 Obtain the results of external examinations and require syllabus panels to
analyse it
 Study the analysis of national examination results to determine inputs that
address problem areas
 Is part of a national committee of Programme Quality Assurance
 Obtain feedback from individual teachers, syllabus panels and schools to
determine priorities of national actions to be taken
 Evaluate the effectiveness of syllabus assessment policies and practices
 Propose revised curriculum proposals to the Minister of Education
3.9.4 The roles of principals

A principal has both leadership and management functions. In schools most of the
management functions are delegated to heads of departments and teachers but a
principal stays accountable for the effective execution of all the management tasks.
The four basic functions of leaders and principals to produce future focused change
are:
 Create a vision (ideal future) and mission goals that give direction to all efforts.
 Perform strategic and operational planning to achieve the mission goals.
 Align staff to understand and accept the set goals and methods to achieve
them.
 Motivate and inspire staff and stakeholders to get involved in activities that
implement the goals and objectives. (Clarke, 2008:2).
These four functions can be detected in the following duties of a principal which
influence the design and implementation of the curriculum. Decide at each duty
whether it qualifies as a ‘Design’ or ‘Implementation’ factor. Put ‘D or I’ in the provided
column.
1. Involve many stakeholders to create a strategic and an operational plan
for 3 years ahead.
2. Obtain all available governmental policies for schools.
3. Discuss and disseminate the school self-evaluation checklists to all teachers.
4. Compile a job description for each teacher in collaboration with him/her.
5. Compile a year schedule for all school activities: academic, sport, cultural.
6. Compile a budget for the year plans which incorporate the strategic plans.
7. Determine the need for staff: academic, sport, cultural, administrative, clean
ing, security, gardening and sport fields, drivers, maintenance, etc.
8. Ensure the school time table is in line with the curriculum and consider
whether a 5-day time table is not better.
9. Monitor the need for and acquire teaching-learning materials in time, e.g.
syllabi, textbooks, learning resources, smart boards in class, Internet access
for teachers, files for teachers, additional subject related books.
10. Compile fund generating plans: activities, dates, staff, venues, materials, etc.
11. Set staff development dates, times and venues and prioritize training needs
of the staff after a needs analysis.
12. Clarify the decision making power of staff.
13. Discuss with staff the values to be adhered to in the school.
14. Discuss with staff the purposes of education.
15. Discuss with staff their rights and responsibilities.
16. Discuss with learners their rights and responsibilities
17. Discuss with learners the reasons for and meaning of rules.
18. Clarify the management of the paper trail and guidelines for accurate records:
: finances, learner academic records, registers, discipline, inventories, sport
19. Establish a recognition- and reward system for teachers and learners.
20. Foster positive interpersonal relations among staff; also among learners.
21. Monitor the performance of teachers and learners on a regular basis.
22. Involve parents and support them to assist the learning of their children.
23. Address needs and difficulties of teachers and learners speedily and fairly.
24. Maintain school property and physical facilities; upgrade and expand.
25. Create a democratic and supportive (friendly, caring) school environment.
26. Manage the public image of the school effectively.
27. Protect the legal rights of teachers, learners and parents.
28. Request government to meet dire needs in the school and advise them
about the negative consequences of some policies.
29. Manage decision making in all kinds of meetings professionally.
30. Assess whether the curriculum is appropriate to prepare learners for the fu-
ture and direct requests for curriculum changes via school boards to NIED.
31. Organise training opportunities on topics relevant to learners and parents.
32. Analyse assessment results and have a learner feedback system.
(Boston Public Schools Committee, 2013; Namibia Ministry of education, 2007)
Discuss the influence of a principal on the quality of the implementation of the

curriculum in a school.

___________________________________________________________________
Remember that the verb ‘discuss’ involves reasoning about facts. The above 32
facts about the influence of a principal cover mostly the implementation of a
curriculum and need to be discussed.
3.10 Discuss why curricula are changed and how this change could
be managed
Education Departments and schools are mostly conservative and entrenched in the
way they do things. Public schools in developing countries battle to deliver education
with little resources, under qualified and de-motivated staff, perhaps not enough staff
and have no desire to request changes to a curriculum. Fortunately, there are always
a few stakeholders in education that do assess the curriculum and request changes.
Sometimes prominent business leaders declare in public media that the school
curriculum should include this or that. Sometimes parents work through a school
board and request curriculum changes at a relevant Department, NIED in the case of
Namibia. Sometimes pressure groups point out that schools should focus on
‘environmental education’ or ‘moral development’, or ‘green jobs’ or ‘employability
skills’. Sometimes education or economic academics propose that ‘career education’
is a necessary alternative stream in the curriculum for a nation to cater for individual
talents of learners and promote employment of school leavers.
Let us explore the issue of why a national school curriculum sometimes changes. Two
of the main overall reasons why curricula change are if ‘manpower needs change’ and
the ‘preparation for further education’ change. A more systematic approach to answer
this why-question is to refer back to the curriculum foundations at the beginning of Unit
3. The historical foundation factors commonly influence the changing of curricula in
the following circumstances: (a) a democratic government commonly allocates more
finances to education than a dictatorship, and money supports developments /
changes; (b) involvement in physical or ideological wars could change the quality of
the implementation of the curriculum; (c) whether it is a religion or state driven
government cause changes to a curriculum; (d) when countries compare themselves
and compete with developments in other countries, the curriculum is often adapted to
match those of the ‘opposition’(Remember the Russian Sputnik case?); (e) the socio-
economic stage of development of a nation at a point in history, influences what the
curriculum would aim to promote in the nation, e.g. literacy, education for all,
citizenship, combating unemployment; (f) as the complexity of societies grow, more is
expected from the curriculum in order to prepare learners to cope with the future; (g)
history demonstrates that what is perceived as being an ‘educated person’ determines
what is ‘in’ or ‘out’ of the curriculum at a particular period; (h) and educational pioneers
and practical experiences established curriculum traditions that still influences
education practices today.
The philosophical foundation factors commonly influence the changing of curricula

because: (a) over time different schools of Philosophy such as Idealism, Humanism or
Pragmatism, proposed different aims and features of curricula, e.g. the Humanism
inspired the learner-centred approach in schools; (b) educational philosophies such as
Essentialists, Behaviourists and Progressivists suggested changes to existing
curricula of the times; (c) curriculum orientations emphasises different aims of
education which require particular changes to subjects and methods in the curriculum,
e.g. the competency-based orientation caused major changes in the design and
implementation of curricula. (See Unit 4 about CBE features).
The psychological foundation factors advanced the design and implementation of

curricula by informing educators about (a) learning theories; (b) multiple intelligences;
the (c) importance of deep learning for retrieving information from memory; (d) the
developmental stages of learners that must be taken into consideration; (e) the value
of visual learning; (f) how to develop thinking skills, morals, and emotional stability; (g)
what motivates and de-motivates learners; (h) the left and right brain learning
functions; (i) holistic wellness aims and much more.
The political foundation factors cause changes to the design and implementation of
curricula due to: (a) Constitutions claim education as a human right so more schools
and teachers are needed; (b) the massification of education bring several
implementation issues along, e.g. more textbooks necessary, large classes; (c) a
democratic political system implies that schools must be fair to everybody and protect
the rights of all; (d) the political priorities of the rulers influence how big the budget for
education is; (e) what principals and directors are appointed; (f) what salaries and
benefits teachers receive; (g) whether performances of schools are monitored and
acted upon.
The legal foundation factors influence the design and implementation of curricula in
terms of specifying: (a) that pre-primary education is compulsory; (b) that basic
education if compulsory up to the age of 16 (in Namibia); (c) that corporal punishment
is prohibit in Namibia but allowed under certain conditions in some countries; (d) the
power of school boards; (e) specify the mandate of particular departments and
institutions in the education system; (f) a Code of Conduct for teachers; (g) laws to
protect teaching staff and learners against harassment, discrimination, unfair
treatment; (h) the right of learners and teachers to ‘due process’ in case of disciplinary
cases.
The economical foundation factors can cause changes in curriculum design and
implementation when: (a) the global economy developments require new curriculum
knowledge about economic related issues; (b) the local economy shrinks and money
for education is cut, causing a shortage of teachers, resources, advisory services,
professional development opportunities in schools; (c) poor economic conditions of
families reduce optimal surroundings (food, health, sleep, books) for proper learning
support; (d) technology (ICT) is changing the job environment and learners must be
computer literate to secure jobs after school; (e) employers require better developed
employability skills (including English and thinking skills,) in young applicants; (f) a
career education stream is introduced in secondary schools to the benefit of
everybody; (g) scientific discoveries and the knowledge explosion require updating of
many school subjects’ content; (h) the developing of new kinds of jobs require new
combinations of schools subjects or new organisation of knowledge in interdisciplinary
subjects; (i) maintenance and building of new schools are not done due to lack of
finances.
Some of the social factors that contribute to changes in curriculum design and
implementation are typically: (a) as knowledge expands the curriculum gets
overloaded and the school day and year becomes longer; (b) the goal of education
changed from cultivating survival skills to obtain knowledge for the sake of
knowledge, then to knowledge serving a purpose of coping with life (e.g. driving, sex
education, life skills, global understanding) and developing some employability skills
and preparing one for further study. Schools must not neglect however the goals of
developing character, emotional maturity / intelligence and thinking skills; (c)
capitalistic societies favour winning, competition and selfish living to achieve comfort,
wealth and status. The noble motives of cooperation, caring for and helping others
must be taught as well; (d) television, cell phones with games and videos or Internet
movies are much more exciting than school lessons and teachers have to prepare
well to make lessons interesting, meaningful and explain the value of the knowledge
to be learned; (e) A challenging problem of modern technological societies is the
postponement of adulthood of school leavers because the economy has little need
for untrained youth. This causes the youth to live off their parents while they have no
job or income and can not live independently. The results are alcohol and drug
abuse, drunken and reckless driving, joining of gangs, suicide, early pregnancy,
abortions, feeling useless and doing menial jobs without discovering their talents or
calling. Schools should address these problems of the youth by moral and sex
education, developing of emotional maturity to combat anti-social behaviour, to go
against peer pressure and thinking skills to make logical decisions in future; (f)
alcohol abuse in homes lead to abuse of family members instead of receiving loving
care; car crashes, divorces and AIDS leave many orphans with little stability, loving
care and hope for a future. Learners lacking acceptance, loving care and morals live
instinct driven lives, is aggressive and often bully or emotionally abuse other
children. Teachers must combat any form of abuse vehemently and support all
learners emotionally while giving sound direction for proper personal and social
behaviour. Personal attention, guidance and loving care can also be demonstrated to
learners during cultural and sport activities; (g) technology is here to stay and
learners must be taught how to use the Internet safely and the dangers of
pornography, viewing violence regularly and being exposed to satanic oriented
entertainment. One must learn to consciously select proper viewing sites and stay
away from ones which stimulate carnal desires; (h) parents and teachers must be
aware of gender equality, of not gender stereotyping jobs, of not stereotyping
performances in mathematics or science or vocational subjects and of encouraging
females to complete their studies after school before getting married; (i) schools
must create a nurturing environment (with resources, love and moral values
development) which pay more personal attention to learners of the working class and
underclass and counsel them how to overcome socio-economic circumstances.
It is clear from the above that the social factors exercise a strong positive or
negative influence on the quality of education. Not enough schools are caring
institutions that develop / educate people but rather focus on ‘teaching’ and
‘memorising’. In addition, the modern social focus should shift from ‘education for all’
to ‘quality education for all’. (Revisit section 1.5 and decide what you think of the
quality of the Namibian education). School management and parent involvement
need drastic improvement and schools need to support parents better in how they
could support their children’s education and learning.
The second part of our 3.10 heading is about ‘how curriculum changes could be
managed’. According to Doll (1996:314) leaders who initiate curriculum changes could
manage the change well through the following actions. Firstly, there are actions to
support individuals to change: (a) Work with people, not over them. (b) Show that you
too desire to improve. (c) Ensure that people involved know you and each other. (d)
Work with both individuals and groups. (e) Indicate how existing problems are solved
through the proposed changes. (f) Keep channels of communication open. (g) Use
your status with great care. (h) Be sensible and modest in your expectations.
Secondly, there are actions to support institutional (Doll, 1996:319-20) change: (a)
Existing goals, hierarchies, procedures and roles are important issues that inhibit
change. (b) Cooperative planning by equals is a more successful strategy than force
or coercion by superiors. (c) Change requires that the driving and restraining forces
be modified, for example, reduce restraining forces or strengthen driving forces. (d)
High-quality leadership is necessary that calls upon staff to observe the new
phenomenon in a professional manner before taking a decision. (e) Open and
continuous communication about feelings (fears, values, beliefs) and ideas
(advantages, limitations). (f) Supportive and opposing views should not be polarised
as good or bad. (g) Change must be carefully maintained, once achieved.
Thirdly: According to Doll (1996:307) the following issues prevent the acceptance of
change: (a) The ineffectiveness or effectiveness of the current curriculum is not
clarified. (b) Not broad enough and valid data is utilised. (c) Individual differences of
people and institutions are completely ignored. (d) Key stakeholders, especially
those to implement it, are not involved in the planning of a curriculum (e) The
planning of a curriculum does not extend to the proper managing of the individual
and organisational change involved. (f) It is not clear how the new curriculum is of
higher quality than the existing one.
Another perspective applicable to the management of change of the curriculum is

that of William Bridges (1995) as referred to by Clarke (2008:394-396). Bridges
maintains that the problem with change is not the change, but the way people
respond to it. This means the problem is not the external physical changes of
policies or procedures, but the internal psychological transition processes of people
that must now come to terms with a new situation. Bridges proposes that the
management of change should manage three processes, namely, the managing of
‘the ending’, of the ‘neutral zone’ and of the ‘launching of a new beginning’. Let us
explore briefly what Bridges’ three processes would entail:
(a) Managing the ending
Nobody likes letting go and saying good bye of what you liked, because it brings a
sense of sadness and loss. Leaders of change must therefore understand and deal
with the following factors and responses of participants:
 People often overreact (grieve or anger) when they experience loss, so
compensate for the loss.
 Acknowledge the feelings of loss and be sympathetically towards those.
 Define for all what is changing and what is not changing.
 Show how the new is continuing of what really matters.
(b) Managing the neutral zone
There is a neutral zone when leaving the current / old behind and the full
implementation of the new. This period is marked by increased levels of anxiety, de-
motivation and even an increase in absenteeism. Old conflicts could re-emerge and
people feel overloaded as they attempt to function in the old and the new system.
Typically the ‘for the new’ and ‘against the new’ camps exist and team work is non-
existent. Guidelines to manage the neutral zone are:
 Create temporary systems for the neutral zone if the new ones could not be
implemented immediately.
 Strengthen the intra-group relations. (I think by respecting the past system,
acknowledge the feeling of loss and clarify why the new system is better).
 Use a transition monitoring team that can give support and guide the
implementation process of the new.
(c) Launching a new beginning
Before people embark onto the new they typically feel less confident and wonder of
they will be able to cope. To support the launch into the new beginning people need
four things:
 To be reminded of the purpose of the new changes.
 To see the picture of the future when the changes operate effectively.
 To understand the plan (steps, timeframe, procedures) and how they are
affected by the plan.
 To understand their part and place in the new hierarchy.
In addition, acknowledge the new operations and celebrate the successes and use a
slogan to be associated with the new (Clarke, 2008:394-396). Principals need to
involve many stakeholders and ask the questions: What is causing us not to achieve
quality education? What should we do to achieve that effective school that produces
quality education? Teachers need to re-discover the joy of shaping and assisting the
quality of life of learners. They need to hear that they are very important leaders in
society with the purpose of influencing the nature of the future society in Namibia. Do
not be selfish. Your leadership is not about your prosperity, but about moulding the
youth to become decent citizens and leaders of tomorrow.
3.11 Summary
Unit 3 explored the foundational factors that typically impact upon the design and
implementation of a curriculum. These factors were identified as the historical,
philosophical, psychological, political, legal, economical and social factors. Some of
the foundations have more influence on the design and others more influence on the
implementation of a curriculum. Some foundations influence both components of the
curriculum. Educators should recognise these foundation factors in order to manage
the influences as best as one can. It was also clarified how the curriculum orientations
relate to the foundations and how both these form part of the curriculum design and
implementation.
How political powers can influence a curriculum design and implementation positively
and negatively was spelled out. The impact of many other stakeholders in education
on the curriculum was outlined and the importance and functions of some leaders in
an education system were highlighted. Lastly, the reasons why curricula change and
how that change could be managed were explained. The next Unit discuss two types
of curriculum: a subject-based one and a competency-based one.
3.12 References
Answers.com. 2006. Philosophy, definition and much more answers. Hyperlink

[http://www.answers.com/topic/philosophy]. September 26, 2006.
Boston Public Schools Committee. 2013. Boston Public Schools Code of Conduct.
Hyperlink [http://www bostonpublicschools.org/cms/lib07/MAO1906464/Centricity/
Domain/203/2013]. August 1, 2014.
Buzzle. 2014. Social issues in today’s society. Hyperlink

[http://www.buzzle.com/articles/social-issues-in-todays-society.html]. July 18, 2014.
Clarke, A. 2008. The handbook of school management. Cape Town: Kate McCallum
Publishers.
Doll, R. C. 1996. Curriculum improvement. Decision making and process. 9th edition.
Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Engelbrecht, F. D. J. 2013. Classroom teaching and management for pre-primary

and senior primary teachers. Windhoek: U-Gro Consultancy.
Government Gazette of the Republic of Namibia. 2001. Promulgation of the

Education Act, Act 16 of 2001. Windhoek: Office of the Prime Minister.
Longman Dictionary of contemporary English. 2011. New edition for advanced

learners. Essex, England: Longman / Pearson Publishers.
Namibia Ministry of Education. 2007. School Self-Evaluation Instrument. Windhoek:

Ministry of Education.
New York City Department of Education. 2013. Parents’ bill of rights and
responsibilities. Hyperlink [http://schools.nye.gov/NR/rdonlyres/FD3DOD8B-017B-
4D6C-B413-E765C-253AB79/0/2013Par]. August 2, 2014.
Ornstein, A. C., Levine, D. U., Gutek, G. L. and Vocke, D. E. 2011. Foundations of

education. 11th edition. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Shaw, L. J. 2006. Educational Philosophies. Hyperlink

[http://edweb.sdsu.edu/LShaw/ f95syll/philos/phintro.html]. September 23, 2006.
Tucson Unified School District Board. 2014. Guidelines for student rights and
responsibilities. Hyperlink
[http://wwwtusd1.org/contents/stuguidelines/Documents/050guidelines.pdf].
August 2, 2014.
Van der Merwe, I.F.J. 1999. Case study on the establishment of a national
examinations and assessment system for school exanminations in Namibia.
Windhoek: DNEA
Weiten, W. 2011. Psychology, Themes and variations. Eight edition. Belmont,

California: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Wikipedia, 2014. Inventions of writing. Hyperlink

[Wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_writing]. June 19, 2014.
UNIT 4
Evaluate the curriculum theory and practices of
competency-based education (CBE) and subject-
based education (SBE)
Contents
Introduction
Learning outcomes
4.1 Describe concepts such as ‘competency and skill’ and the origin of
CBE curricula ….. ……………………………………………………………. 254
4.2 Describe the expansion of CBE programmes ...…………………………… 260
4.3 Evaluate the CBE model variations ..………………………………………. 262
4.4 Outline the features of CBE curricula in terms of: ..………………………. 263
4.4.1 Philosophical perspectives
4.4.2 A focus on specific outcomes
4.4.3 Modular organisation of content
4.4.4 Systematic design
4.4.5 Teaching and learning perspectives of CBE
4.4.6 Broad based assessment
4.4.7 Detailed programme documents
4.4.8 Recognition of prior learning
4.5 Explain the relationship between CBE and learner-centred education
(LCE) ………………………………………………………………………….. 279
4.6 Compare the features of a subject-based curriculum (SBE) with a CBE
curriculum ..…………………………………………………………………... 280
4.7 Evaluate the features of CBE curricula and discuss their advantages
and disadvantages ………………………………………………………….. 289
4.8 Evaluate the structure / format and terminology of NIED syllabi ………. 308
4.9 Summary……………………………………………………………………… 311
4.10 References …………………………………………………………………… 313
Introduction
The previous Unit prepared you to understand the foundation factors that influence
curricula and the roles that some stakeholders play in the design and implementation
of a curriculum. This Unit now introduces you to the former and current kind of
curriculum in Namibia, since the Namibia school curriculum changed after
independence in 1990 from a traditional subject-based education (SBE) curriculum
to a competency-based education (CBE) curriculum. Unit 4 evaluates the features of
a competency-based education (CBE) curriculum and compares the features of such
a CBE curriculum with the traditional subject-based curriculum (SBE) curriculum. In
addition, the relationship of CBE education with learner-centred education is clarified
and the format of the NIED syllabi is explored to see if they meet the requirements of
CBE syllabi. It is important for a teacher to be aware of the strengths and limitations
of the kind of curriculum that one uses in order to reduce its limitations and
maximises the strengths.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this Unit you are expected to be able to:
4.1 Describe the origin and expansion of CBE curricula.

4.2 Evaluate the CBE model variations.
4.3 Evaluate the specified features of CBE curricula.
4.4 Explain the relationship between CBE and learner-centred education (LCE).
4.5 Compare the features of a subject-based and competency-based curriculum.
4.6 Evaluate and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a CBE curriculum.
4.7 Evaluate the structure and terminology of NIED syllabi.
1. Write an essay to describe the origin and expansion of CBE curricula.

2. Evaluate the strengths and limitations of CBE curricula in terms of specified
features.
3. Compare how subject-based curricula differ from CBE curricula.
4. Explain the relationship between CBE and learner-centred education.
4.1 Describe concepts such as ‘competency and skill’ and the
origin of CBE curricula
4.1.1 Competence / competencies
Teachers must understand the precise meaning of the CBE terminology because
CBE is applied in Namibia. The notion of a ‘competent person’ is not new and the
term ‘competence’ can certainly be traced back to before the competency movement
(Hyland, 1994:19) since every person has to master reading, writing and many other
developmental tasks on the road towards being a competent adult. The questions
about the meaning of ‘competence’ are not trivial; after all, the term ‘competence’ is
at the heart and foundation of the whole paradigm, because the purpose of CBE is to
develop a competent workforce.
Dictionary definitions of ‘competence’ include synonyms such as ‘sufficient’,

‘adequate’ and ‘suitable’ (Hyland, 1994:23). Kaslow (2002:1) refers to the Webster’s
Dictionary when she clarifies competence as firstly the state of being well-qualified
and secondly, competence as an ability. The concept competence can thus be
defined in terms of a worker performing roles and tasks adequately in relation to
expected standards (Mansfield in Burke, 1989:27-28). This definition does, however,
not reveal much of what is meant by competence. Norris, (1991:332-333) broadens
the ‘competence’ definition by stating that competence is usually treated as
something a person is and is able to do. Thus personal attitudes and traits are
acknowledged as elements of competence together with action or behaviour.
Agreement about a comprehensive view of competence, is offered by Public Service
Commission of Canada, 1998:2; Kaslow (2002:1-3); Heystek (in Van der Vyver,
1996:117); Preston and Walker (in Collins, 1993:118); Chappel and Melville,
(1995:8) as a collection of personal characteristics, aggregates of understanding and
ability to do. Hyland (1994:21) notes the distinction between competence as a
‘capacity’ and as a ‘disposition’, where capacity applies to persons / human attributes
(as competence, plural: competences) and whereas the dispositional sense refers to
activities (as competency, plural: competencies). According to Wood and Power
(1987:409) these educational differences between competence and competencies
are profound and must be observed by programme designers. Competence is thus
displayed through the working together of competence and competencies which
include a specialised knowledge base; skills such as occupational-specific and
generic skills; attitudes connected to emotional intelligence; values such as reliability;
thinking and other abilities such as planning and organising (Hillage and Pollard,
1999:14). It should be recognised however that personal traits and motives might be
difficult to capture as competencies and to be taught and assessed.
Additional notions of competence deserve closer clarification. ‘Generic competence’

extends the notion of competence to incorporate generic skills, knowledge and
understanding. These generic competences are valid across occupations and
include skills such as communication, application of number and information
technology (Hyland, 1994:24). In South Africa these key or generic competences are
referred to as ‘critical outcomes’ (Carl, 2005:19). Winterton (2002:6-7) draws on
several authors’ definitions that delineate ‘meta-competencies’ from mostly a
management programme’s perspective as: higher-order abilities such as the ability
to learn, to adapt, to anticipate and to create. Buckley, Monks and McKevitt (2002:5)
add self-knowledge to these abilities while Kaslow (2002:4) describes meta-
competencies as the ability to judge the availability, use, and learnability of personal
competencies. The meta-part of the concept ‘meta-competency’ typically carries the
meaning of ‘underpinning’ other competencies. Meta-competence is therefore not so
much about introducing new competencies, but offers merely a classification
perspective (Hyland, 1994:26).
Eraut (in Burke, 1989:181-182) directs the attention to the possibility that different
levels of competence might be considered, like the Dreyfus model with its five-stage
description of skill acquisition: novice, advanced beginner, competent, proficient, and
finally, expert. Certainly the question can be asked what level of competence an
initial teacher should possess. Reflecting on the levels of competencies should be
complemented by reflection on the scope of competencies. Burke, (1989:37) and
Hyland (1994:23) both identify four areas of competencies, ranging from performing
basic tasks, task management, contingency management and job environmental
competencies. (See Unit 5 section 5.3 for an adapted 4-quadrant model of areas of
competency upon which a qualification can be based).
In summary, the inclusive view of competence is supported: encompassing

competence as personality attributes, understanding of knowledge, thinking
and other generic abilities, feelings and values as well as the performance of
skills. The level of competence could vary from ‘beginner’ to ‘advanced’ for different
roles and levels of qualifications.
4.1.2 Skills
It has been clarified above that competence is demonstrated through knowledge,

values, personal qualities as well as skills. Much has been written about the
classification of skills but not about defining and distinguishing skills from
competencies. Reading, writing, speaking and arithmetic are, for example,
commonly referred to as basic skills and reasoning, creative thinking and problem
solving as thinking skills (Skills that work, 1998:3). The Australian Mayer report
however, refers to ‘expressing ideas and information’; using mathematical ideas and
techniques’ and ‘solving problems’ as key ‘competencies’ not as ‘skills’ (Harris, et al.
1995:23). According to Burke (1995:xiv) skills are the ‘performance component’
or ‘to do’ aspect of competencies. Skills are thus smaller components of
competences and involve activities, techniques and processes to execute
competences.
Skills could thus be distinguished but not separated from competencies and that is
probably why some authors make no distinction between competencies and skills.
For Tomlinson (1995:185) the unclear distinction between ‘competence’ as capability
and ‘skill’ as involving process and strategy is due to the failure to distinguish
between ‘competence and performance’. Since skills are part of competencies as
learned abilities, skills should have the same knowledge, values and personal
qualities characteristics of competencies apart from their practical characteristic.
Each skill has therefore a knowledge, value, personal trait and activity
component. For example, a manual skill involves physical movement and maybe
hand-eye co-ordination but it also involves a knowledge base, thinking processes
and is influenced by the attitude / value intent of an employee. Skills are acquired
through theoretical learning and practice (Warwick Institute for Employment
Research, s.a.:1-2) but it is obvious that repeated practical experience would hone
skills until they become professional habits.
There are different classifications of skills. Many of the classifications are the same
as for competencies, for example, generic skills, interpersonal skills, thinking skills,
information technology skills and social skills (Marsh, 1997:72-74). There are
however also manual, vocational specific and employability skills (Warwick Institute
for Employment Research, s.a.:2). Vocational skills can be mentioned as examples
of manual skills. A distinction is often made between core or essential skills and
desirable skills (Foyster, 1990:16-17). Core skills, also called generic skills, are
common to a wide range of competent performance across occupations (Burke,
1995:48; Jessup, 1991:30; Workforce Development Report, 2001:2). Examples of
such core skills are often related to information technology and personal skills.
In summary, skills are the fundamental activities / physical performances that

are required to demonstrate competences as abilities. Skills can be
distinguished but not separated from competencies. Since skills are part of
competences as learned abilities, skills should have the same knowledge, values,
and personal qualities characteristics of competences apart from its practical ‘how to
do’ characteristic. Like competences, skills could be categorised from different
perspectives. The initial ‘competency notion’ developed from a narrow activity skills
focus to the inclusion of knowledge, values, understanding and character traits.
4.1.3 Features of a Competency-based curriculum

According to Spady (1994a:3) to base a system on something means defining,
structuring and operating a system according to some consistent principle. In CBE
this ‘consistent principle’ would be the specification of outcomes: “A system based
on outcomes gives top priority to ends, purposes, learning accomplishments, and
results” (Spady, 1994a:3). Programme decisions are thus consistent with these
specified outcomes. It is this recognition of the interrelationship between the internal
elements of a programme as well as the relationship between education and reality
as the external environment that qualifies CBE as a ‘systems approach’.
The concept of ‘competency-based education’ is sometimes referred to as

‘outcomes-based education’, ‘mastery learning’, ‘performance-based education’,
‘criterion–referenced instruction’, ‘systems approach’ or ‘technological approach’
(Blank, 1982:7). The most popular alternative concept is ‘outcomes-based education’
or OBE. If one considers the origins (cf. Hyland, 1994:1; Bowden and Masters,
1993:21) of CBE, the original concept is ‘competency-based education’ and
was coined and applied in 1967 in the USA in the area of primary and vocational
teacher education as well as vocational education (Harris, et al.1995:40). The history
of CBE further reveals that the initial CBE features were influenced by vocational
training and National Vocational Qualifications that led to a “narrowing of skills,
knowledge and occupational focus…” (Hyland, 1994:12). Because of criticism over
the years and increasing experience in different educational contexts the proponents
have evolved CBE and adopted more inclusive language (Smith, Marriage and
Gillespie, 1994:11), particularly the term ‘outcomes-based education’(OBE). The
concept of OBE highlights clearly the ‘intended results or outcomes’ and
calculates how teaching and assessment will accomplish this (O’Neil, 1994:6)
rather than ‘competence’ which is a complex concept that has sparked much debate,
for instance, its relation to knowledge (Norris, 1991:331). In Namibia, unlike South
Africa, the official concept is CBE and the concept OBE is viewed as a synonym;
therefore, this study guide applies this official Namibian concept.
Grant, Elbow, Ewens, Gamson, Kohli, et al. (1979:6) define CBE as “…a form of
education that derives a curriculum from an analysis of a prospective or actual role in
modern society and that attempts to certify student progress on the basis of
demonstrated performance in some or all aspects of that role.” Applied to teacher
education, it implies that the roles of teachers and consequent knowledge and
competencies within each role will be identified and the teaching and assessment
system will require demonstration of competencies as far as practically possible. It
portrays also the idea that an ‘output model’ is followed as opposed to the traditional
‘input model’, where educational design focuses strongly on inputs like materials,
facilities and timetables that do not reflect much about the quality outcomes of the
education to be achieved (Alexander, s.a.:2).
Boschee and Baron (1993:1) define school oriented competency-based education as
“…a student-centred, results-oriented design premised on the belief that all
individuals can learn.” For them competency-based education further involves a
commitment to the success of every learner. This definition is rather narrow and
emphasises merely the learner-centred orientation and the results-orientation of the
paradigm.
According to Spady (1994a:1) one of the major proponents of OBE, competency-

based education “…means clearly focussing and organizing every thing in an
educational system around what is essential for all students to be able to do
successfully at the end of their learning experiences.” This means starting with a
clear picture of what is important for students to be able to do, then organizing the
curriculum, instruction, and assessment to make sure that this learning ultimately
happens. This definition puts emphasis on ‘the ability to do’ outcomes and the nature
of the CBE system without indicating possible values and principles involved or the
relationship of competence to knowledge. The above definition of ‘competency-
based education’ is not complete but emphasises key CBE features such as its
nature as an integrated system which leads to a curriculum focusing on competent
occupational performance while addressing learner success and support.
Although the three definitions in the paragraphs above provide a simplistic

understanding of CBE there are many constituting aspects that are not reflected. A
more accurate understanding of CBE could be attained via a brief description of
further key characteristics of CBE. Table 4.1 below summarises such key
characteristics of CBE according to Sullivan (1995:3).
Table 4.1: Key characteristics of CBE

 Competencies are carefully selected
 Supporting theory is integrated with skill practice. Essential knowledge is
learned to support the performance of skills
 Detailed training materials are keyed to the competencies to be achieved and
are designed to support the acquisition of knowledge and skills
 Methods of instruction involve mastery learning; the premise that all participants
can master the required knowledge or skill, provided sufficient time and
appropriate training methods are used
 Participants’ knowledge and skills are assessed as they enter the program and
those with satisfactory knowledge and skills may receive credit for training or
competencies already attained
 Learning should be self-paced
 Flexible training approaches including large group methods, small group
activities and individual study are essential components
 A variety of support materials including print, audiovisual and simulations
(models) keyed to the skills being mastered are used
 Satisfactory completion of training is based on achievement of all specified
competencies
(Source: Sullivan, 1995:3)
This brief overview of Sullivan highlights only some features of CBE and reflects not
its full complexity. What is clear from the above definitions and Table 4.1 is that CBE
distinguishes itself from other curriculum designs because of its strong ‘relevance for
life’ focus since it departs from real occupational roles. Consequently curricula focus
on living and working competence. This occupational focus could, however, pose a
danger of too narrow an approach since the necessary knowledge, skills and
capabilities should be complemented with some generic education that incorporates
‘critical outcomes’ such as ‘thinking and communication skills’ (Technical Committee
on the revision of norms and standards for educators in South Africa, 1998:41).
Apart from a result-oriented focus of CBE, the learning process is also emphasised
and the role of knowledge in competence recognised.
To summarise, competency-based education can be defined as being an

‘integrated system’, with a focus on ‘relevant competence’ as well as ‘learner-
oriented’ results. A curriculum with a people or learner focus typically incorporates
a ‘relevancy’ principle. This ‘relevancy’ (cf. Carl, 1995:24) or ‘responsiveness’ (cf.
Breier, 2001:5) feature operates strongly in CBE programmes. CBE is thus not
driven by ‘management’ or ‘assessment’ but by outcomes as learning
accomplishments which direct the further design and delivery of a programme.
The rest of the Unit clarifies more of the features of CBE which reveal its complexity,
its advantages and disadvantages. Unit 5 and 6 discuss the design and
implementation features of CBE.
4.1.4 The origin of CBE curricula

Hyland (1994:1) maintains that there is general agreement (referring to Tuxworth,
1989; Elam, 1971; Houston, 1980) that the first formal CBE curriculum is to be found
in the performance-based teacher education movement in American educational
circles in the 1960s. Bowden and Masters (1993:21) suggest that the USA search for
‘primary teacher education qualifications’ in 1967 initiated the first CBE curricula.
Harris, et al. (1995:40) are more specific and locate the first formal application of
CBE in 1967 in the USA in the area of primary and vocational teacher education as
well as vocational education. According to Hyland (1994:1) these performance-
based programmes required closely defined and pre-specified outcomes that
appealed to the American administrators whose concerns were public accountability
and control of certification in professional teacher education. It is noteworthy to
observe from the above facts that CBE started mainly in performance-based
vocational teacher education and not in the typical secondary teacher education. In
retrospect it is also understandable that the real life orientation of vocational
education transferred to the training of vocational teachers. Before this first formal
implementation of a CBE curriculum however, political, social, economical and
educational developments influenced the character of CBE.
4.2 Describe the expansion of CBE programmes
According to Bowden (2000:3) CBE moved from USA primary and vocational
teacher education programmes in the late 1960s to other professional education
programmes (dentistry, engineering, law) in the USA in the 1970s and then moved
further a field to vocational training programmes in Germany. Thus, at least on
paper, Germany accepted the competency-based ideas for vocational training about
two years after its appearance in the USA. The United Kingdom was much slower
than the USA in their acceptance of CBE. It was not until the early 1980s that the
potential of CBE for technical education was seriously looked at by the Thatcher
government in order to address unemployment and prepare young people for work
(Harris, et al. 1995:43; Burke, 1989:17). While the political powers promoted
competency-based training in England, educational leadership via The Scottish
Vocational Council (SCOTVEC) introduced a system of competency-based
vocational qualifications to meet the needs of individuals and employers in Scotland
in 1987.
In Australia federal funded research into CBET(competency-based education and

training) began in 1978-79. Around mid-1980 the movement began to gather
momentum, still through federal initiatives. A strategic framework for the
implementation of a competency- based vocational training system was published in
1990 and as such the CBET system had formally begun. By 1992 the Australian
National Training Board started to advocate competency-based training. Once
again, competency-based training ideas took hold in the field of vocational training
and the expansion of competency-based education at Australian universities are still
being researched and experimented with. Two prominent higher education
institutions involved in this research are the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology
and the University of Technology, Sydney.
After administrative reforms in 1989 the New Zealand Qualifications Authority co-
ordinated the developments of competency-based unit standards within an eight-
level National Qualifications Framework. Every unit to be recognised nationally
needs to be registered on the framework. The National Qualifications Framework is
designed to be more extensive than that of other countries in that it covers all post-
compulsory learning: general, academic and vocational from senior secondary
school to degree level (Harris, et al. 1995:48-50).
The Canadian Labour Force Development Board was the major agency for adopting
national competency standards in 1993 to develop a flexible, efficient and equitable
labour market (Harris, et al.1995:42). In fact, The School of Hospitality’s Training
Guides of March 1992 reflect that the Humber College in Etobicoke, Ontario, was
already implementing CBE ideas (see Horne, 1992:8). At that stage (in 1992) such
Colleges in Canada offered many programmes equivalent to technikon (vocational)
programmes in South Africa. This means that the establishment pattern of CBE in
many countries was maintained in Canada.
For most of the Asian countries like South Korea, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Burma and
Colombo, CBET was seen a means to become industrialised and to enter the
international market. Therefore, CBET ”…has been explored as a means of lifting the
standard of vocational education and increasing participation in it” (Harris, et al.
1995:47). It is noteworthy that in South Africa, Namibia and Australia it was also
political powers as opposed to educational powers that initiated the introduction of
competency-based education.
The CBE paradigm with its economic development focus also appealed to Namibia.
The official acceptance of competency-based education and training in Namibia
occurred in 1996 with the promulgation of the National Qualifications Authority Act,
1996. All educational and training institutions must register with the National
Qualifications Authority and their programmes are evaluated according to a set of
criteria favouring competency-based ideas, such as occupational standards and
competencies (Government Gazette of the Republic of Namibia, 1996:1-5). With
regard to teacher education, the National Qualifications Authority produced ‘National
Professional Standards for Teachers’ towards the end of 2006, assessment
guidelines for the standards, qualification level descriptors, a two year licensing
internship after graduation and three career development alternatives of a mentor
teacher, a support teacher and a management career path (Ministry of Education of
Namibia, 2006; National Qualifications Authority, 2007, Section D and F). The two
year licensing internship and 3 career path based salaries are not yet accepted or
implemented in Namibia.
In summary, CBE programmes at post school level appear to be in the area of

primary and vocational teacher education which took place in 1967 in the USA. It
appears that the expectation about the utility role or relevance of education at
different levels is becoming stronger in many international educational contexts. It is
also apparent that politicians rather than educators promote CBE programmes
because of the perceived additional wide-ranging benefits of CBE. Examining the
expansion of CBE reveals that higher education practices started in the 1960s in the
USA with vocational teacher education programmes. Germany was the second
nation to implement CBE ideas with the establishment of their dual system of
vocational education in 1969. Australia implemented CBE designs in 1987 and the
UK in the 1980s. In 1989 New Zealand adopted competency standards for all levels
of education and in Canada competency standards were adopted in 1993. In the late
1990s CBE expanded to South Africa and Namibia.
The above outline of CBE expansion indicates that CBE programmes have spread
remarkably across the world since 1967. However, it appears that the university
community is not in agreement about the appropriateness of CBE in higher
education partly owing to the lack of research evidence about CBE as well as the
political way in which it is often established. Against this brief background sketch of
CBE the next logical step might be to take a closer look at the characteristics of CBE
models as applicable to teacher preparation qualifications.
4.3 Evaluate the CBE model variations
There are three main variations in CBE models. According to Spady (1994a:62-66)
the three variations in CBE models are the ‘traditional’, the ‘transitional’ and the
‘transformational’ models. The traditional model defines curriculum and learning in
terms of subject content. To be successful, learners have to engage mentally with
content on lower cognitive levels while in classrooms. Competencies as the ability to
do things receive little attention. This model is thus close to traditional teacher-
centred teaching where a curriculum is not based on pre-specified outcomes as
competencies. Malcolm (in Jansen and Christie, 1999:95) refers to such a content-
based, behaviouristic learning theory-oriented and bureaucratically managed
education as a ‘clockwork’ orientation.
The transitional model focuses on competence and higher cognitive levels of

learning. The curriculum incorporates an interdisciplinary and thematic approach to
content selection, organising and delivery. Exit and learning outcomes that cut
across disciplines exist and creative learning and projects provide opportunities to
develop understanding, competencies and accountability for learning.
The transformational model of CBE represents the most developed and complex
model. The outcomes capture understanding and competencies beyond subject
content such as life roles that matter for individuals and society in the long run.
Competencies regarding citizenship such as, communication and thinking, are
developed and assessed in real or simulated contexts. A focus on such broad life
roles implies that the transformational model prepares learners not only to fit into the
current contexts but also to transform contexts to create new futures. The ability to
transform society is thus developed. Malcolm (in Jansen and Christie, 1999:95)
refers to an integration of knowledge and skills, constructivist learning theories,
learner-centred curriculum, post-modernism views and participative management of
education as an ‘organic’ orientation.
How do we evaluate these models? Since the description of these three models
focus mainly on the nature of the outcomes, the evaluation has to focus on the
nature of the outcomes too. The traditional model focuses on the memorisation of
short term ‘subject content outcomes’. This curriculum design does not emphasise
holistic learner education. The transitional model is a better model because it
includes themes and learning outcomes of interdisciplinary nature which represents
higher cognitive learning and allows for active learner involvement in learning. Yet
the scope of the outcomes is still too narrow since no mention is made of longer term
‘exit life role outcomes’. The transformational model goes beyond subject knowledge
and learning outcomes promotes a broad development of learners via different life
roles, such as social roles, job roles, spiritual roles and so forth. Teaching methods
are learner-centred and school management more democratic in this model.
In Namibia a sub-vision for the education and training system is to have an ‘fully
integrated’, ‘unified’ and ‘flexible’ system “ that prepares Namibian learners to take
advantage of a rapidly changing environment and contributes to the economic,
moral, cultural and social development of the citizens throughout their lives”
(Namibia Vision 2030, 2004:89). This vision implies that Namibia favours the
transformational CBE model and the design and implementation of the school
curriculum should take note of this.
Although a transformational model has a particular focus on outcomes there are

other generic features of a CBE model that the school curriculum should take note
of.
4.4 Outline the features of CBE curricula
The concept of CBE is already defined under Section 4.1. However, the
characteristics of CBE curriculum design and implementation need further
clarification. The secondary and more recognisable surface features of CBE
curricula are commonly listed as follows: Janish (1997:6) points out that CBE is a
coherent, logical system linking together national and personal education needs,
having clearly specified outcomes, and a teaching and administrative system to
achieve these outcomes. Foyster (1990:24-25) and Houston and Howsam (in Harris,
et al. 1995:19) describe CBE in terms of an occupational analysis to produce public
outcomes that focus strongly on competencies; different modes of instruction and
learning activities; appropriate competency assessment procedures and reporting of
assessment results include competencies; and maintenance of detailed outcome
and assessment records. A description of CBE by Bowden and Masters (1993:13-
19) involves very similar secondary features: A focus on outcomes; Greater
workplace relevance; Outcomes as observable competencies; Assessments as
judgements of competence; Improved skills recognition and Improved articulation
and credit transfer.
These secondary features are addressed when the following CBE curriculum
characteristics are discussed in terms of:
 Philosophical perspectives
 A focus on specific outcomes
 Modular organisation of content
 Systematic design
 Teaching and learning perspectives
 Broad based assessment
 Detailed programme documents
 Recognition of prior learning
4.4.1 CBE philosophical perspectives

The following characteristics of Spady (1994a:6-11) and Boschee & Baron (1993:2-
4) could be viewed as “philosophical characteristics” that underpin the secondary
features of CBE.
Table 4.2: The philosophical characteristics of a CBE curriculum

 Education is about developing / educating people in the first place, not about
teaching subject knowledge.
 Education is holistic and it should thus encompass development of the head,
hand and heart.
 Education, no matter the level, should integrate theory and practice. Bowden
and Masters (1993:17) emphasize in this regard the role of knowledge in
competencies and the influence of the context on competencies.
 Education should be a successful experience for all, not just for a few elite
learners. Spady (1994a:10) identifies high expectations for all to succeed as
a CBE characteristic. This characteristic entails increasing the challenge level
to which students are exposed and raising the standard of acceptable
performance. Experience shows that teacher expectations have a positive
motivational influence on students. High expectations could result in more
students achieving higher levels of performance and thus standards could be
raised.
 Multiple instructional strategies, enough resources and flexible time would
contribute to success for all.
 Most learners could perform well if they are provided with quality instruction,
support and flexible time. Boschee & Baron (1993:4) emphasize that the
support should develop students to become self-directed students.
 As favourable learning conditions make it possible for all learners to perform
to the best of their abilities, the focus and management of institutions are thus
partly to blame for learners’ poor performances.
 Exit outcomes of significance regarding occupations are specified and the
programme is designed down from them. In this regard Boschee & Baron
(1993:3) emphasise that outcomes are future oriented, publicly defined,
learner-centred, focusing on life skills and context, characterised by high
expectations for all learners and sources from which all other educational
decisions flow.
 Learning is process and product driven. The product being knowledge and
skills. For Boschee & Baron (1993:3) learning is typically facilitated carefully
toward achievement of the outcomes, characterised by its appropriateness to
learner’s needs, interests and developmental level and experienced-based
for maximum application of the knowledge.
 Assessment is criterion-referenced, appropriate to the learning, its life
context, and the learner advancement is based on demonstrated
achievement of outcomes rather than on seat time.
Comments on the philosophical views of CBE

Education as the education / development of people to cope with life as citizens and
employees is probably the most distinguishing philosophical perspective of CBE.
This feature has several implications for curriculum design and implementation. For
example, occupations are analysed into roles and tasks; stakeholders have an input
in curricula and outcomes are related to economic, social and political needs of a
country. This proposed ‘relevancy’ implies a utility function that is in conflict with the
traditional general education focus. The CBE view of ‘relevant education’ has
implications for the organising of knowledge in curricula. The other philosophical
perspectives presented above such as equity, deep and practical learning, multi-
modal instruction or criterion-referenced assessment, mostly do not pose
unacceptable views for education institutions the world over.
Another distinguishing broad philosophical perspective of CBE is the one of success

for all. This view embraces a learner-centred focus that involves student learning
supportive designs of all the curriculum components. School application of ‘success
for all’ could encompass the provision of adequate teaching-learning resources; clear
outcomes; self-directed contracts; flexible pacing and assessment; different modes
of instruction and experiential learning. A possible negative implication of this
‘success for all’ could be that more attention is paid to re-teaching poor performing
learners rather than providing enrichment to high achievers (Towers, 1994:627). This
could mean that the potential leaders of the future are not challenged sufficiently
beyond minimum standards. ‘Education for all’ should simultaneously be ‘quality
education for all’ and quality requires adequate time and money.
The mentioned philosophical views of CBE also influence the nature of the following
characteristics of a CBE curriculum.
4.4.2 A focus on specific outcomes
It was pointed out in section 4.1 that competency-based education focuses on what
type of student should emerge from a programme or institution rather than on what
discipline content should go into a programme. CBE curricula thus compel
educators to examine what is truly essential knowledge in the Information Age for
their learners to accomplish in limited time (Spady, 1994a:29). Less content can be
worth more if the ‘less’ is better understood and abilities and skills learned can
be applied to other subjects or real life issues. Most academics would agree that
covering as much content as possible in the time available is not a guarantee as to
how much students actually learn. The main reason for having such clear outcomes
is that CBE focuses on specialised occupational preparation as opposed to a more
general education of subject-based programmes. Outcomes represent what
knowledge, skills and attitudes are needed for the learner to be absorbed into the
world of work (Janish, 1997:6).
According to Spady (1994a:2) clarity of focus on exit outcomes helps educators to

establish a clear picture of the learning results they want learners to exhibit. Having
clear outcomes for programmes not only directs the design of the curriculum
components, but communicates to students and other stakeholders expected
learning results that enable them to plan and think purposefully in line with stated
lesson outcomes. The complete descriptions of the outcomes guide teachers and
learners alike in their teaching and learning. This clarity reduces stress,
misunderstandings, time or money wasting and supports the achievement of higher
quality education. The strong focus on specified outcomes, the learning activities to
achieve these outcomes and the assessment to monitor the achievement of the
outcomes, promote the quality of the education because the planned and actual
results can be compared. However, although clear outcomes meet requirements of
accountability in terms of learners’ achievement, management and fiscal
transparency, the selection and formulation of outcomes are riddled with challenges
as will be discussed in Section 4.7.
According to Bowden and Masters (1993:13) this focus on outcomes as results is in

contrast with traditional concerns of educational programmes with inputs such as
methods of student selection, length of courses, class sizes and so on. Prior to CBE
the importance of objectives were advocated by Mager (in Curzon, 1985:88) who
wrote: “Instructors simply function in a fog of their own making unless they know
what they want their students to accomplish as a result of their instruction.”
Competency-based education is not unique in its focus on outcomes, but it differs
from other approaches in its concern with outcomes relevant to employment.
Tuxworth (in Burke, 1989:13) highlights the following features of outcomes: They are
based on an analysis of the professional roles; outcomes describe the knowledge,
skills and attitudes thought to be essential to the performance of roles and tasks;
competency statements facilitate criterion referenced assessment; outcomes are
subjected to continual validation procedures; outcomes are specified and made
public prior to instruction. Jessup (in Burke, 1995:34) points out that the CBE model
is outcome-led, not outcome dominated to the exclusion of everything else.
Institutional qualifications should ensure that the public does not perceive
professionals as incompetent. Since the rights of the individual in society are
emphasised more and more professionals are often sued for being incompetent.
Much of this could be prevented if education institutions would cooperate with
professional bodies and other stakeholders in order to incorporate their needs in
qualification outcomes. Even complex goals such as ‘learning to think critically’ or
‘developing of emotional intelligence’ can be converted into specific learning
outcomes. Alexander (s.a.:7) contends that the focus on values and dispositions as
part of competence promotes the emphasis on ‘affective domain’ outcomes even
though such outcomes might be difficult to assess. The next section addresses the
question of how the content selected according to outcomes could be organised.
4.4.3 Modular organisation of content
Historical organisation of content

Philosophers and educators have long searched for coherent ways of organising
knowledge. According to Posner (1992:146) persons like Aristotle, Descartes and
Compte attended to this epistemological dimension. Aristotle for instance organised
all studies according to the purpose that each serves and the nature of the subject
matter with which it deals. He divided knowledge into just three classes: The
theoretical, the practical, and the productive. The theoretical – in descending order,
theology or metaphysics, and physics – is worth knowing for its own sake and
consists of subject matter that is unalterable by human beings. The practical –
ethics and politics, the latter including economics and rhetoric – is aimed at doing
and concerns matters of deliberate choice of conduct. The productive knowledge
category – the arts and engineering – is concerned with making things and giving life
to forms (Posner, 1992:146). Posner further suggests that the modern-day
distinction between the academic and the vocational curriculum is suggestive of this
ancient classification (Posner, 1992:146). What is important to note is that Aristotle
had already suggested a combination of sections of subjects because it serves a
specific purpose.
According to Burke (1995:171-172) modular developments in the UK first started in

the secondary schools in the 1980s with the introduction of the General Certificate of
Secondary Education. Modules were introduced to provide for new kinds of learning
and accreditation. Modularisation has become a key signifier of programmes
designed for consumption.
CBE programmes consist of modules
As CBE is all about bridging the gap between education and training, it implies an
integration of theoretical and practical content. Such integration creates challenges
as to how programme theory and practice could be organised. Bowden and Masters
(1993:25) suggest that occupational analysis to create competency standards often
results in the combination of discipline knowledge and skills. These ‘new subjects’
are referred to as ‘modules’ and include multiple learning outcomes (State Training
Board of Victoria, 2000:1-2). Modules are sequenced logically and a learner is often
required to master prerequisite modules in order to be admitted to further modules
(Blank, 1982:148). CBE curricula consist of compulsory and optional modules. The
latter allows for the pursuit of personal occupational interests or serves a general
education purpose. The criticism against modules is that they are perceived to
fragment discipline knowledge and result in a narrow focus (Kerka, 2000:1).
Modules consist of units
Burke, (1989:13) points out that CBE instruction is organised into ‘units of
manageable size’, consisting of a number of learning outcomes under the exit
learning outcome as title of a unit. The sequence of units within modules is carefully
planned according to a logical development of prerequisite knowledge and skills.
The theory and competencies integrated into modules of an interdisciplinary nature
and the design of curricula based on modules deviate from the traditional subject
discipline curricula and consequently has elicited criticism of narrowness and
fragmentation (Kerka, 2000:1). The question should be asked why differently
organised knowledge could not be valid. If knowledge is seen as valid only if it is
organised according to a traditional subject structure, the underlying assumption is
that the value of knowledge lies mainly in its structure and not in its functions. This
would be debatable. Obviously the rearranged knowledge is still valid and
functional, it is only in the minds of subject-based proponents that tampering with the
disciplines is making it less valuable because ‘half must be less than complete.’
Creativity is typically associated with unorthodox views, structures or combinations.
Yet when knowledge is combined unconventionally in a CBE programme, it is not
considered as a creative perspective. It should be recognised that the logic of CBE
does not allow for non-sensible compiling of content, but rather of knowledge units
that are coherent in meaning and purpose.
The rule seems to be that one can deviate to some extent in a single subject but this
is unacceptable if the organisation of knowledge is too drastically different or is
applied to a whole curriculum. This appears as double standards and a clinging to
tradition. CBE curricula select and organise subject content according to what is
desirable for a specific qualification and this is seen as a drastically different
organisation of subject content. Posner (1992:152) also observes the trend that
highly discipline stratified knowledge counts as legitimate knowledge and has more
status in the eyes of academics. CBE includes in programmes the same ‘stratified
knowledge’ from disciplines, the difference is, however, that not all the available
knowledge is included, but only subject knowledge that is needed for achieving
specific programme outcomes. For example, ‘Environmental Studies’ in primary
schools combine knowledge of Biology and Science.
4.4.4 Systematic design
The ‘systems approach’ involves the interaction of all elements of a system to bring
about the desired results. In education the design, implementation and evaluation of
a curriculum are thus elements that interact towards achieving outcomes (Dick and
Carey, 1990:4). The basic steps of a competency design are according to a
‘sequential analytic’ or ‘systems’ approach are as follows:
Step 1: Empirical analysis of needs.
Step 2: Determination of needs priorities.
Step 3: Specification of objectives in the form of behaviour or performance
objectives.
Step 4: Selection of content to fit in with the specified objectives.
Step 5: Definition, description and classification of instructional procedures
and learning activities.
Step 6: Identification of quantifiable evaluation methods (Carl, 1995:54).
These steps firstly allow for an analysis of the need for a specific qualification. Once
the need for a qualification is established, the duties and tasks of the job are
identified and prioritised. A ‘system design’ appears to correlate with a definition of
quality as ‘fit for purpose’. The duties and tasks are then translated into ‘objectives’
and knowledge is selected to fit the skills. Again, a system design suggests a change
in the traditional programme design sequence. Knowledge is now selected on the
basis of duties / roles unlike in the past where discipline knowledge determined the
development of subjects. Assessment guidelines are included in module descriptors
but the inclusion of possible instructional guidelines would be debateable from an
‘academic freedom’ point of view. The assessment should measure whether the
objectives and especially the competent performances are attained.
Design down
According to Spady (1994a:18) CBE qualifications are designed down from the exit
outcomes that are based on the national standards. This entails curriculum
designers and lecturing staff firstly determine what they ultimately want students to
know, to do and to believe. From these end results they start mapping back the
desirable outcomes. This mapping back process employs categories of outcomes.
The culminating or exit outcomes (former aims) define what all students should be
able to do (such as what roles / duties in an occupation) at the end of their
programme. The learning or enabling outcomes (former objectives) are the building
blocks of the exit outcomes (Spady, 1994a:18).
The design down principle establishes a structured curriculum with enough
information provided by the outcomes to support planning for further curriculum
design components such as learning opportunities, assessment and learning
facilitation. CBE features can be applied in structured or flexible ways. Excessive
structuring can however bog down staff in unnecessary detail and impede teaching
and learning success (Spady, 1994a:21).
4.4.5 Teaching and learning perspectives of CBE
In order to understand a particular approach to education the ‘teaching-learning

perspective’ needs to be examined. The following paragraphs allow a description of
the CBE ‘teaching-learning perspective’ that in essence emphasises nothing less
than a learner-centred perspective. The teaching-learning issues that are clarified
are: (a) expanded learning opportunities; (b) instructional modalities; (c) role of the
lecturer; (d) transferability of learning; (e) motivation and constructivist learning
characteristics.
(a) Expanded learning opportunities
According to Spady (1994a:12-15) the CBE expanded learning opportunity

involves five dimensions concerning how to expand learning opportunities. These
dimensions are ‘time’, ‘methods and modalities’, ‘operational principles’,
‘performance standards’ and ‘curriculum access and structuring’. The time dimension
consists of aspects like time allowed for sections to be taught and duration and
frequency of learning opportunities. Secondly, lecturers should attend to different
learning styles and intelligences by varying methods and modalities. Thirdly, the
operational dimension of opportunity encompasses aspects like having clear
outcomes, high expectations but also implementing principles consistently,
systematically and creatively. Performance standards as a fourth dimension of
expanding opportunities, is embedded in how performance standards are defined
and implemented. Criterion-based assessment for example, is implemented by CBE
and this define standards the same for all students and impose no limits on how
many can reach a given performance level. The fifth dimension of access and
structuring suggests that opportunity is tied to having access to essential learning
experiences and resources. Furthermore the sequence and repetition as part of
structuring of critical learning experiences are crucial for learning success. Van
Niekerk & Killen (2000:93) concur that students have different characteristics and
dispositions that influence what and how they learn and responding to this is part of
a learner-centred perspective. If the dimensions of the ‘expanded learning’ are not
implemented well the probability is high that a CBE programme would be no better
than the next programme.
(b) Instructional modalities / methods
From the above ‘philosophical features’ of CBE it is apparent that the CBE beliefs
about human learning involves beliefs that most learners could perform well given
adequate time and support. Such support would include instructional modalities
promoting active learning. Boschee and Baron (1993:80-88) point out that CBE
incorporates authentic learning, problem-based learning, video-based learning,
computer technology and group learning. The ‘authentic’ learning could include role
play of interpersonal skills, demonstration of values and competencies as well as
exhibitions and portfolios. These kind of practical learning experiences are not
expensive and should be done more in our schools. These features reflect
perspectives of the cognitive learning theories as well as the humanistic learning
theories, thus moving beyond behaviouristic theories. Hendricson and Kleffner
(1998:185) emphasise instructional modalities of tertiary CBE qualifications such as:
case studies and experiential methods, self-assessment and lecturer feedback, the
application of OSCE’s (Objective Structured Clinical Examination), and a student
mentoring system. Central of course to the instructional modalities is training in the
workplace or simulated situations although this involves challenges such as the
appointment of workplace assessors; the reliability of workplace assessment; the
weight of workplace education; the time consumed by workplace training; the
availability of relevant workplace settings and the costs involved for students,
educational institutions and employers alike. Some of these tertiary instructional
methods are not applicable to schools but schools could use ‘case studies and
experiential methods, self-assessment, learner feedback and peer tutoring’. Schools
could also use DVD’s of simulated situations on a much larger scale and laboratories
or other practical training facilities which are lacking in most Namibian public schools
must be addressed.
c) Role of the teacher / lecturer

Glasgow (1997:31) states that ‘lecturing’ implies the teacher or lecturer to be the
main source and transmitter of information and stays in control of the learning
process. There is pressure put on the teacher to cover, by means of talk and chalk,
the prescribed amount of content within a specified time frame in order for learners
to be prepared for examinations. This lecturing results in learners being more
passive as opposed to CBE facilitation of learning (Alexander, s.a.:2). To facilitate
learning means to help and support learning in any way possible (see Hendricson
and Kleffner, 1998:184,189), but this process requires learners to take more
responsibility for their learning success. The CBE teacher as facilitator limits the
transmission of knowledge through switching often from the deductive to the
inductive strategy and by applying interactive and experiential methods. Van
Niekerk & Killen (2000:94) emphasise that learners should be informed about the
expected learning outcomes and a focus on understanding involves more than the
accumulation of unrelated facts.
(d) Transferability of learning

Bowden (2000:12,16) explains the promotion of transferability in CBE by indicating
that the preparation of learners to deal with unknown future situations and
challenges requires learners to be able to discern cognitively the different elements
of a situation and understand the relations of the parts to the whole as dictated by a
specific context. This would then, on the one hand, require the promoting of a deep
approach to learning and an effective way of analysing situations. The effective
analysis of situations means all aspects of the situation which are necessary for
handling it are discerned and are taken into consideration. This implies
understanding of relevant principles, underlying theory and competencies involved,
thus thinking about why and how to do things. Jessup (1991:69) points out another
form of ‘transferability of learning’ in the sense that credits for units and modules
passed could be accumulated and accredited.
A further two dimensions of CBE teaching-learning perspectives are ‘motivation’ and

‘similarities to constructivist learning characteristics’.
(e) Motivation and constructivist learning characteristics
In CBE, learner-centred features such as ‘active learning opportunities’ and ‘real life
relevant outcomes’ enhance learners’ motivation (Burke, 1989:104-105). Van
Niekerk & Killen (2000:94) emphasise that motivation is the first step in learning and
that experiencing success is important for keeping motivational levels high. Open
access to learning through recognition of prior learning and learning in a wide range
of locations and through different methods could also contribute to motivation of
students (Jessup, 1991:117).
The concept ‘constructivism’ is applied to both theories of learning and epistemology,
that is, to ‘how people learn’ and the ‘nature of knowledge’ (Abdall-Haqq, 1998:1).
Constructivists, following the learning theory ideas of earlier proponents such as
Dewey, Piaget and Vygotsky, maintain that individuals construct their own meaning
and thus their own subjective world through interaction with sources, data and
experiences. This means that there is no independent Platonic reality out there
reflecting the ‘true’ nature of things. Learning as the search for meaning requires
understanding concepts rather than isolated facts; learning, furthermore, needs
ample time; is contextual; is a social activity; motivation is a key component in
learning; is characterized by active inquiry, the search for meaning involves problem
solving and collaboration with others (Adobe Go Live, s.a.: 1-4).
The constructivist epistemology entails the following: Knowledge is not independent
of the knower. Meaning is constructed by the learner or community of learners. The
rational subject-based way to organise knowledge of reality is now adapted to
provide learners the opportunity to construct their own meanings of the world. This
implies learners are not merely expected to learn the subject-based reality
prescribed, but could interpret the reality from a personal and current social
perspective (Adobe Go Live, s.a.:1-2). An overemphasis on subjective interpretations
of current realities has of course its limitations.
A comparison of the CBE learning and the constructivist learning reveals core
similarities such as a focus on the connection between living / society and education;
that the aim of education is primarily the development of people; that the learner is a
primary focus; that the learning process involves active learning and the
understanding of meaning as opposed to mere facts. Based on these similarities and
other features of CBE learning described above, it would appear that CBE complies
with a constructivist learning and epistemological view.
4.4.6 Broad based assessment
Since CBE outcomes focus strongly on competence, it stands to reason that mastery
of such performances should be assessed. CBE assessment poses complex
challenges as the following paragraphs illustrate.
Outcomes rather than assessment direct CBE
The outcomes capture what individuals should achieve and these ends are carefully
assessed. In the case of CBE these ends include demonstration of knowledge and
occupational and general (also referred to as critical or key) competencies. In this
manner CBE demystifies assessment by providing students with a clear picture of
what needs to be learnt and the dichotomy between knowing and doing is broken
down (Argüelles and Gonczi, 2000:30). Some might view this as providing of
students with clear outcomes as ‘spoon feeding’ or ‘examination coaching’ which is
not the case. Providing outcomes is saying ‘this is everything you need to learn’,
while
‘examination coaching’ is ‘selecting a few topics from all the outcomes’ and tell
learners these are the examination questions.
The formulation of outcomes must be specific enough to indicate what will be

accepted as evidence of having achieved the outcome. Verbs such as ‘describe’ or
‘analyse’ are used to identify both the level of thinking and the level of assessment.
Tennant argues (in Hyland, 1994:52), however, that those common behavioural
objectives are not suitable for the assessment of competencies because:
(i) behavioural indicators of competence can rarely be determined in advance;

(ii) the emphasis on terminal outcomes undervalues the importance of the
learning process;
(iii) not all learning outcomes are specifiable in behavioural terms;
(iv) learning may be occurring which is not being measured (Hyland, 1994:52).
As far as (i) is concerned it is acknowledged that the context may require a lesser or
stronger emphasis of one or two indicators of a particular competence, but the main
features of such a competence are identifiable, even in advance. In regard to (ii) it
was indicated earlier that CBE does not undervalue the learning process. Thirdly, (iii)
CBE has moved beyond accepting only behaviourist objectives. According to Jessup
(1991:128) some finer aspects of competence attributes and values may be difficult
to assess, however, inclusion of explicit workplace assessment standards are an
improvement on mere theoretical assessment. This problem of theoretical
assessment only is not unique to CBE but to all approaches to education. CBE
furthermore employs different ways of assessing, e.g. observations, oral questioning,
simulations, workplace and self-assessment (Jessup, 1991:58,135). In regards to
(iv) there would always be learning that is not intentionally measured. The hidden
curriculum, for one, promotes a broad range of learning that is not being “measured”.
The point is however that assessment tries to “measure” accurately those formal
objectives that were stated and taught (Posner, 1992:82).
Scope and nature of assessment

?
As indicated above, CBE emphasises assessment of theoretical understanding as
well as of performance in workplace and institutional settings. Wood and Power
(1987:410) point out one of the core difficulties of CBE assessment when they
observe that assessment of ‘observable performance’ does not capture fully the
degree of ‘competence’ that incorporates unobserved knowledge and dispositions.
Validity of performance assessments needs to be enhanced through questioning
learners about the principles explaining the nature of the performance or about the
variation in their response if variations of contexts would occur. In accordance with
Wood and Power’s observation Jessup (1991:57) maintains that the ideal is to
assess understanding simultaneously with the performance rather than separately.
According to Gonczi, Hager and Oliver (in Bowden, 2000:7) this ‘integrative
assessment’ is on a higher level as ‘additive’ where knowledge assessment is
usually undertaken separately from performance assessment. According to Kerka
(2000:2) integrative assessment sees competence as a complex combination of
knowledge, attitudes, skills, and values displayed in the context of task performance
(see also Fletcher, 1998:86).
Integrative assessment furthermore recognises levels of competence such as entry /

novice, experienced or specialist and that competence is not trained behaviour but
thoughtful capabilities (Kerka, 2000:2). Once learners have proven their competency
level in particular areas, these skills and knowledge are not retested again and time
and effort for all involved in assessment are saved.
Workplace assessment, judged against elements of competence by managers and
supervisors can be carried out quite accurately (Jessup, 1991:51). The validity of
such judgements are, however, linked to the criteria and rating scales of an
assessment instrument. The participation of practicing teachers and departmental
heads in the assessment of students during ‘Teaching Practice’ is in line with
workplace assessment. Wolf (1995:130-137) also addresses the feasibility of
implementing CBE assessment in terms of institutional time and costs and reliance
on commitment and ability of workplace personnel. This is a valid concern but in
teacher education universities have applied workplace assessment with a fair degree
of success. Some universities in Western Australia meet the workplace assessment
challenge by training and accrediting teachers as mentors for their visiting student
teachers. This practice is not yet established in Namibia. These teacher-mentors
even receive from the university a fee for their contribution in guiding and assessing
students.
CBE assessment allows for flexible scheduling of testing (Wolf, 1995:21; Boschee
and Baron, 1993:4). This means learners can take tests and exams when they feel
they are ready and do not have to follow the regular schedule of assessment. (This
is more applicable to tertiary institutions than schooIs). If the minimum requirements
are not met on continuous assessments, learners get a second chance to attain the
required standards (Jessup, 1991:116).
The assessment of competence

The assessment and accreditation of competence have been one of the most
controversial issues of CBE (Bowden and Masters, 1993:14). The ‘systematic
design’ delineated above indicates that outcomes drive the design and assessment
monitors the attainment of the outcomes. The assessment of competence involves
developing performance criteria, gathering evidence and making judgements
(Foyster, 1990:34). Assessment of performance ideally takes place in workplace
settings or simulated workplace settings (Hyland, 1994:35). To conduct assessment
in the workplace will obviously not always be feasible, but the challenge is to
cooperate with employers or schools and work out strategies about who will be
assessed, what will be assessed and how students will be assessed. Different types
of laboratories at universities provide conditions where competencies can be
practised safely and without the logistics involved of visiting work situations. Different
types of evidence to prove competency can be accepted as long as the evidence is
sufficient, meets the standards (valid) and is authentic (produced by the individual
concerned) (Fletcher, 1998:86-87). The financial, logistical and time implications of
the assessment of competence could, however, constrain the proper implementation
of assessment. In that case the quality of education achieved by a programme could
be seriously hampered.
Forms and types of broad based assessment

Assessment takes on a more significant role in education systems that are outcome-
led. Assessment becomes an integral part of the CBE learning process and is not
merely used for grading. More forms of assessment, for example, oral, self, peer,
portfolios, contracts, workplace, on top of pen-and-paper tests are normally
introduced (Boschee and Baron, 1993:108). The assessment of students’
performances and competence under realistic work conditions (Hendricson and
Kleffner, 1998:189) is a positive feature but also poses some difficulties. Apart from
time and logistic difficulties as indicated previously, the use of checklists and rating
scales might produce invalid assessments of competence if they are not designed
well. On the positive side, Jessup (1991:116) points out that because the outcomes
and their specified levels of attainment are known to students and assessors alike,
self- and peer-assessment could play a greater role in autonomous learning of
students.
The use of multiple validation opportunities is related to continuous or summative

assessment (Toohey, Ryan, et al. 1995:94). This ensures assessment of smaller
chunks of content so as to enhance learning success and it takes much of the threat
out of CBE assessment since passing is not based on one-off, summative tests or
examinations. Both formative and summative assessment applies criterion-
referenced criteria (Foyster, 1990:27). All learners who meet the criteria are graded
according to their achieved results and percentages are not adjusted to
administrators ad hoc-norms of passing rates for a specific year or subject.
CBE assessment and quality
CBE programme outcomes represent selected national standards as perceived

quality content to suit a curriculum and level of education. For CBE proponents such
‘quality content’ includes academic education as well as preparation for employment
(NCVER, 1999:1-2). The quality promoted by assessment is related to several other
aspects as well: Continuous assessment and various assessment formats (Boschee
and Baron, 1993:108) could promote different levels of understanding and
competence. If the assessment system is individualised the flexibility of the system
and the clarity concerning what is expected could lead to higher performances of
more students. A higher pass rate should, however, not be equated with a lowering
of standards but rather related to the learning support and clear communication of
academic requirements. Students are provided with feedback after assessment and
re-teaching and retesting (Boschee and Baron, 1993:116) is applied to improve the
quality of education. In addition, the expected pass requirements for demonstrated
competence are often higher than the general 50 percent (Luttrell, Lenburg,
Scherubel, Jacob and Koch, 1996:137) thus enhancing the quality of education.
4.4.7 Detailed programme documents

The above six characteristics of CBE require the specification of outcomes; the
organising of content in modules via a design down process and the compilation of
assessment policies and instruments. These characteristics imply activities that
produce detailed programme documents. On the negative side it is understandable
that such detailed documents are costly in terms of time, labour and money. On the
positive side these documents allow for better skills recognition, for improved
articulation and credit transfer, for accountability and efficient programme
management.
Improved skills recognition
Smith, Marriage and Gillespie (1994:10) state that CBE assessment provides
students with a record of the competencies they have achieved. Johnston (in
Bowden and Masters, 1993:19) contends that in future the determinant of a
credential will be the demonstration of competency, rather than where or how it has
been achieved. Bowden and Masters (1993:19) further emphasise that the
establishment of national standards for occupations such as teachers not only
improve the possibility of recognition of competencies, but also include recognition
of competencies developed by means other than formal education and training
programmes. Such a proof of competency has obvious advantages when applying
for positions. CBE therefore has an accurate collection of evidence and results are
not adjusted according to norm-referenced methods (Jessup, 1991:49).
Improved articulation and credit transfer
CBE practices display a co-operation between education stakeholders in order to

create programmes with wide approval of standards. The disadvantage of such co-
operation is that much time is required and the introduction of programmes could
take considerable longer than in the case of a discipline-based programme design.
The fact that the CBE system represents national levels of qualifications each with
particular requirements allows for improved articulation between and within
qualifications and institutions. The details provided by specified outcomes likewise
allow for transfer of credit for modules. Prior learning experiences (knowledge and
skills) can be formally recognised and this improves articulation and credit transfer
between work and formal education (Bowden and Masters, 1993:19). The practical
implementation of recognition of prior learning is, however, complex and time-
consuming. National accredited qualifications enable employees to feel safe
because they know they are meeting employers’ quality requirements and employers
would know what quality to expect from employees.
Detailed documentation and accountability

Modern governments expect accountability from educational managers. Quality
education as an overall measure of institutional performance needs therefore to be
detectable in some form. CBE detailed documentation does provide a basis that is
suitable for the drive towards accountability for resources put into education,
because the specified outcomes achieved reflect what is gained. The detailed
documentation allows not only for better institutional management of instruction but
also for management of education of a national level, for example: “The recognition
of prior learning, credit transfer, articulation between educational levels through the
development of a qualifications framework, provision for the accreditation of courses
by external agencies and registration of private training providers, were important
educational reforms made possible by the competency-based system” (Argüelles
and Gonzi, 2000:18). In addition to this, it could be pointed out that having clear
outcomes for qualifications and courses provide effective criteria for career paths,
recognition and reward systems, performance evaluations, staff development
programmes as well as criteria for staff procurement.
Detailed documentation and curriculum management
The systems approach of CBE produces clear documentation of outcomes, policies

and administrative procedures. Several curriculum management advantages are
linked to this: overlapping of content is reduced; areas for team teaching are clear;
facilities and learning resources can be determined systematically; changes to
outcomes can be done while having the whole picture on paper; programmes can be
scrutinised by the public; new staff can take over modules with ease as it is possible
to determine what has been done and what should come next. Clear module
descriptions are also crucial for ‘recognition of prior learning’ that can promote
access to tertiary education and redress past practices of higher education as
reserved for the elite only (Posner, 1993:31; Dubois, 1996:27-28; Bowden and
Masters, 1993:16-19).
4.4.8 Recognition of prior learning (RPL)
The recognition of prior learning, education and working experiences in relation to a

particular qualification makes it easier for students to access formal education, or to
move from one programme to another or into a higher level one. The specified
outcomes and assessment performance criteria facilitate the recognition of prior
learning, although not without challenges, when it is evaluated against a framework
of national standards (Bowden and Marton, 1998:18). Jessup (1991:62) points out
particular conditions and arrangements for the implementation of RPL which suggest
that the implementation would be a rather time consuming and expensive process.
Until now different unique characteristics of CBE have been described: There are
various models of the CBE paradigm; certain philosophical perspectives permeate
the programme design and implementation; outcomes as intended results are
specified and encompass knowledge and competencies; some or all of the
curriculum content is organised into modules rather than disciplines; occupational
roles are developed into exit and learning outcomes and serve as the starting point
of a systematic ‘design down’ process; learner-centred and constructivist-related
teaching-learning perspectives are applied; assessment of knowledge and
competence focus on deep learning and transferability; detailed programme design
and implementation documents are created that serve accountability needs and the
recognition of prior learning is advocated. These unique features imply that a CBE
programme design and implementation framework could not be truly CBE if these
features are not accommodated. The highlighting of the possible disadvantages of
the features could guide programme designers to pay the necessary attention to
particular details in order to address challenges.
4.5 Explain the relationship between CBE and learner-centred
education (LCE)
For many years the ‘teacher-centred’ (TC) approach or paradigm was followed in
education across the world. A “paradigm” as a set of beliefs, in this case about
education, consists of many categories such as ‘orientation towards education; aims
of education; methods; role of the learner, teacher; assessment features and so
forth. Each category of the LCE paradigm has specific criteria which outlines certain
requirements or characteristics for a learner-centred practice. I think the term
‘learner-centred’ (LC) is still not the most appropriate term to describe the
educational changes from the teacher-centred to the learner-centred paradigm. Both
these terms focus on one of the participants in the teaching-learning process, while
the focus should actually be on the process of learning. Therefore a better term
would be learning-centred. However, because the whole of Namibia and the world
is using the term ‘learner-centred’, this module is also using the same concept.
In the traditional teacher-centred approach the emphasis is on ‘teachers and what

they teach’, while the emphasis in the learner-centred approach is on ‘learners and
how they learn’. This pedagogical shift requires changes in the role of the teacher,
the learner, outcomes of education, the methods and so forth. LCE applies more
problem based methods, self-directed and deep learning. Self-directed learning
involves that learners also take responsibility for expressing their needs and goals,
identify and consult resources and perform self-assessment. A focus on deep
learning implies a context that motivates learners and promotes depth of
understanding (Spencer and Jordan, 1999:2-5). Obviously, the extent to which
particular LCE features can be applied to pre-primary and senior primary grades will
differ, but the LCE features stay valid for all levels of education.
In order to answer the question of our section heading we must understand the
features of both CBE and LCE and deduct the relationship between them. According
to Spady (1994a:3) to base a system on something means defining, structuring and
operating a system according to some consistent principle. In CBE this ‘consistent
principle’ would be the specification of outcomes: “A system based on outcomes
gives top priority to ends, purposes, learning accomplishments, and results” (Spady,
1994a:3). This means starting with a clear picture of what is important for learners
to be able to do, then organizing the curriculum content, instruction, and assessment
to make sure that this learning ultimately happens. This description emphasises that
a CBE curriculum is an integrated system which focuses on promoting competent
occupational performance while addressing learner success and support. Turn back
to section 4.4 and revisit the ‘the philosophical characteristics of a CBE curriculum’ to
revive the total image of what CBE involves. I think we can summarise by saying that
CBE is systematic approach to curriculum design and encompasses a learner-
centred view for the implementation of the curriculum.
It is clear from the above that CBE distinguishes itself from other education
paradigms (sets of beliefs) such as LCE because of the strong ‘relevant for life’ focus
since it departs from real occupational and life roles. This feature of being ‘relevant’
causes a CBE curriculum design to have a ‘means to an end’ approach in regard to
the function of a curriculum. Therefore, features of the competent graduate and
competent worker should merge in any CBE programme. Some of the CBE features
regarding teaching-learning methods, use of many resources and assessing of skills
are difficult to implement and costly in terms of time and money. Although CBE has
many advantages there are thus limitations too of which curriculum designers and
teachers must be aware. The implementation of CBE (just like for LCE) requires
certain conditions to be successful otherwise the implementation could result in poor
education as it happened in South Africa. Namibia must be careful to identify
‘competencies’ correctly and not to over emphasise ‘competencies’ but develop
abilities as ‘competences’ as well. Such abilities include thinking, social, emotional,
and spiritual abilities to ensure a balanced general education.
CBE and LCE, agree amongst other curriculum perspectives, that:
 education aims to develop human potential;

 learners should be actively involved in their learning;
 teachers are facilitators of learning;
 the organising of learning content could also be an interdisciplinary
combination;
 the use of many teaching and learning materials are important;
 the development of emotional intelligence and thinking skills necessary;
 practical learning and co-operative learning experiences enhance quality
learning (Engelbrecht, 2013:27).
In conclusion, ‘Competency-based education’ is thus a larger concept than ‘learner-

centred education’ because CBE perspectives about the implementation of a
curriculum are similar to the perspectives of LCE, but CBE also includes a
systematic design process of a curriculum that learner-centred education does
not have.
4.6 Compare the features of a subject-based curriculum with a

CBE curriculum
One should not necessarily view CBE and SBE as two opposing systems but rather
as curriculum developments along a continuum, where CBE represents the latest
curriculum developments where the overriding guideline is that all instructional and
administrative procedures will be geared to achieving the exit and learning
outcomes.
The following comparison highlights the main differences and similarities between
CBE and SBE curricula. One should recognise the limitations of comparing curricula
features. The contrasting philosophies about the purposes of education underlying
the two orientations are so different that it is almost like comparing apples to pears.
On the other hand the comparison does provide helpful information for
understanding the two orientations. The comparison is aimed at a micro level (design
features and implementation level) involving the aims / outcomes, teaching-learning
opportunities, content, assessment and the design principles underlying a
curriculum. The information generated through the comparison section will be useful
for the discussion of the strengths and weaknesses in following sections. All
qualification designs have advantages and limitations, including the competency-
based and the subject-based design, but if the strengths of such a design outweigh
its weak points, chances are that it will stay in use.
4.6.1 Comparison of SBE and CBE curriculum characteristics
The following table provides a brief overview of the differences and similarities in
school curriculum characteristics.
Table 4.3 Comparison of SBE and CBE curriculum characteristics
Characteristics of subject-based Characteristics of competency-
curricula (SBE) based curricula (CBE)
1. Content-based: quality education has 1. Competency-based: quality education
academic knowledge prepares people for work and life roles
2. Time-based: qualification levels are 2. Standards-based: qualification levels
determined by contact hours are determined by set standards
3. Emphasis is on inputs 3. Emphasis is on outputs / outcomes
4. Focus on teacher and institutional / 4. Focus on learner and society needs
school needs
5. Group paced 5. Individually and group paced
6. Subjects form the basis for content 6. Modules and units form the basis for
organisation content organisation
7. Little or no recognition of informal 7. RPL of informal learning is an integral
prior learning (RPL) programme component
8. Periodic feedback, e.g. two tests per 8. More regular / continuous feedback
semester
9. Narrow range of delivery ap- 9. More flexible delivery approaches, e.g.
proaches, e.g., lecturing and text- learning in work places, through videos,
book. The focus is more on what group discussions, case studies
than how to teach
10. Limited field experience 10. Collaborative arrangements between
workplaces and education providers
11. The teacher transmits knowledge 11. The teacher is a facilitator of learning
via lectures and demonstrations and one of many resources
12. The learner is seen as receptacle; 12. The learner is seen as more self-
passive receiver directed and taking responsibility for
their own learning
13. General aims / objectives cover 13. Specific learning outcomes cover
mainly the area of knowledge areas of knowledge and competencies
14. Often norm-referenced assessment 14. Only criterion-referenced assessment
15. Subjective assessment criteria, 15. More objective assessment criteria,
which are often unspecified mostly publicly stated upfront
16. Emphasis on assessment of know- 16. Emphasis also on assessment of com
Ledge; more low than higher level petence as application of theory
17. Certification specify final grades for 17. Certification specify final grades
final year subjects for all modules of a qualification
18. Management structures and policies 18.Management structures and policies
have an institutional focus rather than aim to support quality learning and suc-
a learning support focus cess for all
(Sources: Adapted from and Blank, 1982:5, 264; Harris, et al. 1995:29)
A comparison like the one in Table 4.3 as adopted from Blank (1982) and Harris, et
al. (1995) helps to summarise the basic differences in the two approaches, but it can
also project a skewed image. Differences between the two positions on each
characteristic could very often rather be seen as points on a continuum. Any table
portrait phenomenon features at a certain point in their development. The above
features represent the developments of both curriculum designs around 2007. It
should also be noted that the features portrayed in the table does not reflect all
details of categories. For example, a subject-based curriculum acknowledges the
value of some practical training but the design-focus is on knowledge, not on
competence. Similarly, CBE recognises the value of knowledge although the
programme design starts by identifying occupational roles and competencies. CBE
proceeds from the premise that competencies should be an integral part of education
and training, and that education should have some utilitarian function, therefore
competencies are important outcomes.
A brief clarification of the comparison in Table 4.3 is needed:
Academic content versus competence
CBE education philosophy accepts that education should be more relevant for
changing working and living environments and should attend to both individual and
national development needs (Morrison, 2003:1). In regard to individual needs,
unemployment exists everywhere in the world and influences many people’s quality
of life negatively. To ensure people can compete effectively for a job and keep it,
immediate usable job skills and attitudes are prerequisites to be included in
education (Bargagliotti, Luttrell and Lenburg, 1999:5). If philosophical arguments of
epistemology underpinning curricula negate the fact that life is larger than education,
then the argumentation is flawed (New Jersey Commission on Higher Education,
1999:4). It makes sense, therefore, if curriculum design principles of ‘integration,
relevance and credibility’ are applied to curricula (Carl, 2005:13) to develop
occupational knowledge and competence relevant for meeting global economy and
Information Age demands (Sullivan, 1995:2; New Jersey Commission on Higher
Education, 1999:5). The SBE curriculum designs, on the other hand, are often less
relevant for real life preparation as general education aims to deepen understanding
of a field and develop the intellect (Knight, 1995:26; Catri, 2002:3; NCVER, 1999:2).
Time and standards
Subject-based curricula are designed according to a time-based tradition of, for

instance, three or four years for a specific qualification. Competency-based
programmes are designed by determining what knowledge and competencies would
constitute the programme and then the amount of time required is determined by the
scope of the curriculum (Sullivan, 1995:1). This means the standards determine the
length of the programme and not vice versa.
Emphasis on inputs versus outputs
This links with point number three: inputs vs outcomes. The end results or outcomes
of CBE curricula are the starting point from where the programme is designed down
to determine what the inputs should be, while in the subject-based curricula the
focus is on the inputs such as teachers, facilities, time table and textbooks
(Alexander, s.a.:2). If the CBE output-focus of a curriculum is too narrow rather than
holistic, the quality of a qualification willl be limited.
Institutional and society needs

SBE curricula have a tendency to focus more on the needs of the teacher, (e.g.
accommodating time tables, textbooks) and the institution (policies about times and
venues, dress and behaviour codes) rather than on the support of learners’ learning.
CBE has a more learner-as-customer approach and although there will always be
rules and policies, the use of time, venues and quality of services is more customer
friendly (Alexander, s.a.:2). Therefore, the planning and implementation frameworks
of a school curriculum need to reflect this. Features four, seven, eight, nine and
twelve in the table reflect how CBE theoretically accommodates the learner more
strongly than SBE although it must be recognised that some SBE qualifications
render equal support to students.
Group and individual paced
Feature number five in the table is group-paced versus more individual paced and
refers to the fact that teaching to large classes is the dominant SBE system that sets
the learning pace. CBE oriented institutions often allow more flexible pacing of
learning of individuals or groups through self-directed learning materials and different
time frames for taking the final examinations (Sullivan, 1995:3). The individualisation
of instruction and assessment in either CBE or SBE curricula has management and
financial implications that might hamper such efforts.
Subjects and modules
Feature six deals with modules and units. CBE curriculum designs move away from
purely traditional subject content towards interdisciplinary modules (Killen, 1999:18).
A module consists of several units. Units contain theory and skills related to a
specific learning outcome. A unit can be seen as a section in a syllabus or a chapter
in a textbook. In a curriculum individual modules are allocated learning hours and
credits related to that allocated hours. This makes calculating of the credits of a
curriculum and implementing changes to a module easier but it might also imply a
reduction in specific discipline content which could be viewed as a lowering of
standards.
Recognition of informal learning
RPL or ‘recognition of prior learning’ is a process that can assess informal prior
learning against the formal education requirements of units, modules, a subject or
programme. CBE post school curricula could promote access to qualifications via
well-planned RPL activities. The detailed documentation of outcomes of CBE
programmes establishes a framework against which to measure prior learning.
Recognition and credits are not awarded for ‘years of experience’, but only for
verifiable learning that occurred as a result of those experiences. SBE programmes
do not recognise prior learning in the same fashion, but mature age entry and
subject scores are applied as a way of recognising prior learning.
Feedback
Feature eight refers to periodic feedback. In the traditional school programmes

learners are expected to participate in one end of term examination, which give them
an indication of how closely they meet the required levels. CBE programmes require
more formative assessment exercises because smaller components / units are
assessed. Discussion of learning efforts and results is part of the CBE feedback
because assessment is seen as a learning experience as well (Killen, 1999:24).
Delivery approaches
Feature nine highlights the teaching-learning opportunities. Educational institutions

use a lecturing delivery system because much content can be covered that way and
it is cost effective. There is however a downside to lecturing as it does not promote
active or experiential learning. CBE employs other forms of delivery more commonly
as the goals of education are broader than knowledge and require other than
lecturing approaches. CBE promotes self-directed learning, inductive teaching
strategies and the use of many resources (Hauck and Jackson, 2005:4, 6; Killen,
1999:23, 29; Spady, 1994a:14-15).
Field experience
SBE and CBE programmes differ in terms of valuing field experience. Educational
institutions shy away from field experiences due to their logistical, time and financial
implications. For CBE the combination of theory and practice constitutes deep
learning and transferability as part of quality education (Bowden, 2000:16). Bus
transport especially during school holidays assists in promoting field learning
experiences.
Role of the teacher and the learner
Features eleven and twelve refer to the role of the teacher and the learner. Teachers
in SBE fore- mostly transmit knowledge and refer learners to textbooks that cover
the lesson contents (Glasgow, 1997:31). The lesson is therefore not really managed
purposefully to support learning in and outside class rooms. The CBE teacher
accepts the role of facilitator of learning. The transmission of ideas is complemented
by other methods and, during the lecture, involvement of the student is managed to
focus on why and how questions, including ‘how could one think to solve this’. The
development of self-directed learning is encouraged and consciously supported by a
CBE teacher (Alexander, s.a.:2; Hendricson and Kleffner, 1998:189).
Scope of a curriculum
The scope of a curriculum is covered in feature thirteen. For SBE the majority of
curriculum content is broad knowledge of different subjects (Luckett, 2001:55). SBE
does not conduct a systematic occupational role analysis for a qualification and
practical training is thus more of an add-on component. The CBE curriculum is more
selective regarding content and might trade off some depth for a broad scope of
content from four areas: Basic tasks of an occupation; Management tasks;
Contingency management tasks and Job environment tasks (Jessup, 1991:27). For
CBE practical training is an integral part of the main programme and a national
school curriculum needs to reflect this.
Assessment
CBE designs (feature fourteen) do not accept norm-referenced assessment where
governments shift pass requirements for end of year examinations to let more
learners pass. Each individual’s performance is assessed and graded. This
determines whether work should be re-learned or whether a pass level is attained.
There are dissenting views about the pass-fail grading or the need to have levels of
passing, and even about the assessment in the work place, but there is agreement in
CBE that assessment should be criterion based (Maxwell, 1997:1-7). The Bell curve
and norm-referenced assessment do not apply to CBE assessment results. Feature
fifteen is linked to criterion-referenced assessment and contends that CBE
assessment is publicly specified and more objective than that of SBE. This is correct
if it is considered that CBE outcomes clearly delineate national (more objective)
standards which learners are expected to attain and that criteria for assessing
performances and knowledge are publicly known upfront (Killen, s.a.:14-16). SBE
oriented assessment criteria are more determined by individual teachers and thus
more subjective. School curricula need to incorporate an ‘assessment feature’ which
would clarify its features for learners and parents. Fortunately, Namibian syllabi do
clarify the assessment features of subjects.
Certification documents
Traditional certification documents of educational institutions do not provide as much

information as CBE certification documents (feature seventeen). The latter could
provide information about competencies completed, which is normally very helpful
for employers and educational institutions to judge the relevance of a candidates’
qualification (Sullivan, 1995:7). School reports at the end of terms rightly so often
refer to other types of learning than mere scores in subjects, e.g. reporting on social
behaviour, emotional stability, leadership qualities, physical or cultural talents, etc.
Management
The last feature indicates that the management structures and policies of a CBE
oriented system focus firstly on promoting quality learning and success for all
(teachers and learners) rather than focusing on institutional management and policy
preferences. To change to CBE practices requires leadership initiative and
management of the change which is usually time consuming and conflict ridden.
Training of teachers, learners and administrative staff is necessary to orientate them
to new CBE structures, policies and procedures (McCann, Babler and Cohen,
1998:197-207; Burke, 1989:146).
The strengths of CBE derive from the focus of the approach, while the
weaknesses derive from its blind spots. The strength of the subject-based
approach is its attempt to respect the structure of disciplines, while its
weaknesses are its “…failure to recognize the differences in ability,
background knowledge, experience, learning processes, interests, and
aspirations between adult scholars and young students.” (Posner, 1992:182).
CBE recognises that young and adult learners learn differently, that education
should be related to life and that education should include skills, but its major
weakness is “…its blindness to the structure of knowledge…” (Posner,
1992:182). In other words, each approach represents a trade-off. The ideal
would be to design a more balanced curriculum integrating the positive
elements of a subject-based and a competency-based curriculum design.
4.6.2 SBE and CBE features from a national perspective
The above curriculum at institutional level comparison could be complemented by a

national perspective of comparison as proposed by Harris, et al. (1995:27-28) and
portrayed in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Comparison of SBE and CBE features from a national

perspective
Features Subject-based Competency- Perceived
qualification based advantages of CBE
qualification
1.
Registered Institutions Credentials are National consistency
credentials determine their registered and in quality of
own credentials recognised credentials
nationally
2.
Credentials Credentials indicate Credentials certify
Proof of indicate successful the holder has knowledge and
competency completion of a achieved specific competencies to the
course but not the competencies to advantage of students
level of specific standards and employers
competency
3.
Accreditation is Accreditation is Education/training
determined by the determined by a institutions are
Accreditation status of national authority registered and should
institutions meet national
standards, thus
national accreditation
for local programmes
is automatic
4.
The status and The status and National standards are
National quality of a quality of a more holistic in nature
standards qualification are qualification are and the divide
based on time derived from the between education
spent in it with the integration of and training is
focus being on industry needs, narrowed on all levels
subject knowledge academic of education
knowledge and
competencies
mastered
5.
Subject outcomes Outcomes of Graduates are viewed
Consistent are mostly modules are as more competent
outcomes dependent on determined by their because they meet
individual lecturers contribution to a national standards;
programme and compete more
modules are mostly strongly for and are
designed by groups likely to keep jobs;
of stakeholders
6.
Private providers All public and A wider range of
have a minimum private providers of recognised providers
Registration standing and in- education/ training of education/ training;
of providers company training must meet specified closer integration of
has little or no standards for public and private
formal status programmes and in- education; and better
company training use of expertise in the
can be accredited community
7.
Credit for There is no formal There is a formal There is less
prior system of prior system available to duplication of learning
learning learning assess theoretical or with consequent time
recognition, work experience and cost savings and
especially not for and give credit for it often greater access
work experience to programmes are
created
8.
Transfer of Ad hoc transfer of The credit transfer Recognition for prior
credits credits from one process is learning is built into
course to another structured in the the national system
credentials system
9.
Assessment of Assessment covers Better integration of
Assessment learning focuses both competencies theory and practice
mostly on and knowledge promotes transfer of
knowledge objectives subject knowledge
and understanding to
new situations
(Source: Adapted from Harris, et al. 1995:27-28)
The ‘perceived advantages’ column in the table above, summarises the possible
advantages of CBE at a national level. It might be pointed out that consistency in
national standards; more detailed certification; accreditation of all educational
institutions; transfer of credits and reliable assessment would be positive
contributions on a national level. On the other hand, having national standards could
be viewed as limiting both the diversity of creative programmes and the academic
freedom of universities. As the following sections will point out there are additional
disadvantages related to the implementation of CBE at institutional and national level
and unless adequate resources and management are applied, some of the
advantages might not be realised or could result in poor practices. Overall, the
analysis of the CBE characteristics appears to suggest that CBE might be
appropriate for the design and implementation of education programmes, given that
particular challenges are addressed.
4.7 Evaluate the features of CBE curricula and discuss their

advantages and disadvantages
4.7.1 Criticism against CBE
As with any innovation in education there are misconceptions, myths and

preconceived ideas about what CBE entails, how it works and what impact it will
have on different stakeholders and systems. Jackson (in Collins, 1993:154)
acknowledging Hyland (1992) and Fagan (1984) presents the pertinent question of
how one could understand the disparity between the views of the opponents and
supporters of the competency approach: For its opponents the approach is a
“…theoretically and methodologically vacuous strategy” for upgrading an education
and training system. For its supporters it is “…as close to a panacea for educational
ills as one might find….” Part of the solution to the discrepancy might be because
stakeholders are not always using CBE concepts consistently. Secondly, the concept
evolves (cf. the three CBE models, 2.3.3) and definitions change to reflect the
changes in other spheres. Thirdly, the epistemological and curriculum orientations of
people are determined by what they want to accept or reject and conclusions are not
necessarily based on open-minded comparisons.
Understanding the limitations of a curriculum design enables the designer to devise

new solutions for the limitations or to diminish the negative effects of the design or to
discard the design. Let us explore the key design and implementation related
criticisms against CBE.
(a) Education differs from training
Penington (1994:74) contends that education and training are not one and the same:
“Education develops and civilizes the person, while training provides industry with
specific skills.” This implies that education is broader than training. This distinction
between education and training as superior-inferior has unfortunately been created.
It does not mean however that this image is correct or should be maintained. As
indicated in Section 4.4.1 above, for CBE protagonists effective education comprises
both components but the competencies are the point of departure.
The criticism that complex professional education could not be completely defined in
terms of mainly competencies might be valid (Burke, 1995:59-60). It is probably just
as valid to maintain that education could not be completely defined in terms of mainly
subject knowledge or values. Many academics would agree that professional growth
during university years occurred because of lectures, but also because of out of
class discussions and practical exercises and experiences. ‘Lectures’ and
‘experiences’ translate into knowledge and skills training. Both these components
are necessary for quality education. The early CBE programmes focussed on
competencies to the detriment of the role of knowledge just as the subject-based
designs pursue knowledge to the detriment of competencies (Wallace, 1997:4). The
appropriate approach appears to be that curricula include knowledge, attitudes and
skills.
(b) Education is both a process and a product
Another criticism is raised by Penington (1994:70) who propounds that “…education

is a process of development and growth. The process, not merely the result, is
important.” Penington perceives CBE as ignoring the educational process and
focusing only on particular measurable, practicable outcomes. Penington
furthermore contends that these outcomes cannot deliver the necessary breadth of
description of qualities inculcated by good education, for example: enough
knowledge; development of intellectual capacity, social, physical and moral
attributes. The transformational perspective of CBE however does focus on the role
of knowledge, intellectual and ethical development. Although CBE outcomes focus
on the result of education it is just not true, as indicated up to this point in this
chapter, that CBE ignores the educational process. In fact, CBE designs are more
learner-centred (cf. 4.5) than subject-based designs and the process of learning is
supported by a particular philosophy and programme design.
It is an acceptable argument that education as a complex phenomenon cannot fully

be captured by outcomes, but to have a planned curriculum without guiding
outcomes is assuming that certain qualities develop automatically. A curriculum is a
journey to a particular destination and curriculum outcomes influence much of the
journey and the destination. School curricula should thus focus on both the process
and the product outcomes.
(c) CBE is too behaviouristic
Penington (1994:74) points out that criticism against the behaviourist features in
competency-based education includes views such as narrowly, utilitarian and
instrumentalist approach that would imply a fragmentation of subjects. This criticism
is extended by Kerka (2000:1-2) who refers to Gonczi (1997) and Hyland’s (1994)
views that behaviourism “…is criticized for ignoring the connections between tasks;
the attributes that underlie performance; the meaning, intention, or disposition to act;
the context of performance; and the effect of interpersonal and ethical aspects”.
Tennant (1988) (in Hyland, 1994:50) criticises moreover the use of the behaviouristic
objectives by CBE that focus on observable phenomena and abandon the
examination of unobservable mental activities.
Firstly, before addressing these criticisms, it could be pointed out that criticism
against pure behaviourism theory could not be equated with the practices of CBE. In
addition, CBE improved on some of the initial behaviourist features it displayed and
much criticism against CBE is therefore not valid any longer. It is also possible that
the influence of behaviourist ideas is overemphasised while the influence of systems
thinking, management theories, mastery learning or other factors favouring the need
for objectives are underestimated. It appears to be true that the initial competency-
based programmes in vocational institutions did have rather atomistic lists of
occupational competencies. Presently, vocational or higher education CBE
programmes recognise the necessity for identifying tasks for a beginner or other
level and to structure tasks according to occupational roles. The departure from roles
rather than tasks ensures a holistic understanding of the occupation and its priority
duties. This clarity about the key occupational duties allows for accurate selection of
underpinning knowledge, attributes and ethics.
Related to the ‘atomistic criticism’ is the one of fragmentation of knowledge. A focus
on occupational roles results in a selection of traditional subject content and the
‘fragmentation of subjects’ criticism is therefore not likely to disappear soon. CBE
creates new and integrated perspectives to achieve certain outcomes and in doing
so traditional content is selected and organised differently, namely in units and
modules. According to Penington (2000:75) the focus on competence and
consequent influence on the selection and organisation of knowledge may be
amenable to practical education, but not to higher education Wissenschaft (scientific
knowledge). The researcher contends that if ‘Wissenschaft’ is for Penington the
research and practice of academic knowledge in the particular disciplines then CBE
is not suitable for ‘Wissenschaft’. If other definitions of ‘Wissenschaft’ are
considered as involving research of phenomena from multidisciplinary perspectives
and the application of integrated knowledge to solve problems, then CBE might be
suitable for ‘Wissenschaft’.
It should be kept in mind that CBE programmes do not reject all subject-based
disciplines per sé, in fact subject-based disciplines are often offered as a foundation
for further modular subjects (Foxcroft, Elkonin and Kota, 1998:16) The versatility of
modules allows for addressing of abilities and dispositions that serve personal and
interpersonal development as part of the attributes making up competence
performance (Soucek in Collins, 1993:170). However, If school education is seen as
empowering people, (New Jersey Commission on Higher education, 1999:4) then
combining knowledge in new ways could be seen as creating rather than
fragmenting knowledge.
A response to the criticism relating to the objectives model of CBE could be as

follows: Stating objectives are acceptable as long as these are not only stated in
terms of observable behaviour, but include cognitive levels of understanding and
attitudes, according to cognitive and humanistic theories (Hyland, 1994:51). Modern
CBE practices acknowledge that education objectives should cover the whole
spectrum of knowledge, capabilities / skills or attitudes. Moreover, it is agreeable that
it is not possible to capture the complete depth and scope of education programmes
in stated outcomes, no matter what the curriculum orientation might be.
Nevertheless, well-planned programmes operate better than ill-conceived ones. In
addition, the counter argument notes (Burke, 1995:61) that it is unthinkable to
maintain that there are no ways of stating in advance the kinds of quality one would
like to develop or the errors in thinking or activities that one would like to eliminate or
avoid. Professionals and examiners are constantly making appraisals and
judgements about ideas, thinking or performances by using some criteria that are
linked to the intended results reflected by objectives. Eraut (in Burke, 1995:272)
suggests all professions should have public statements about what their qualified
members are competent to do and what people can reasonably expect of them. CBE
programmes thus address national and global context requirements and needs.
When CBE is criticised, behaviourist features are depicted as the downfall of CBE.
The positive features of behavioural views should however also be brought to bear
when behaviourist related criticism is levelled against CBE. Beneficial principles that
are emphasised in the stimulus-response theories include the following: (i) learners
are actively involved; (ii) repetition promotes retention and acquisition of skills; (iii)
feedback and reinforcement of learning efforts; (iv) application of knowledge to other
contexts by understanding the principles involved; (v) the importance of role models;
the necessity of sources to stimulate learning; (vi) the role of motivation in learning
and the handling of emotions that influence learning (Doll, 1996:76; Hyland, 1994:50-
52). These are all valid aspects of effective education as long as they are not seen
as the only definitive features of effective education. Many of these features are in
accordance with constructivist learning ideas to which CBE subscribes and that
seem appropriate for education.
(d) CBE is not a management or assessment system
During the nineties, the competency movement was rediscovered by education via
organisational strategy and management perspectives. Many organisations in
business and industry discovered the human resources management value of the
competency system, for example, roles applied to job descriptions, outcomes applied
to appraisal, promotion, placement, career development, management development,
recruitment and dismissal (VETNET Symposium, 2000:2). Opponents view these
and other management related features of CBE as a negative because the CBE
system approach is also seen as influencing the autonomy of educational
institutions. The CBE characteristics spelled out previously (cf. 4.1; 4.4; 4.6)
indicate that CBE is above all an orientation to education and programme
design, incorporating a very systematic design process that has
administration advantages. Leadership and management are crucial for the
effective implementation of any programme and if a design system has such inherent
management spin-offs for both an institutional and a national level, it should be seen
as beneficial. It was also previously explained that outcomes and not assessment
direct CBE designs (cf. 4.4).
(e) CBE is a form of human engineering
For McKernan (1993:345) the most fundamental criticism against CBE is that it
reduces education to a ‘form of human engineering’, because it views education as
instrumental to specific ends. This means-ends stance would then violate the
epistemology of the structure of certain subjects and dismisses the possibility that
the justification for education lies within the education process itself. The systematic
means-ends programme design attracted the label ‘technical’ and ‘technicist’ which
activates meanings of too ‘strong focus on competence’, ‘neglecting values’(Jansen,
1998:325-326), ‘technical precision of outcomes’, ‘atomised lists of functions’(Norris,
1991:331, 334) and ‘education as a product rather than a process’ (McKernan,
1993:343). The competency-based curriculum designs might initially have displayed
some technical features, but it has since been developed. This is evident by the
move away from a merely ‘how-to do’ (skill) focus to encompass broader knowledge
and understanding, attributes and capacities (cf. 4.1) related to real world contexts
(Bowden and Masters, 1993:157, 171).
CBE proponents on the other hand might point out that ‘logical’ curriculum planning
and coherent relationship between components is not equivalent to ‘mechanical’.
Neither implies a skills focus or a view of education as a product. It was already
indicated previously that CBE is learner-centred and with a real life orientation, thus
process and product oriented.
The human engineering argument is obviously related to the issue of curriculum

aims. If a curriculum has aims, chances are that some of the content would serve as
a vehicle to achieve certain ends and some content could be the end in itself. It
should be recognised that education is not neutral and governments and
education institutions select content for reasons – thus rendering most formal
education as human engineering. Having educational targets and plans could be
appreciated by some as intelligent leadership and management aiming at job
creation, fighting off unemployment and promotion of productivity as opposed to
human engineering.
(f) CBE lowers standards
The decline of educational standards on any level of education is a matter of serious

concern. One of the criticisms that was lodged against CBE programmes for schools
(1994) in Minnesota, Ohio, Iowa and Virginia was that the academic side was
“watered down” in favour of ill-defined values and process skills (NCVER, 1999:4;
McNeir, 1993:3). Higher education opponents of CBE also express the accusation of
watered down academic content in terms of both scope and depth (Hyland,
1994:24). In addition, Penington (1994:80) is of the opinion that preoccupation with
measurable competencies at every level will not solve the problem of standards. This
argument is sound if it is recognised that quality is determined by many factors such
as aims, large intakes of students, lack or resources, staff expertise, type of student
allowed, teaching effectiveness, organisation of content and forms of assessment
(Green, 1994:6-7). Achieving quality thus requires a ‘total quality systems’
approach. McKernan (1993:346) too doubts the quality of CBE curriculum designs.
His argument is that if ninety percent of students attain high grades in ‘trivial
pursuits’, quality is not enhanced and furthermore some quality goals cannot be
realised in one period or unit. These and other criticisms regarding quality need to be
addressed.
The definition of quality education would partly depend on a person’s view of what
education should be about. The following dimensions have been associated with the
meaning of quality: (a) quality as exceptional; (b) quality as perfection; (c) quality as
value for money; (d) quality as transformation; (e) quality as an attainment of
standards (Technical committee on the revision of norms and standards for
educators in South Africa, 1998:140). In section 4.6 it was indicated that subject-
based quality would be about the scope and depth of academic subject knowledge.
For exponents of a subject-based programme a ‘watered down’ programme
would be offering less than as ‘much as possible’ subject content in each
subject. The value of knowledge is therefore perceived to lie in the amount and
the discipline based structuring of it. This subject-based argument might be
questioned, because formal discipline exponents also claim that such subject-based
content would develop the ‘intellect’. This ‘develop the intellect’ acknowledges the
‘function value’ of knowledge rather than the ‘amount and structure value’ of it.
Another view would be that not the quantity prescribed but the actual quantity
mastered by learners would constitute quality. Based on the characteristics of CBE it
can be deducted that a ‘watered down’ programme from a CBE perspective, would
be to have: irrelevant knowledge in a programme, to have no competencies
developed or to have the quality of a programme measured against time spent in it
instead of having met the standards specified by outcomes. CBE proponents might
interpret SBE programmes as poor quality when learners lack competencies;
cannot apply knowledge to real problems; do not see problems holistically; do
not possess enough specialised knowledge and do not meet competency and
employability expectations of employers and government.
Subject-based oriented curriculum designers agree on the curriculum theory
suggesting that a curriculum should be ‘relevant’ or ‘responsive’ (Gravett and
Geyser, 2004:144; Lubisi, Parker and Wedekind, 1998:5). The usual meaning of
‘relevant’ is understood as ‘appropriate’, ‘applicable’ or ‘significant’. This implies a
relevant curriculum would have to be ‘appropriate’ and ‘applicable’ to an occupation
or profession. CBE interprets this ‘relevant’ as signifying: to address the real-life
educational needs of a community or country; to select content and competencies on
the basis of relevance for occupational roles of a qualification; to set standards
perceived as relevant by local and international stakeholders. It would appear that
CBE designs allow for the establishing of quality programmes as ‘transformation’ and
‘attainment of standards’, however, it is up to the programme designers to utilise the
available design features and focus on ‘enough content’, ‘relevant content’ and the
other factors impacting on quality.
In respect of the scope, a CBE occupational analysis in terms of ‘standard roles’,
‘management roles’, contingency management roles and ‘job environmental’ roles
(Burke, 1989:190) results in a broad and relevant range of outcomes that is
something different than education in ‘trivial pursuits’. The Australian Mayer Report
(Randall in Collins, 1993:51) sees ‘key employability competencies’ as those that are
essential for effective participation in current and future work, such as: “collecting,
analysing and organising information; communicating ideas and information;
planning and organising activities; working with others and in teams; using
mathematical ideas and techniques; solving problems; and using technology
(Randall in Collins, 1993:51). The point is made that ‘generic competencies’ could
be identified and developed across the curriculum, thus improving quality of
programmes. The development of various kinds of thinking skills (as generic
competencies) such as the ‘Instrumental Enrichment’ programme of Feuerstein and
the CORT programme of de Bono has proven to be effective (McNeil, 1990:293-
294). The generic theories or processes of solving problems or being creative could
thus be taught outside the boundaries of a particular subject. The process to identify
competencies, relevant knowledge and values includes different stakeholders, like
professional bodies and employers, and as such many people assist in setting the
quality.
(g) CBE reduces the autonomy of institutions
The development of national competency standards for occupations might, to a

certain extent, dictate the content of higher education programmes. This raises the
question about the autonomy of universities (Bowden and Masters, 1993:62).
Academic freedom commonly means the university may “…determine for itself on
academic grounds who may teach, what may be taught, how it shall be taught, and
who may be admitted to study” (Malherbe and Berkhout, 2001:63). National
Qualification Authority requirements with regard to qualification standards, the how of
the teaching and the assessment and the recognition of prior learning as part of
admission policies infringe on such academic freedom (Malherbe and Berkhout,
2001:68-69). It could thus be maintained that CBE national structures and standards
strengthen central regulation and decrease the autonomy of education institutions.
The universities have, however, the autonomy to decide what qualifications to offer,
to interpret prescribed knowledge and practical outcomes, to prioritise and organise
the knowledge in subjects or modules, to allocate time and resources and to teach
knowledge and competencies as they deem fit (Technical committee on the revision
of norms and standards for educators, 1998:40, 63). Another perspective might be
that the identification of national outcomes for qualifications need not be seen as a
threat to the autonomy of education, but rather as collaboration and a clear
agreement on the minimum expected quality benchmarks that a qualification should
promote (Technical committee on the revision of norms and standards for educators,
1998:xii). From this perspective the curbing of institutional autonomy seems not to be
as serious as some might claim it to be.
(h) CBE terminology is problematic
CBE has a complex terminology for educators, like learning outcomes, performance
or assessment criteria, units of standards, range statements and so forth. Jansen
(1998:3) states that the language of innovation associated with OBE is too complex,
confusing and at times contradictory. These new terms are useful to get away from
any concepts that might remind of colonial or apartheid education, but have the
limitation of appearing very mechanistic or behaviouristic. While the CBE terminology
might be complex and could be confusing for some, other academics find the
language limiting (Bowden and Martens, 1993:129). The question could thus be
raised if it would not have been better if fewer new ‘labels’ had been introduced. A
label such as LBE (learning-based education) offers a very neutral perception
without the historical baggage of the competency-based label. The ‘learning-based’
concept does not focus on any particular participant in the education process (like
teacher-centred or learner-centred does), but on the key process of education,
namely learning.
It would most likely have been easier for academics to relate to known concepts with
a new dimension to them, for instance if ‘learning outcomes’ were related to ‘aims’
and ‘objectives’, then ’outcomes’ would not have been so new any more. On top of
that the nuances of some terminology have changed and are still changing as the
CBE paradigm evolves. Performance criteria and range statements refer to what will
be seen as acceptable performance and under what conditions a performance
should be executed (Walton, 1996:8-9). The terms ‘competence’ and ‘skills’ are
known to the public at large, and terms such as ‘modules’ and ‘units’ were around
before competency-based education re-defined and included them in the
competency jargon. Thus the real objections should not be about the terminology,
but about the acceptability or not of the ideas that the terminology communicates.
Curriculum designers should not be blinded or mislead by labels but should assess
the meaningfulness of the concepts, otherwise it may seem like a case of ‘shooting
the messenger’.
(i) CBE assessment of competent performance is flawed
The nature of CBE assessment requires performance-based assessments to

complement the traditional paper tests. Norris (1991:334) asserts that the criteria
indicative of evidence of competent performance can be highly reductive or they can
be highly generalised and thus ignore the variables of situational contexts. There is
no disagreement about the fact that criteria for judging complex competent
performance may not always be perfect. On the other hand, in most cases it is very
possible for experts to judge competence effectively. Assessment of performances of
pilots, dentists or managers is done successfully all over the world. There is an
additional criticism from Norris (1991:336) who believes that the criterion standards
are in essence arbitrary. Education is by nature subjective, implying that even
national standards are arbitrary. That is why educational institutions and
governments reserve the right to evaluate qualifications. The problem of arbitrary
standards is therefore not a problem of CBE only. CBE curricula address the
arbitrary standards issue to some extent by involving as many national stakeholders
as possible in order to determine the quality of programmes. A national effort might
be more credible than the effort of a single institution.
Norris (1991:336) moreover discards the competency-based assumption that the

assessment of knowledge or performance, taken together or separately, can cope
with the range of context dependent and contingent nature of professional action.
Acceptance of this Norris view would be to ignore the nature of deep learning and
the possibility of transfer of learned ideas. Even if this view is partly acceptable, it
does not mean that curricula could not emphasise the principles underpinning
competent performance and create awareness in students that different contexts
require different applications of the relevant principles. Bowden and Marton
(1998:171) recommend that generic competencies should not be developed
independently and then applied to professional situations. These competencies
should rather be developed through integration of subject knowledge and practical
(workplace) experience.
Although Penington (1994:79) and Norris (1991:337) are sceptical about the
difficulties involved in assessing generic competencies, current practices exist that
assess competencies successfully in programmes: nurses have OSCE’s, doctors a
practical year, teachers have teaching practice and lawyers have mock trials. The
competency movement thinkers deserve credit for elevating the issue of generic
competencies and demonstrating their assessment. Assessment of competencies
especially, can be done in the workplace and simulated settings although this
requires proper management, and can be costly and time consuming (Walton,
1996:94). According to Jessup (1991:48) a positive feature of CBE regarding
assessment is that a combination of competence evidence is collected over time and
preferably from different sources to ensure reliable judgement.
In a summary of the critique against CBE it appears that if particular possible

disadvantages are addressed CBE might be appropriate for different levels of
education because of the following: It incorporates both training and education
perspectives while focussing on both the process and product of education. In
addition, it moves beyond the behaviouristic outcomes and includes cognitive and
affective outcomes to empower teachers while acknowledging the role of context and
culture. Furthermore, CBE is a paradigm and curriculum design with a strong focus
on the role of assessment and management of the programme implementation. It
was also pointed out that education is not neutral and CBE with its means-end
design is no more or less a form of human engineering than any other programme
design. CBE quality is defined in terms of a combination of relevant occupational
competences and knowledge and needs not necessarily be equated with lowering of
standards. The establishment of National Qualification Frameworks do impact on the
academic freedom of teacher education institutions, however, institutions have
ample freedom to move beyond the minimum requirements. Educators could make
sense of the terminology by relating it to traditional terminology and reflecting on the
meaning rather than the terms of CBE. Assessment of competence is complex and
poses several challenges; however, the existing practices suggest that performance
can be judged fairly accurately by trained assessors.
It seems that CBE has developed beyond the initial reactionary perspectives to more
holistic principles and a balanced scope. The three CBE models reflect also this
development of CBE. Grant, et al. (1979:5) maintains that one “cannot be ‘for’ or
‘against’ competence-based education any more than one can be ‘for’ or ‘against’
testing.” “One has to ask: What kind of competence program?” It would however
require expert CBE designers and implementers to maximise the potential of the
CBE approach by addressing the possible limitations of CBE.
The next sections examine the possible advantages and disadvantages of CBE in
education institutions.
4.7.2 Advantages of introducing CBE in education institutions
The question that should be answered is what would an education institution gain
when changing to CBE? The decision to change to CBE is dependent upon many
factors, however a reflection upon the perceived pros and cons of a competency-
based orientation could be useful for decision makers. This section explores the
advantages and the next section (4.7.3) the limitations of changing to CBE.
(a) National development
A CBE approach introduces national curriculum standards for education. Such

standards typically encompass knowledge, skills, traits and values. CBE is thus
addressing character and competency development (Bowden, 2000:7; Spady,
1994a:55) which are necessary for national development (Covey, 1992:31). CBE
also introduces curriculum standards for professions and occupations, e.g. The
Namibian Professional Standards for Teachers (Ministry of Education of Namibia,
2006:9) include, for example, areas of competence in “Guidance, Counselling and
Support”, “Health and Safety”, “Networking” and “Community Development” which
might be helpful in promoting national citizenship and national identity, apart from
developing competent persons to support economic development as part of national
development. The quality of national standards depends, of course, on those people
who were on the ‘standards committee’ and ‘what standards’ were identified.
(b) Quality assurance
Both the academic and employment world values quality education where quality is
linked to concepts like ‘competence’ and ‘standards’, because “…everybody is for
standards and everyone is against incompetence” (Norris, 1991:331). The problem
for education institutions is how and by whom ‘competence’ is defined. To address
this concern CBE involves relevant stakeholders and as such quality education is
defined from both the client’s and the providers’ perspective (Kerka, 2000:2).
According to Rosen, Olson and Cox (1977:17-21) of the National Advisory Council
for Career Education in Washington quality programmes demonstrate a clear match
between ‘work and education’, or between the ‘competent worker’ and the ‘quality
graduate’ (Bowden and Marton, 1998:97). This match involves both content and
learning approach.
It seems that the definition of quality as ‘exceptional’ can be associated with the
notions of ‘exclusivity’, ‘excellence’ and a product which has passed a ‘set of quality
checks or standards’ fit CBE, because CBE curriculum designs are typically following
the ‘fitness for purpose’ notion that translates as being responsive to the ‘needs of
students, employers, government and society’. The systematic nature of CBE
curriculum designs also fit well with the notion of quality as ‘value for money’ that
refers to effectiveness and efficiency. According to Waghid (2000:108) the view of
‘quality as transformation’ typically encapsulates continuous quality improvement,
management of change, bottom-up empowerment and top-down (internal and
external) auditing. CBE’s ‘responsive’ purposes and attention to proper management
promote ‘transformation of society’. It appears, therefore, that the CBE’s notion
of quality education encompasses several of the above mentioned notions
such as ‘fitness for purpose’, ‘meeting national standards’ and ‘transformation
of society’.
Additional features of CBE that might promote quality are the application of
‘experiential’ and ‘deep learning’ (Hendricson and Kleffner, 1998:185),
‘encouragement of responsibility for your own learning’ and ‘co-operation among
learners’ (Elbow in Grant, et al. 1979:110-113). This learner–centred or ‘client
oriented’ characteristic of CBE creates a supportive learning environment while
being hard-nosed in respect to meeting standards (Jessup, 1991:3).
(c) Competitive advantages
Under section 3.5 it was indicated how social factors influence education directly or
indirectly. If CBE curricula could cope well in dealing with such social influences it
has a competitive advantage above another kind of curriculum orientation that
performs less well. Many curriculum (see 4.4) and national features (see 4.6) of CBE
reflect the advantages of CBE qualifications and that is why CBE curricula are
preferred.
(d) Reducing overload of programmes
Globalisation raises challenges for the design of education curricula, because the
expansion of knowledge and technology requires that countries and individuals must
be aware of more global issues than before. Education for tolerance and peace;
promotion of human rights; understanding of other cultures and religions; having the
ability to communicate in international languages and possess computer skills
becomes necessary (Boschee and Baron, 1993:20). If these issues were to be
addressed in additional subjects to the classical subjects, the curriculum will be far
too overloaded. “There is a growing concern that the amount of information available
is outstripping man’s intellectual and functional capacity for handling its growth and
complexity” (Higgs in Van der Vyver, 1996:75).
This overload of information in curricula is a constant problem on all levels of

education. The information explosion necessitates the use of some criteria for
selection of curriculum content and CBE suggests a coherent ‘fit-for-occupational-
purpose’ as the logical criterion. CBE also integrates disciplinary knowledge into
units and modules (State Training Board of Victoria, 2000:1) that further reduces
overload and design documents allow accurate detection of duplication.
(e) Broader access
We are still exploring the advantages of CBE curricula. Promoting broader access to
education is described here. Nowadays basic education is a human right and the
school curriculum needs to be ‘inclusive’. This means that all learners have the right
to feel welcome in a supportive educational context and special provision is made for
supporting either physically of cognitively disabled. It is about responding to the
diverse needs of ALL learners in order to avoid learning breakdown or exclusion
(Hall, 2002:32). A CBE education design appears to address the idea of broader
access as reflected by its possible application of recognition of prior learning;
developmental programmes; clear expectations expressed by outcomes; supportive
materials and policies and by offering more types of qualifications with trans-
discipline modules and work-based learning. Institutions need to take care, however,
that an ‘inclusive access’ view does not lower the admission criteria and that the pre-
entry programmes assist students to attain the required admission criteria.
(f) Improving the public image of education
Employers, parents and learners are central stakeholders that are important for
shaping the public image of the quality of their education and the institutions
providing the education. It seems logical that many of the previously listed CBE
features such as broader access; involvement of stakeholders; and nationally
recognised quality of qualifications and assessments could contribute to the public
image of an education institute and of education.
Bowden (1989) conducted research, excluding employers, but including academics

from Australia, Hong Kong, Sweden and the UK covering a wide range of courses,
cultural and system variations. Their answers to the question of what they saw as the
learning goals of degree programmes that would produce a competent graduate,
included:
 knowledge of core facts, procedures and skills
 understanding the core concepts and the relationship between them
 understanding the structure of knowledge in related disciplines
 understanding of the theory-practice relation
 ability to define and solve a problem
 communication skills, literacy and numeracy skills
 insight and lateral thinking (Bowden and Marton, 1998:96-97).
It is clear that many academics regard ‘generic and thinking skills’, ‘understanding of
subject knowledge’ and the ‘ability to apply it in different contexts’ highly. These
features are part of ‘being competent’ and are applicable to CBE school curricula
too. The public image of an education institute would be further enhanced if learners
and staff experienced effective institutional and instructional management and
teaching-learning support. In this regard, Blank (1982:24) reports that when CBE
programmes in the USA were well designed and implemented the typical student
improvements that were reported, were as follows:
 Students seem to learn and remember more.
 More students excel.
 Lower test scores improved dramatically
 Students learned to take more responsibility for their own learning.
 The experience of success, learning support and real-life value content seem
to produce a high morals in students
York Technical College (2001:6) also founds that CBE contributes significantly
towards the motivation of students; strengthening lecturers’ confidence that their
standards are acceptable and that staff ‘work coherently’ towards accepted common
outcomes. These benefits are, however, only possible if the CBE programme is ‘well
designed and implemented’.
(g) Research and publications
It seems reasonable that the mere change to a new educational orientation would
stimulate more research and publications regarding its orientation (Le Grange and
Newmark, 2002:51). Such research and publications might focus on outcomes,
organisation of knowledge in a curriculum, performance assessment, national
standards, involvement of stakeholders, recognition of prior learning,
accommodating knowledge traditionally regarded as non-academic, including
indigenous and global knowledge. In addition, evaluative and applied research
regarding the effectiveness of the new theories and practices might be expected,
especially in developing countries where there is a strong need to address social
problems (Ravjee, 2002:86).
(h) Staff development
Spady (1994a:128-130) finds the following growth effects due to the introduction of
CBE in secondary schools:
 School staff are now much more research-oriented as they seek better ways
to do things.
 All staff in the system perceive their roles differently than before.
 Everyone is compelled to go into ‘learning mode’.
 Both people and their organisations stretch beyond conventional boundaries.
Staff recognise that many old practices are obsolete and must be changed.
 Staff professionalism has increased as more of them have received in-depth
training.
Although the CBE curriculum provides an opportunity to re-assess one’s educational

philosophy and teaching methodology, such professional growth will only occur if
adequate ongoing training and support are given to teachers. In a developing
country such as Namibia the school conditions such as workloads and lack of
resources and training certainly do not promote professional staff development.
In summary, the introduction of CBE education programmes might have the
following advantages, given proper planning, resources and management: It
promotes national development and quality assurance. Educational institutions might
experience a competitive advantage in terms of market share and the curriculum
overload could be reduced. Broader access to education is promoted while a positive
public image could be enhanced. Scrutiny of CBE effectiveness stimulates an
increase in research and publications about instructional and management practices;
while staff development is supported owing to reflection on CBE theories and
practices.
The analysis of the above CBE advantages appears to suggest that CBE as a
conceptual framework might be appropriate for the design and implementation of
education programmes, given that particular pitfalls are observed and addressed.
The possible advantages of CBE need, however, to be considered in conjunction
with the possible limitations of introducing CBE curricula.
4.7.3 Limitations of introducing CBE curricula
The philosophical criticism levelled against CBE in section 4.7.1 is of course relevant
to the topic of limitations of CBE. The criticisms of having a competency focus, of
being behaviouristic, of the fragmentation of knowledge, the watering down of
academic knowledge, the lowering of standards, the reduction of institutional
autonomy, the terminology and assessment of competence were addressed under
section 4.7.1. This section will not repeat those design issues. Instead it will identify
possible implementation-related limitations of CBE starting with the ‘management of
change’.
(a) Management of change
Personal and organisational growth and movement with the times can be seen as an
imperative of life: “…to grow or die, stretch or stagnate” (Covey, 1992:284). The
growth implies change which should manage the ‘stretching’ very delicately.
According to McCann, Babler and Cohen, (1998:202), Burke (1989:129) and Grant,
et al. (1979:237) the acceptance of a CBE curriculum proposes considerable change
to a subject-based orientated education system, such as: new beliefs about aims of
education; new beliefs about the organisation of content, methods of teaching and
learning and new standards and forms of evaluation. All the changes must be
managed very carefully, because educators naturally resist change for different
reasons, like being afraid that they can not perform well in the new system; or fear of
losing their present power; or anger over having their expertise made irrelevant; or
jealousy that someone else may take the spotlight; or real doubts about the long
term success of the new way of doing things (Department of Education of South
Africa, 1997a:8).
Revisit section 3.10 about the foundational factors causing change and how to
manage individual and organisational acceptance of change. If the change is not
managed skilfully, the switch to CBE could be disastrous and therefore a huge
limitation of introducing CBE.
(b) Administrative and curriculum changes

The implementation of competency-based curricula will involve and require the
modification of a number of subject-based administrative and management
procedures especially in higher education institutions, like …access to the
programme; administration of learner progress; staff duties and workloads; records
of competency-achievements; calculation of required finances; integration of on-the-
job and classroom learning; management of the use of materials and resources;
recognition of prior learning; registration as a training provider; and recognition of the
training programme by the relevant qualification authority (Harris, et al. 1995:252). A
lot more
administrative and curriculum changes can be listed, but it is clear that also school
teachers might have more administrative duties as in a subject-based curriculum.
Their curriculum tasks could also be more, considering the expected use of more
kinds of resources than mere textbooks; more efforts to demonstrate things; efforts
to test and record practical learning; strategies to keep learners actively involved; to
promote self-directed learning; peer and self-assessment, and so forth.
To achieve this broad spectrum of administrative and the academic changes, strong
leadership and management would be required and absence of such leadership
would impose strong limitations on implementing CBE successfully.
(c) Interpersonal conflict
It is to be expected that serious conflicts will erupt if new CBE perspectives are
challenging ingrained beliefs and practices of many years. At Alverno College,
department structures changed (in1973) to combine competence divisions with
disciplinary divisions and dissidents had resigned or been forced out. At Florida
State University the majority of staff displayed an attitude of indifference (Grant, et
al., 1979:224-258). Resistance to CBE and accompanying interpersonal conflict was
also found in industry and higher education in Australia (State Training Board of
Victoria, 2000:2).
It appears that the introduction of CBE curricula in at least higher education contexts
is riddled with dissent and power struggles between stakeholders. Schools in
Namibia have less autonomy than higher education institutions and teaching staff
less academic freedom to resist CBE changes. Unless disagreements are handled
professionally many interpersonal relationships may break down and staff might
resign. Interpersonal conflicts caused by CBE might be seen as a limiting factor for
the introduction of CBE curricula.
(d) Staff development
According to Argüelles and Gonczi, (2000:27) problems with the implementing of

CBE could always be related to the failure of training those involved with the
development and implementation of a CBE system as this approach is likely to be
very different from their past educational training. Sullivan (1995:4) corroborates this
view by pointing out that persons have a tendency to “…teach as we were taught.”
Without staff development the introduction of CBE might thus fail. Burke (1989:129-
130) proposes that such staff training needs to develop understanding and skills of
CBE assessment; being a facilitator; time and record management; team teaching;
counselling and industrial liaison. The need for such staff development could
therefore be perceived as a limiting factor when introducing CBE since additional
time and money would need to be allocated.
(e) Learner orientation
As in the case with staff development, learners would need guidance regarding CBE
requirements: “Student counselling and orientation become critical backups to the
program.” (Grant, et al.1979:227). Grant, et al. (1979: 252) furthermore suggest that
the reality pointed out that learners need ‘orientation programmes’ to familiarise them
with the new kind of education requirements, e.g. regarding responsibility for their
learning, integrated theoretical and practical assessments and the standards for
passing, time management for self-pacing and working as a group. The programmes
that depended on self-pacing found that learners were unable or unwilling to pace
themselves and it resulted in slow learner progress.
In the final analysis, learners and certainly Namibian learners need guidance
regarding their changing roles. Clearly, the implementation of this learner guidance
has implications for the availability of tutors, staff, time, venues and other resources.
This issue can therefore be viewed as a limiting factor regarding the introduction of
CBE.
(f) Involvement of stakeholders
According to Gravett and Geyser (2004:152) the situation analysis phase of the
qualification design process entails the involvement of stakeholders. Apart from the
input of the National Qualification Authority regarding standards, the needs of other
stakeholders such as employers, academic staff and learners should be
accommodated as well. Various methods could be applied in determining such
needs, for example, interviews, advisory groups and questionnaires (Rothwell and
Kazanas, 1992:52). The DACUM (develop a curriculum) process has the advantages
of personal contacts with stakeholders (Kennedy, 1993:5). The involvement of
internal and external stakeholders is important in terms of creating a ‘relevant’ or
‘responsive’ programme (Breier, 2001:2). Once again, the administration needed to
select and involve stakeholders could be quite demanding and time consuming, and
this could be perceived as a limitation for the effective introduction of CBE education
curricula.
(g) Teaching-learning resources
The CBE emphasis on learner support, expanded learning opportunities (Spady,

1994a:14-15) and experiential learning to develop competencies requires adequate
teaching-learning resources (Hauck and Jackson, 2005:5) especially computer
technology. Some of the traditional textbooks might not be adequate for
multidisciplinary modules. Since new textbooks might only develop over time,
provision should be made for relevant learning materials. The resources are not
optional but integral to CBE (Killen, s.a.:14) and if not addressed, inadequate
resources can limit the introduction of CBE curricula.
(h) Assessment of competence
CBE focuses on competence. According to the definition of competence (cf. Section

4.1) it is logical that assessment should measure the ‘degree of competence’ (as
long-term qualities a person owns or characteristics of being capable) and
‘competencies’ (as attributes externally imposed on a professional’s roles and tasks).
Performance assessment thus involves more than paper and pen tests and should
include new assessment techniques for the assessment of practical demonstrations
of the relevant skills (McNeir, 1993:1). Kerka (2000:2), Bowden (2000:7) and
Toohey, Ryan, Mclean and Hughes (1995:93) advocate ‘integrated assessment’ that
views competence as a complex combination of knowledge, attitudes, skills, and
values displayed in the context of task performance. This can sometimes be difficult
to perform other than in the real life context, which can be either dangerous or
logistically difficult. Simulations require resources and time to accommodate
performance assessments. Furthermore, CBE embraces time flexibility (Boschee
and Baron, 1993:2-4; Spady, 1994a:42) in regard to learning pace and assessment.
This often gave rise to assessment policies that allowed a second chance for
formative assessment exercises (York Technical College, 2001: chapter 2, 3, 6).
Performance assessment often needs to make use of ‘qualitative judgements’ that

require expert assessors (Maxwell, 1997:6). Killen (1999:28) and Ling (2000:3)
emphasise the necessity of multiple formative assessment opportunities in order to
diagnose learning problems and provide feedback to students. This would result in
higher workloads for lecturers. Killen continues to point out that ‘group assessment’
should be applied as well.
It appears that the implementation of performance assessment might demand
laboratories, more time, staff development and use of workplace environments
and assessors. Professionally qualified personnel in industry could assist in
workplace assessments, however they need to be found and approved.
Instruments to judge performances need to be designed. An assessment
policy allowing a ‘second chance’ in some cases would cause a higher
workload for lecturers. Such issues might cause a resistance towards
considering the implementation of CBE curricula. Assessing competence in
schools is also needing proper laboratories, materials and time which mostly
do not exist in Namibian schools. The assessment of thinking skills could be
done via written tests providing that teachers are trained in developing
thinking skills.
(i) Paperwork
Apart from philosophical criticisms against CBE there are practical implementation
issues that need to be considered. One practical concern for critics is that the
drafting of outcomes (McNeir, 1993:1) for a curriculum requires enormous
paperwork. The DACUM process (Harrisburg Area Community College, 1999:2-3),
the communication with stakeholders (Rothwell and Kazanas, 1992:16, 52),
documentation necessary for the training of staff and production of new learning
materials (McNeil, 1990:228,231), strategic planning documents (Dubois, 1996:37),
and the description of outcomes in terms of range statements and performance
criteria (Hyland, 1994:7) consume much paper. Furthermore, there are minutes of
task force meetings and administrative records that would have to be altered to
record theoretical and practical marks or second attempts to attain a certain mastery
level in a test or skill. The detailed documents of CBE curricula which have
advantages for effective management could, however, at the same time pose a
limitation in regards to accepting CBE.
(j) Higher workload
Grant, et al. (1979:246, 226) point out that the intensive interaction between
students and faculty members places a great strain on staff that are also devoting
energies to designing new courses and assessment materials and going to endless
rounds of meetings. Additional workload for lecturers is also created when a faculty
supports forms of individualisation such as self-pacing (Grant, et al. 1979:253).
Furthermore, a higher ratio of formative assessments and feedback on efforts as well
as a focus on performance assessment, would imply a heavier workload for staff
(Toohey, et al. 1995:89, 95). This is corroborated by Smith (1999:4) who found that
the learner-centred focus caused changes in roles of lecturers and consequently
changes in workload. It appears logical that if a workload policy does not
accommodate the expected higher workload of lecturers, that staff would perceive a
change to CBE curricula as a negative development. In Namibian schools self-
pacing and second chances for end of term assessments do not exist, but the
continuous assessment system does require a lot of marking time.
(k) Start up implementation costs
The above headings regarding limitations (the management of change, staff

development, administrative changes, teaching-learning resources, paperwork and
higher workload) suggest that the start up of CBE requires much time, resources,
working hours and thus more than the traditional costs (Backgrounder, 1996:4). This
deduction is corroborated by the State Training Board of Victoria (2000:3) that
ascribes the higher costs due to ‘course development’, ‘materials costs’ and
‘assessment costs’. Geyser (2001:35) points out that the costs involved for
implementing the ‘recognition of prior learning’ varies from low to high depending on
the utilisation of existing facilities or new activities involved.
According to Blank (1982:18) initial costs for designing and implementing CBE
programmes may be higher than traditional costs, however, over the long run CBE is
not necessarily more costly if the quality of education and pass rates are brought into
the equation. If initial costs are not related to the longer term advantages such
as a positive public image due to competent graduates and cooperation with
stakeholders, starting costs may be a severe limiting factor for introducing
CBE programmes.
In view of the above limitations it is understandable why some institutions might back
away from CBE while others have experimented with and devised solutions to CBE
challenges. What is clear, however, is that without addressing the possible
limitations purposefully the perceived advantages of CBE could be considerably
neutralised. Fortunately, the limitations of CBE in school contexts seem less severe
than in higher education contexts.
4.8 Evaluate the structure / format and terminology of NIED syllabi
Education is a purposeful process. The expected learning results were expressed in

the past as aims and objectives. These previously used concepts of ‘aims and
objectives’ are now replaced by new competency-based education (CBE)
terminology. ‘Aims’ as long term and broad statements of what learners should
achieve now becomes ‘exit learning outcomes’ while ‘objectives’ as more short
term, measureable achievements / results now become ‘learning outcomes’. For
Spady (1994) the long term outcomes need to develop internalised abilities (e.g.
living by values, control emotions and thinking abilities, understanding
knowledge) that really matter to students beyond schooling for work and life roles
and are referred to as ‘exit learning outcomes’. These exit learning outcomes
are broken down into smaller ‘learning outcomes’ that are the key building blocks of
the exit learning outcomes as in the case with aims and objectives, for example: The
aim / exit learning outcome could be that ‘learners should be able to think
critically after six months’. This aim is achieved by several smaller objectives /
learning outcomes which develop aspects of critical thinking. One such objective /
learning outcome could be: “learners will by the end of two periods be capable
of describing three features of critical thinking’.
The exit learning outcomes / aims cover three categories or learning domains,
namely the cognitive, the affective and the psychomotor. This means everything we
teach our children at home and in schools falls into the three learning categories or
domains of:
 the cognitive domain (including knowledge, levels of understanding and
levels of thinking);
 the affective domain (including motivation to learn, accepting of values and
demonstrating positive behaviour and attitudes based upon values and
learning to manage one’s emotions);
 psychomotor or behavioural domain (including physical performance and
behaviour, manual skills and coordination and spatial orientation skills).
The three domains seem very different but there is a connection among them.
Knowledge is underpinning the development of affective and psychomotor learning
outcomes, e.g. the value (=affective domain) to care for others requires
understanding (=knowledge, cognitive domain) of why and how to care, and the how
to care involves physical behaviour or even physical skills (=psychomotor domain). A
lesson could thus often incorporate the development of all three domains
simultaneously.
The school curriculum consists of syllabi for subjects of each grade. Each syllabus
spells out what learners should learn (outcomes) and this learning cover the three
learning domains above. To understand the shift from aims and objectives to exit
learning outcomes and learning outcomes we must link these terminology to CBE
‘competencies and skills’. The Transformational model of CBE focuses on
developing people holistically. That means in all wellness areas and in all three
learning domains for each area. Revisit section 4.1 about the concepts of
‘competency and skill’. The bottom line for developing ‘competence’ (plural
competences) means to develop abilities of
(a) understanding knowledge and different kinds of thinking, like pro-
blem solving (cognitive domain),
(b) developing personality attributes (including emotions and values of
the affective domain) and
(c) developing physical performances and skills (able to do things) that
include coordination, space orientation, techniques, processes and
manual skills (psychomotor domain).
Competence (plural competences) is thus a big concept where the first two
dimensions of abilities and attributes mentioned under (a) and (b) above are
integrated and makes a physical performance (c) possible. This physical
performance or able ‘to do part’ of competence is called a ‘skill’ or a
‘competency’ (plural competencies). Competencies / skills refer therefore to the
practical doing part of a competence.
Many competencies / skills can be complex and are formulated as exit learning
outcomes / aims, e.g. ‘To dance a walz, or To lay bricks’. These exit learning
outcomes / aims are then analysed into smaller learning outcomes / objectives.
Remember that because competencies are the practical part of a competence,
competencies/ skills can involve a knowledge, value/ attitude and physical / manual
skill dimension.
Let us apply our understanding and analyse a section of a Namibian syllabus: This is
a section from the latest revised syllabi for the new ‘Junior Primary phase’
commencing in 2015.
Example of a Namibian syllabus format
Language development (Junior Primary phase)
Skills Learning Objectives Competencies
1. Listening and  develop sound awareness and  notice differences and
responding skills similarities between verbal
sounds
 repeat a sound pattern or
clapping rhythm correctly
(Ministry of Education of Namibia, 2015:10)
The terminology used in the national syllabi is not interpreting the distinctions of
CBE terms correctly. In fact, the syllabi mix the concepts of the old teacher-
centred paradigm (learning objectives) and the new CBE paradigm and create
great confusion among teachers. The syllabus format should use the terminology of
one paradigm only, because the terminology of two paradigms say the same thing
under two concepts. ‘Competencies’ in the example above are on the same level as
the ‘learning objectives’, but competencies refer to practical skills only and thus
exclude the knowledge, attributes and values outcomes. This is not acceptable. In
addition, in CBE competencies are skills. The example lacks the competence part
which can be broken down into knowledge, values and skills/competencies. The
terms ‘learning objectives’ in the syllabi should be named ‘exit learning outcomes’,
while the term ‘basic competencies’ in the syllabi should be named ‘learning
outcomes’ which would include the learning of knowledge, skills (competencies) and
values. The first column heading should become ‘competence’ as the broad concept
analysed into exit and learning outcomes. See the proposed CBE syllabus format
below.
Proposed CBE format of a Namibian syllabus
Language development (Junior Primary phase)
Competence Exit learning outcomes Learning outcomes
1. Listening and  develop sound awareness and  notice differences and
responding skills similarities between verbal
sounds
 repeat a sound pattern or
clapping rhythm correctly
 respond to verbal instructions
This proposed format is in line with the CBE terminology, for instance: The
‘Competence column’ could list any ability or attribute or physical skill to be
developed from the affective or cognitive or psychomotor domain. The ‘Exit
learning outcome column identifies any expected comprehensive, longer term
ability or attribute or skill to be developed. The third column lists the smaller,
more measureable intended learning results/ outcomes. These results in our syllabi
is mostly from the cognitive domain but practical ‘able to do skills’ (from the
psychomotor domain) and emotional and values development are also specified in
this third column. The verbs used in this third column will reflect the intended
cognitive level of thinking about content or the practical performance or the level of
affective learning. (See the cognitive verbs list at the beginning of this book). In
conclusion, the current Namibian syllabus terminology is not on par with the common
use of CBE terminology and will hopefully be addressed in the future.
4.9 Summary
The Unit started off by explaining the meaning of some key CBE terms:
competency-based education can be defined as being an ‘integrated system’,
with a focus on ‘relevant competence’ as well as ‘learner-oriented’ results.
Competence is encompassing personality attributes, understanding of knowledge,
thinking and other generic abilities, feelings and values as well as the performance of
skills. Skills are the ‘performance component’ or ‘to do’ aspect of competences.
Skills are thus smaller components of competences and involve activities,
techniques and processes to execute competences.
The first CBE programmes were in the area of primary and vocational teacher
education which took place in 1967 in the USA. It appears that the expectation about
the utility role or relevance of education at different levels is becoming stronger in
many international educational contexts. It is also apparent that politicians rather
than educators promote CBE programmes because of the perceived additional wide-
ranging benefits of CBE. Examining the expansion of CBE reveals that higher
education practices started in the 1960s in the USA with vocational teacher
education programmes. Germany was the second nation to implement CBE ideas
with the establishment of their dual system of vocational education in 1969. Australia
implemented CBE designs in 1987 and the UK in the 1980s. In 1989 New Zealand
adopted competency standards for all levels of education and in Canada
competency standards were adopted in 1993. In the late 1990s CBE expanded to
South Africa and Namibia.
The first CBE model was teacher-centred and focused on competency tasks. CBE
views developed and the transformational model goes beyond subject knowledge
and learning outcomes promotes a broad development of learners via different life
roles, such as social roles, job roles, spiritual roles and so forth.
The primary and secondary CBE curriculum characteristics were discussed in terms
of: Philosophical perspectives, A focus on specific outcomes, Modular organisation
of content, Systematic design, Teaching and learning perspectives, Broad based
assessment, Detailed programme documents and the Recognition of prior learning.
Analysis of these CBE characteristics enables educators to evaluate the criticism
against CBE curricula which showed that: CBE education incorporates training, that
CBE has moved beyond behaviourism and that organising knowledge in units and
modules is not necessarily negative fragmentation. Moreover, it was shown that
selective knowledge is not necessarily equal to lowering standards, that having pre-
specified outcomes is not the same as human engineering or that the systematic
design is not technicist or inhuman. In addition, it was shown that the level of
reducing university autonomy is not unacceptable, that the concepts portrayed by the
terminology are more valuable than the terms, and that the assessment of
competence is not without many challenges but could be achieved satisfactorily with
proper management.
The advantages of introducing CBE in different educational contexts were seen as

its contribution to national development, quality assurance practices, competitive
advantages, the reducing of overloaded programmes, broader access, the
opportunity to generate higher income, the creation of a positive public image, the
increase of applied research and publications and a boost in staff development.
However, it was indicated that the introduction of CBE might have serious limitations
such as the following: the managing of individual and institutional change requires
time and ongoing communication, otherwise stakeholders’ acceptance and co-
operation will be limited. A broad spectrum of administrative and academic changes
is required, resulting in disagreements that fuel interpersonal conflict which often
prevent co-operation among internal and external stakeholders. Such resistance
could result in unsuccessful programme implementation. Another limitation is that
without training of staff in CBE perspectives the implementation of a programme is
likely to fail. In addition, learners must have the ability to be self-directed learners, be
committed to take responsibility for their learning and learner support resources must
be available for CBE to be successful. Furthermore, the involvement of many
stakeholders through different methods is time consuming and administratively
demanding while the CBE teaching-learning and assessment perspectives require a
range of resources for learners and staff without which very limited quality education
could be achieved. Moreover, the implementation of performance assessment
requires new assessment policies, instruments and simulated and real workplace
environments while the design and implementation processes of CBE require
enormous paperwork. The planning, teaching-learning and assessment practices
result in higher workloads for staff and the start-up implementation costs are usually
high.
The Namibian syllabus terminology were analysed and found not to be on par with
common international use of such terms.
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UNIT 5
Discuss the steps in designing a CBE or SBE
qualification
Contents
Introduction
Learning outcomes
5.1 Describe the typical phases of curriculum development ………………….. 324
5.2 Give an overview of the design steps of a programme/ qualification….. … 326
5.3 Discuss the following design steps of the Engelbrecht model in detail: …. 330
5.4 Discuss how the sequence and nature of the steps could change for
SBE and CBE designs ……………………………………………………….. 340
5.5 Explain how the cognitive taxonomy of Bloom and Marzano et al. impact
on formulating outcomes and the overall standard of a programme ……. 345
5.6 Discuss the different ways that curriculum content can be organised …… 351
5.7 Evaluate the role of curriculum design steps in promoting quality
education ……………………………………………………………………….. 353
5.8 Analyse the curriculum development principles ……………………………. 355
5.9 Evaluate the application of the design steps of a given example of a
‘Teacher qualification document’ ….………………………………………. 357
5.10 Analyse the format of a given module descriptor …………………………. 359
5.11 Summary………………………………………………………………………. 363
5.12 References ……………………………………………………………………. 364
Introduction
Unit 5 answers the main question: How does one actually design a qualification?
Unit 4 indicated that there are differences between subject-based and competency-
based curricula. One can thus expect that the design process might differ too. How
will these two designs differ? Will they have total different steps or the same steps
but a different focus or activities within the steps? Is there a specific sequence of the
design steps? You will discover that some of the curriculum design steps are similar
to preparing for a lesson or a workshop presentation. There are also curriculum
design principles that underpin the design steps and contribute to the quality of the
curriculum. Once we understand the design steps we will apply it to a qualification for
teachers.
Learning outcomes
5.1 Distinguish between curriculum development phases and design steps.

5.2 Discuss the curriculum design steps of the Engelbrecht model.
5.3 Discuss how the sequence and nature of the steps could change for SBE and
CBE curriculum designs.
5.4 Explain how the cognitive taxonomy of Bloom and Marzano impact on out-
comes and the standard of a programme.
5.5 Discuss the different ways curriculum content could be organised.
5.6 Evaluate the role of curriculum design steps in promoting quality education.
5.7 Analyse the curriculum development principles.
5.8 Evaluate the application of the design steps to a given ‘Teacher qualification
document’.
1. Relate the curriculum components to the design steps.

2. Discuss the sequence of the design steps.
3. Compare the design steps of a SBE and CBE curriculum.
4. Explain the influence of the design principles on the design steps.
5.1 Describe the typical phases of curriculum development

This is a new unit and before you rush into it, read the study support at the beginning
of the book. Good, now you understand that it is important to clarify the meanings of
words in headings or texts. The word ‘typical’ in the 5.1 heading means ‘usually,
commonly’ and ‘phases’ mean ‘stage or period’. The term ‘curriculum’ would refer
here to the ‘qualification document’ and ‘development’ to the process of revising an
existing curriculum. A phase in curriculum development is thus a big stage that
encompasses steps and activities of curriculum development. We can identify a few
of such phases.
Tabel 5.1: Phases of curriculum development
Phase Some key actions per phase
1. Initiation  Investigation into the need for a qualification
2. Planning  Do a situation analysis of local education needs; profile
of intended learners; universal trends
 Formulate holistic-based aims of the qualification
 Set criteria for the selection and organising of content
3. Development  Determine curriculum structure

 Select and organize content into modules
 Identify suitable teaching-learning resources
 Formulate an assessment policy
 Get stakeholders’ input
4. Implementation  Determine the requirements for staff which implement

this curriculum
 Analyse the physical facilities required
 Provide an orientation to the curriculum for staff and
learners
 Formulate guidelines for instructional management
5. Continuous  Assess the effectiveness of the curriculum design and
evaluation implementation elements on a yearly basis
 Evaluate the assessment results and make
improvements accordingly
(Adapted from Mostert’s ideas in Carl, 2002:53; York Technical College, 2001:
Chapter 1-6).
These phases merely serve to give a broad structural view of the development pro-
cesses of a qualification. Another perspective on the curriculum development phases
is that the above phases belong to either a curriculum design or implementation
phase with several steps in each phase. The next section gives an example of the
more detailed steps that are distinguishable within the design or implementation
phases.
5.2 Give an overview of the design steps of a programme /
qualification
Let us analyse the design steps of one example, comment on it and then propose a
universal model with more detailed steps. This example refers to a post-school
qualification but the steps are relevant to any curriculum design although some
aspects within a step will not be applicable to school curricula.
Foxcroft, Elkonin & Kota (1998:11-23) applied the following steps to design a career-
oriented Bachelors degree in Psychology programme at the University of Port
Elizabeth (now Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University) in South Africa. What each
step entails is listed in brackets.
Step 1: Clarify the philosophical basis of OBE and radically alter your way of
thinking about higher education. Embrace the need for change.
(The following principles were formulated to rethink the philosophy of higher

education: 1. outcomes as results rather than inputs guide the programme
development; 2. outcomes should be appropriate for the NQA level of the
programme; 3. advanced knowledge as well as how to apply it must be integrated; 4.
learning outcomes should contribute to the student’s career path; 5. outcomes
should also contribute to the student’s personal development and 6. values and
attitudes; 7. outcomes should develop broadly applicable and work-related skills; 8.
modules should, as far as possible, not be dependent on knowledge from another
module; 9. learning and assessment need to be integrated through a focus on clearly
defined performance tasks).
Step 2: Upgrade your knowledge base regarding the basic principles of the
National Qualification Framework , Outcomes-based Education and
Training and programme design. Search for practical examples of out
comes-based programmes.
(1.Information regarding NQF concepts was gathered: qualification; critical and

specific outcomes; core, fundamental and elective components; credit-bearing
modules e.g., one credit is equal to ten notional hours of learning; entry level
requirements; recognition of prior learning; flexibility and portability and integrated
assessment; 2. knowledge regarding OBE was gathered: its philosophy, features
and research results; 3. knowledge about OBE programme design: the consultative
process; steps involved; designing of modules that enable integrative learning).
Step 3: Develop critical (exit) and supportive (enabling) outcomes.

(Outcomes were developed on the basis of the NQF outcomes and the career
options available for a student with this qualification; generic outcomes were added).
Step 4: Delineate areas of learning.
(The content areas were developed by surveying similar courses of other institutions;
balance theory and applied modules; incorporating employable competencies; adapt
content to changing national circumstances).
Step 5: Develop specific outcomes for each area of learning.
(For each learning area critical outcomes were formulated and then further specific
outcomes designed; a grid was used to provide an overview of progress).
Step 6: Decide on the structure of the learning programme, credit values and
the mode of delivery.
(Determine the overall structure, and the percentages represented by fundamental,

core and elective modules; group outcomes into modules; year
levels have been dispensed with; credits for modules were identified; ensure
minimum NQF credits for a degree is adhered to).
Step 7: Decide on entry-level competencies and how prior learning will be

recognised.
(Revisit traditional admission criteria; a team developed new criteria and

accompanying tests; another team developed a system for recognition of prior
learning).
Step 8: Decide on multiple entry-and exit-level points.
(Consider what modules or group of modules could be enrolled for without enrolling
for the whole degree; will such modules be formally certified?).
Step 9: Consider how to accommodate work-based learning.
(Determine whether organisations would allow students to do voluntary work for

them in order for students to learn some competencies in the workplace setting).
Step 10: Decide on what to assess, how to assess it and when to assess it.
(Use a range of assessment methods; continuous assessment is applied; where

formal examinations are done it would take place at the end of a module; students
are informed concerning what will be assessed and how it will be assessed, thus
criteria and performance indicators are known to students; students have the right to
discuss the results of assessment with lecturers; performance assessment criteria
are already used during the teaching-learning activities).
Step 11: Consider issues that could arise during implementation.
(1. There are staff, timetable and financial implications of phasing out the existing
programme and phasing in the new one; 2. modularisation complicates the timetable
and venues; increase in practical activities require more computers, laboratories and
workplace settings; 3. a textbook per module would be too costly for students
therefore articles and newly developed materials are necessary; inter-departmental
and inter-faculty collaboration required time and organisation; 4. a team to monitor
the implementation of the programme was established and met on a weekly basis; 5.
more exit points, continuous assessment marks and credits per module required
changes to the database software; 6. some degree and faculty rules needed to be
revisited, such as promotion rules).
Discussion of Foxcroft, Elkonin & Kota’s steps
Step one proposes that programme designers should rethink the philosophy of
higher education in terms of a CBE philosophy and understand the characteristics of
CBE. The implication is that designers might create a descriptive CBE document that
could be used for discussions and management of change. No mention is made of
the drafting of a time schedule for the programme development process. It could be
argued that the ideas regarding outcomes in step one rather belong to step three
which deals with the development of exit and learning outcomes. Step two requires
designers to acquaint themselves with local national qualification framework ideas,
which is a sensible suggestion. However, step two commonly forms part of a
comprehensive situation analysis which is not explicitly addressed in the steps of
Foxcroft, et al. although some aspects of a situational analysis are covered by further
steps. For example, step four addresses the knowledge base and society
circumstances that are commonly part of a situation analysis, but no student profile
is, however, developed as part of the situational analysis.
The title and level of the qualification are addressed, although not as separate steps.
A rationale for introducing the programme that links the needs analysis and the
formulating of outcomes, is not attended to. A positive contribution of step three is
the emphasis that outcomes should match NQF standards, should incorporate
generic outcomes as well as career paths related outcomes. On the negative side it
could be pointed out that the involvement of external stakeholders is not highlighted
in the occupational analysis or development of outcomes. Even if it is assumed that
external stakeholders were involved in establishing the NQF standards, designers
should also revisit such standards and upgrade them with the input of a range of
stakeholders. Stakeholder involvement benefits the management of change and
ownership of a programme. It would be necessary to start managing the change
before the stage of compiling outcomes (step four) is reached.
Step four implies the development of the content related to the exit outcomes in step
three. The content is developed via areas of learning as integrated disciplines. Their
examples of areas of learning such as ‘introduction to the discipline and history of
Psychology’, ‘evaluating human behaviour’ and ‘applied Psychology’ do not reflect a
focus on roles, but rather on subjects and topics. The systematic design down of
CBE requires the identification of knowledge after roles and related competence
have been identified. It would also be appropriate to have a model in place for
selecting roles and not merely survey course content of other institutions to
determine ‘areas of learning’. It is positive that generic competencies are observed.
The accreditation of the programme with further education is not mentioned.
Step five advocates the development of module descriptors. This is a valid step in
itself, however the proposed step six and seven should logically precede the
development of module descriptors in step five, because module descriptors are
developed after the programme structures have been established and module
descriptors content should consider already clarified features of students and the
admission criteria. The sequence of step six and seven is therefore questionable,
although having such steps is valid. It is noteworthy that a fresh CBE perspective at
traditional admission criteria is suggested that would cover the recognition of prior
learning as well. The proposed steps reflect no standpoint on the issue of having
developmental programmes. This is a rather important issue since such a decision
could influence admission criteria and the nature of the module descriptors.
Step eight focuses on the flexible, individualisation feature of CBE, namely, multiple
entry-and exit-level points. The issue is a valid one, the question could be asked
however, whether this issue should be a separate step or be part of other steps. In
the researcher’s opinion there are both a design and an implementation dimension
involved here. Firstly, the step involving the design of the structure of the programme
should consider possible sensible exit points and secondly, the assessing of
students and the certification step should consider multiple exit points as well.
Another step encompassing the selection and registration of students could
accommodate possible multiple entry points.
Step nine addresses the planning of work-based learning opportunities. The

development of competence is obviously closely related to work-based learning and
deserves thorough attention. In the case of teacher education the programme
structure (step six above) would include ‘professional practice’ or ‘teaching practice’
to address work-based learning. The development of module descriptors (step five
above) would then incorporate module descriptors for ‘teaching practice’ as well.
This implies that the content of the work-based learning would already be
incorporated into other steps and that the logistics surrounding teaching practice
would have to be addressed in an implementation step concerning such logistical
structures and procedures.
Step ten addresses the planning of assessment policy and practices well. As
proposed by other examples, it is again suggested that evaluation instruments of
performances are designed before instruction and used during instruction. Step
eleven is one of three steps that focus on implementation issues. Step eleven refers
to several complex implementation aspects that need attention in a systematic
manner. The design and implementation steps for use by designer teams should
rather be accurately separated and clarified to promote the efficient and effective
design and implementation of a CBE programme. In reality, changes to the
administrative system as a whole would be necessary to deal with implementation
issues, such as computer software changes. Especially useful in step eleven is the
reminder of the careful consideration of phasing in and phasing out aspects.
On the whole this model reflects most CBE features in appropriate design steps
while the accurate details per step could guide designers to take care that possible
CBE limitations are addressed. In the next section a universal curriculum design
model as proposed by Engelbrecht (2007) will be discussed.
5.3 Discuss the following design steps of the Engelbrecht model

in detail
Unit Four identified the following unique characteristics of CBE that must be reflected
by a design and implementation framework of a competency-based curriculum.
(a) There are three models of the CBE paradigm, the transformational one is best;
(b) Certain philosophical perspectives permeate the programme design and
implementation, for instance, ‘support to achieve success’ and the ‘integration
of education and training’;
(c) Occupational roles from different categories are developed into exit and
learning outcomes which serve as the starting point of a systematic ‘design
down’ process;
(d) Outcomes as intended results are pre-specified and encompass knowledge,
dispositions (competences) and competencies / skills;
(e) Some or all of the programme content is organised into interdisciplinary
modules rather than traditional disciplines;
(f) Learner-centred and constructivist-related teaching-learning perspectives are
applied, emphasising trained staff, adequate resources, instructional modalities
and individualised pacing;
(g) Assessment of knowledge and competence focus on deep learning and
transferability;
(h) Detailed programme design and implementation documents are created that
serve accountability and certification needs and
(i) The recognition of prior learning is advocated to promote access to education.
In addition, the comparison of SBE and CBE programme characteristics (cf. section
4.6) provide distinctive CBE features that need to be integrated with the above
characteristics by programme design and implementation frameworks, such as:
(a) CBE defines ‘quality education’ as preparing persons holistically for life;
(b) Qualification levels are determined by set standards which are developed with
input from many key stakeholders;
(c) The emphasis is on outputs captured by outcomes that focus on both society’s
utility needs and student academic performances;
(d) Individualised progression is allowed;
(e) Teachers are facilitators and develop self-directed learning of learners;
(f) Integrated assessment focuses on both knowledge and performances and is
criterion-based;
(g) Institutional management structures and policies create a supportive learning
environment to ensure a high rate of success for learners. These distinctive
features are often incorporated into the ‘common components’ of any
programme design, namely: situation analysis; goals and objectives; selection
and organising of content; selection of methods, techniques and media;
selection and classification of learning experiences; planning and
implementation of the instructional learning situation and the assessment of
learners.
It should however be recognised that although both subject-based and competency-

based curricula may apply these components in each case, it is done in a vastly
different way (cf. SBE –CBE comparison, 4.6). The component of ‘goals and
objectives’ is for example, extremely important for a CBE programme where
specified learning outcomes are the departure point for the design of the programme.
However, in a subject-based programme aims and objectives may be specified but
their nature differs and the same connection between them and the other elements
of the curriculum might be weaker. An analysis of the steps will reflect upon the
differences of the steps and activities within steps between the CBE and SBE
curriculum.
The Engelbrecht (2007) model was designed after analysing ten examples of higher
education curriculum designs and writings about curricula across the world but the
identified universal steps and their elements could be applied to any level of
curriculum design:
Let us investigate the details of each step.
Table 5.2: Engelbrecht model of CBE curriculum design steps
Step 1: Conducting a situational analysis
 Analyse international level factors:

Consider effects of globalisation; define quality education; reflect on
responsiveness versus graduateness; identify massification implications; discuss
higher education concerns, goals and future trends; consider the role of the African
university; reflect on a model underpinning occupational competence roles analysis
and whether it blends higher education, occupational and general education goals;
take note of mode 1 and 2 forms of knowledge production; cover global academic
and indigenous knowledge; include generic and other competencies; consider
disciplinarity, inter- and transdisciplinarity; define lifelong learning development;
reflect on academic freedom and public accountability; describe CBE limitations
and benefits; consult CBE research findings; examine constructivist knowledge
production
 Analyse national level factors:

Consult relevant national education statistics to determine the need for particular
teachers and qualifications; clarify the role of the NQA; consult NQA teaching
profession standards; observe national higher education planning and directives,
e.g., Namibian Vision 2030; analyse the requirements for teacher licenses and
performance appraisals; conduct an occupational analysis with stakeholder
input, e.g., DACUM workshops; create a competency profile (indicating priorities)
for entry-level / expert professionals; consider implications of multicultural
democracy; analyse the profile of the targeted student body, e.g., language
skills, values, learning styles, subject knowledge levels and motivation; relate
equity and bridging courses; define national and global citizenship; consider
requirements to deliver the programme via distance and online education;
monitor possible duplication of programmes in other local institutions
 Analyse institutional level factors:

Conduct a strategic planning for the faculty; reflect on the contribution of the
humanities; calculate implications for workloads and workload policies; reflect on
the financial autonomy and financial management of the faculty; determine the
need for bridging courses and a RPL system; appraise the adequacy of facilities;
reflect on ways to support students; reflect on ways to develop and support staff;
revisit the registration management; identify internal and external stakeholders
to be involved; decide on methods to gather data from stakeholders, e.g.,
nominal group technique, search conferences, functional analysis, interviews,
critical incident technique, surveys, delphi, performance assessment
observation, questionnaires, advisory groups and the DACUM; analyse the
degree of accreditation of schooling with university system; consider alternative
departmental structures; design ways to ensure quality assurance; consider
strategies for a staff and programme development
 Analyse module level factors:

Consider which modules apply discipline, inter- and trans disciplinary structures;
identify how modules incorporate generic competencies; monitor possible
duplication of modules within the institution; standardise the length of modules;
revisit the organisation of workplace training logistics; reflect on availability of
appropriate workplace training sites
Sources: Blank, 1982:26; Rothwell and Kazanas, 1992:44,46,53-54,74;

Kennedy, 1993:7; Fletcher, 1995:67; McCann, Babler and Cohen, 1998:197-
207; Foxcroft, Elkonin & Kota,1998:11-23; York Technical College, 2001:ch 1-6;
SENA, 2002:11; Westraad, 2003:9-23; Lyon, 2003:5-11; Mostert, 1985:18, 25-
29; Dubois,1993:23; Carl,1995:97-98; Doll, 1996:152,172-3; Luckett, 2001:55;
Gravett and Geyser, 2004:152; Pretorius, 2001:74-75; Ministry of Education of
Namibia, 2005; Breier, 2001:2; Boschee & Baron, 1993:20; AAU, 2001:1;
Department of Employment, Education and Training, Australia, 1990:6; NCRVE
MDS-777, s.a.:1; Harrisburg Area Community College, 1999:1; DACUM Waste
Management Specialist, 1995:1; Jessup, 1991:27; Department of Education of
S.A., 1998:68-69; Burke, 1989:190; California Commission on Teacher
Credentialing, 1997:1; Chappell and Melville, 1995:52-60.
Step 2: Drafting a programme development timetable and action plan

 Task force works backwards from the intended implementation date and drafts a
timetable to meet deadlines
 Compile an action plan based on both the design and implementation steps
Sources: Kennedy, 1993:7; Foxcroft, Elkonin & Kota, 1998:11-23.
Step 3: Managing the change to a new educational philosophy
 Select a task force and programme co-ordinator

 Task force examines the philosophy and characteristics of CBE
 Analyse examples of CBE programmes and research findings
 Obtain a CBE programme design and implementation framework
 Meetings with internal stakeholders about CBE: top and faculty management,
lecturers, students, administrative staff
 Address fears and conflicting perspectives such as goals of higher education,
academic freedom and accountability, learning theories and new
epistemologies, responsiveness, graduateness, citizenship and lifelong learning
 Create CBE guideline documents regarding aspects such as student support,
setting performance tests, module descriptor templates, assessment and
assessment records
 Identify actions to manage individual change, e.g., how the new system
improves on the current one
 Identify actions to manage institutional change, e.g., do not polarise supportive
and opposing views, reflect on the purposes of the African university, obtain the
support of departmental heads and dean, conduct strategic planning, involve
some external stakeholders, discuss the scientism perspective, allow adequate
time for meetings, analyse quality (teacher) education, select suitable persons to
conduct discussions
Sources: Kennedy, 1993:7; McCann, Babler and Cohen, 1998:197-207; Foxcroft,

Elkonin & Kota, 1998:11-23; Burke, 1989:129; Grant, et al., 1979:237;
Department of Education, S.A.:1997:8; Doll, 1996:307, 314, 319; Blunt and
Cunningham, 2002:133; Luckett, 2001:55; Abdall-Haqq, 1998:1; Adobe go
live,s.a.:1.
Step 4: Finalising the title, level, duration and code of the qualification
 Determine what type of qualification would address the identified needs

 Observe NQA regulations regarding qualification levels and duration
 Specify the NQA and institutional levels and codes
Sources: Foxcroft, Elkonin & Kota,1998:11-23; SENA, 2002:11.
Step 5: Formulating the rationale
 The rationale especially addresses the identified national needs and therefore
influence the exit outcomes
 Address a range of occupational competence roles such as standard
occupational roles, management roles, job environment roles and general
education roles
 Provide for teacher attrition via related career options
 Provide for accreditation for further studies
 The rationale relates to the mission of the faculty
 Avoid duplication of other programme purposes
Sources: Foxcroft, Elkonin & Kota,1998:11-23; Harrisburg Area Community

College, 1999:1; Gravett and Geyser, 2004:152; Van Niekerk & Killen, 2000:91;
Boschee and Baron, 1993:49; Geyser and Wolhuter, 2001:95; Chappell and
Melville, 1995:52-60.
Step 6: Formulating the exit outcomes of the programme
 Distinguish between exit and enabling outcomes: exit outcomes define roles and
specify mainly competencies, not knowledge and traits
 Observe a model for identifying competence roles: the spectrum of outcomes
covers standard occupational roles, management roles, job environment roles
and extend to general education and general employment roles that would
include personal and interpersonal development, values and attitudes,
citizenship, generic employability skills, local and international knowledge and
skills, community development agent, emotional intelligence…
 Outcomes address future oriented needs as well
 Outcomes address related career path requirements
 Outcomes address preparation for further education
 Observe the local NQA minimum standards and requirements and compare it to
the DACUM results of the situation analysis
 Consult international standards and exercise academic freedom to add
outcomes for diversity or depth
 The formulation of exit outcomes incorporate verbs expressing observable
behaviour rather than conditions and assessment criteria
 Be aware of the important role of verbs in outcomes
Sources: Blank, 1982:26; Rothwell and Kazanas, 1992:44; Kennedy, 1993:7;

Fletcher, 1995:67; McCann, Babler and Cohen, 1998:197-207; Foxcroft, Elkonin
& Kota, 1998:11-23; York Technical College, 2001:ch 1-6; SENA, 2002:11;
Westraad, 2003:9-23; Lyon, 2003:5-11; Carl, 1995:101-107; Gravett and
Geyser, 2004:153; Spady, 1994:19,49-51; York Technical College,
2001:ch2,3:12,6:17; California Commission on Teacher Credentialing, 1997:5;
Breier, 2001:15,31; Marsh, 1997:69-76; Boschee and Baron, 1993:41; Jessup,
1991:27; Department of Education, S.A.,1998:41-42; Sultana, 1995:215-228;
Ryan and Martens, 1989:5; Report of the National Standards and Guidelines for
Initial Teacher Education Project, 1998:9-18; Conrad & Haworth, 1990:250-253;
Knight, 1995:26-32; Covey, 1992:250-252.
Step 7: Compiling module descriptors / subject syllabi
 Monitor the horizontal (scope) and vertical (depth) dimension of the outcomes of
step six above
 Use a matrix to monitor the incorporation of competencies in various modules
 Design a module descriptor template which includes aspects such as module
title, code, admission / pre-requisites, total hours / contact hours per week, credit
value, NQA level, lecturer, course description, exit outcomes, learning outcomes,
course assessment, prescribed learning material, course requirements and
expectations, equipment to be bought, additional costs, next revision date.
 Module descriptors include comprehensive , coherent knowledge and traits and
attitudes to develop specified outcomes
 Indigenous knowledge complements universal knowledge
 Be aware that the levels of knowledge, traits and attitudes match the intended
(e.g., beginner practitioner) qualification level
 Consider the role of the humanities in developing general life roles, multicultural
democracy, lifelong learning and generic competencies
 Verbs are carefully selected as this reflects learning domains and experiences
 Allow lecturers freedom of choice in terms of having ‘performance criteria’ and
‘range statements’
 Group performance outcomes, observe competence clusters and identify units
within modules
 Sequence outcomes and units according to logical learning perspectives
 Module descriptors for workplace learning (teaching practice) are attended to
 Module outlines match time available with specified outcomes and reflect
possible overloading
 Module outline verbs reflect the theoretical (T) or practical (P) learning and
assessment

Foxcroft, Elkonin & Kota, 1998:11-23; York Technical College, 2001:ch 1-6;
SENA, 2002:11; Lyon, 2003:5-11; Killen, 1999:9; Smith, 2005:3-4; Aguinis and
Kraiger, 2005:1; Cherniss, 2004:1-2; McCann, Babler and Cohen, 1998:201;
Jessup, 1991:32-33,37; Fletcher, 1998:12; Burke, 1995:250; Smith, Marriage
and Gillespie, 1994:84; Purdue University Calumet, 2003:3,6-7; Doll, 1996:183;
Public Service Commission of Canada, 1998:2-6; Blunt and Cunningham,
2002:127-137.
Step 8: Establishing the broad programme structure
 Standardise modular length for semesters

 Design the programme structure in terms of scope and sequence of
modules per semester
 Relate the sequence of modules to possible prerequisites
 Consider differentiation in terms of weight / periods per module
 Indicate core and elective modules to suit career interests / specialisation
 Use academic freedom to create core and elective modules beyond NQA
specifications
 Consider if modules could serve in other programmes too and the timetable
implications of that
 Reflect on titles for modules: some could reflect more marketable titles
 Indicate work-based learning modules (teaching practice)
 Ensure the programme meets the required NQA hours and other directives
 Consider multiple exit points
 Consider phasing in of the new programme and phasing out options
Sources: Kennedy, 1993:7; Fletcher, 1995:67; Foxcroft, Elkonin & Kota, 1998:11-
23; York Technical College, 2001:ch 1-6; SENA, 2002:11; West -raad, 2003:9-
23; Lyon, 2003:5-11; Posner, 1992:10; Burke, 1995:171.
Step 9: Determining the admission requirements
 A team revisit traditional admission criteria and reflect on the purpose thereof
 Consider the articulation between the schooling and higher education system
 Consider the targeted learner profile compiled during step three (situational
analysis)
 Specify academic and occupational pre-requisites such as physical traits or
abilities, previously learned skills, previously learned knowledge and previously
acquired attitudes in terms of quality assurance
 Consider the need for and implementation consequences of aptitude, language
proficiency or other tests
 Determine the permissible maximum load in the case of employed students
 Bear in mind equal access policies, including gender and disadvantaged equity
 Consider admission procedures that might accommodate multiple entry points in
terms of time, locality and mode of registration.
 Address planned maximum total of students and rules in case of over
subscription.
 A team reflect on RPL models and develop the prior learning recognition system
 Consider the need for and nature of possible bridging courses related to
admission criteria
Sources: Foxcroft, Elkonin & Kota, 1998:11-23; Geyser, 2001:31,35; Jessup,

1991:60-62,67; Breier, 2001:4,5,18; Blank, 1982:44-52; Gravett and Geyser,
2004:126-133.
Step 10: Selecting the delivery mode
 Decide whether the programme will be offered on a full time, a distance

or an online basis or a combination of these modes
Sources: Fletcher, 1995:67; Foxcroft, Elkonin & Kota, 1998:11-23;

Westraad, 2003:9-23.
Step 11: Developing the assessment regulations and instruments
 Keep in mind that assessment policies and procedures should be feasible,

credible and reliable to ensure quality
 Reflect on the role of continuous assessment towards quality
 Consider the admission percentage to examinations
 Determine the passing grade for theoretical and practical tests
 Understand that passing of demonstrations of competence require passing
grades on a criterion-referenced basis and not on an aggregate score
 Describe the re-testing policy per module
 Consider the possible use and feasibility of assistant markers
 Clarify the role of non-grading tests and feedback
 Clarify the role of self-assessment and peer assessment
 Design assessment records that could accommodate re-test and non-grading
results
 Update computer software if necessary to handle new assessment regulations
and forms
 Specify the weight of different assessments towards the final mark, e.g. shorter /
longer tests and assignments contribute different weights towards the admission
mark
 Specify the weight of continuous and summative assessment towards the final
mark
 Pay special attention to the work-based performance and portfolio assessment
 Revisit promotion rules and the contribution of teaching practice towards
promotion
 Module descriptors, module outlines and performance checklists guide students
regarding theoretical and practical assessment regulations
 Clarify regulations regarding internal and external moderators
 Specify regulations regarding the evaluation of assessment results by
departments
 Compile some performance instruments and written tests per module
 Compile guidelines for assessing teaching practice lessons
 Revisit the need for supplementary examination papers
 Consider the assessment implications of a Namibian teacher licensing system
Sources: Blank, 1982:26; Rothwell and Kazanas, 1992:44; McCann, Babler and
Cohen, 1998:197-207; Foxcroft, Elkonin & Kota, 1998:11-23; York Technical
College, 2001:ch 1,3,6; SENA, 2002:11; Westraad, 2003:9-23; Lyon, 2003:5-11;
Grant, et al. 1979:141,152; Bowden and Masters, 1993:86; University of
Northern Iowa, s.a.:4-5; Toohey, et al.,1995:104; Armstrong, 1997:4; Maxwell,
1997:6; Ling, 2000:3; Killen, s.a.:14-15.
Step 12: Obtaining programme approval from key stakeholders
 Identify who and how many external stakeholders verify the details of the
programme, e.g., the NQA, Teacher Unions and principals
 Consider the method(s) to be applied to verify the programme
 Faculty considers external stakeholders comments and finalise the details of the
programme
 Formal NQA recognition of the qualification is obtained
 Senate approval is obtained
Sources: Kennedy, 1993:7; McCann, Babler and Cohen, 1998:197-207;
SENA, 2002:11; NQA of Namibia, 1998:1-19.
* Note that these curriculum design steps are meant for a higher education context
and some elements within the steps will not be applicable to a school context or
programme design in a business.
Suppose you are requested to participate in a curriculum committee that design

the Namibian curriculum for the senior primary phase. Make a summary of the
design steps that you would contribute into the committee.

___________________________________________________________________
Remember that the senior primary school context will play a role in which
elements within steps will be applicable as well as which steps will be applicable
or not. Compare your work with the steps above.
5.4 Discuss how the sequence and nature of the steps could
change for SBE and CBE designs
Revisit the section 4.6 about the comparison of the curriculum features between SBE
and CBE on an institutional and national level. In addition you need to study the CBE
curriculum design steps under 5.3 above. This section shows how the 5.3 CBE
curriculum design steps incorporate the universal steps to curriculum design
with some changes in the sequence and their elements for SBE.
Let us use the CBE design steps above (5.3) as structure to show how SBE and
CBE designs might differ. At the end of the steps clarifications a table will summarise
the differences in the sequence of the steps between SBE and CBE.
Step 1: Conducting a situational analysis
To analyse international, national, institutional and subject factors is simply a logical

first step to do to get the big picture right before further planning of a qualification. In
fact, the facts about these four categories has a direct impact on what is possible
and desirable for a particular qualification. SBE does take note, like CBE, of
international education trends, the developments in subjects and the profile of the
targeted student body. The difference comes in what the CBE institutions and
curriculum designers do with this information. In SBE institutions the institutional
needs carries typically more weight than national or student needs. CBE institutions
might assist students more to get access to programmes via bridging courses;
recognise prior learning and pay more attention to the multicultural needs of
individual students.
Step 2: Drafting a programme development timetable and action plan
Any well managed Faculty will strive to complete the design of a new qualification by
a specified date. A CBE curriculum design task force might need more meetings with
external and internal stakeholders and thus more time to finish the qualification
design.
Step 3: Managing the change to a new educational philosophy
SBE is the traditional curriculum and if an institution stays with it there is no need to
manage the change to a CBE curriculum. This means this step is typically eliminated
in the SBE curriculum design.
Step 4: Finalising the title, level, duration and code of a qualification
Both SBE and CBE need to execute this step. The nature of the identified manpower
need will determine the type (e.g. certificate, diploma, degree) and NQF level (e.g. 5-
8) of a qualification. For SBE the level of the qualification is determined by the
difficulty level, the scope of the subject content as well as the duration of a
qualification. The difficulty level is mainly designed by an individual lecturer and then
approved by the Faculty. The credentials of the qualification is thus determined by an
institution while the credentials of a CBE curriculum is determined by national
standards which are set by different stakeholders. The duration years of a SBE
qualification is determined by the amount of content which correlates with the level of
the qualification. For CBE qualifications the duration is determined by the prescribed
credits for different types of qualifications and NQF levels. In Namibia learning
content of 10 hours accounts for 1 NQF credit; a certificate must have a minimum of
40 credits; a diploma requires a minimum of 120 credits and a degree must consist
of at least 360 credits. A learning load of 60 credits (about 6 subjects) per semester
for full time students is perceived as a full load, but manageable. For a degree it will
take 6 semesters of 60 credits to reach 360 credits. In reality both SBE and CBE
requires three years for a degree but the way it is calculated is very different.
Step 5: Formulating the rationale
Although both SBE and CBE curricula will identify the overall reason for introducing a
qualification, the SBE designer might say we need ‘electronic engineers’, while the
CBE designers will qualify the nature of the ‘electronic engineers’ qualification more
accurately, by specifying the standard occupational roles, management roles, job
environment roles and general education roles.
Step 6: Formulating the exit outcomes of the programme
SBE curricula have aims but these aims are not really guiding the curriculum
structure and content design as the exit learning outcomes and learning outcomes of
CBE qualifications do. The CBE exit outcomes include knowledge outcomes,
competences and skills outcomes and affective outcomes, while SBE outcomes
focus mainly on the scope and depth of subject knowledge. (It does appear that SBE
qualifications are nowadays paying more attention to ‘practical learning
experiences’.) CBE outcomes pay more attention to possible future occupational
needs and career paths than SBE qualifications. SBE curricula pay less attention to
the verb levels of exit learning outcomes than CBE does. In fact this step might not
be addressed at all by SBE curriculum designers.
Step 7: Compiling module descriptors / subject syllabi
CBE modules are standardised according to a certain total of credits which relates to
the volume of work and thus learning hours involved. SBE subjects are not
regulated by national standards and the scope and depth of a subject are
determined by an institution. CBE modules focus more on developing competences
and competencies / skills than SBE subjects. CBE modules often consists of
interdisciplinary content which is formatted into exit learning outcomes analysed into
learning outcomes. The SBE subjects syllabi specify themes and topics and not
learning outcomes with carefully selected verbs which reflect desirable levels of
thinking or competence. All modules are designed according to the same national
CBE format which makes the monitoring of overlapping content as well as making
changes to a module easier . For SBE qualification designs this step of ‘compiling
subject syllabi’ will only be done after the broad curriculum structure of the
qualification was determined.
Step 8: Establishing the broad programme structure
In theory, CBE curriculum designers will be better able to design the structure of a
curriculum once the modules are created. In practice, I found that a CBE curriculum
designer does have a preliminary curriculum structure in mind when compiling the
modules, but is open minded about the structure and wait to see how exactly the
compiled modules in step 7 will determine the structure. Nowadays practical learning
or field work is specified in both SBE and CBE qualifications. CBE curricula must
meet national standards and credits (as indicated under step 4) and subjects/
modules are sequenced logically. Both SBE and CBE qualifications have compulsory
core and elective subjects to meet specialisation needs and interests of students.
The titles of CBE modules often reflect marketable competencies whereas SBE titles
focus on subject themes.
Step 9: Determining the admission requirements
Some SBE designers might feel that the admission requirements could be
determined at step 3. It is more logical however to understand the nature of the
broad curriculum and get an overview of the difficulty of the syllabi before one could
realistically set requirements for admission. Remember that the purpose of
admission criteria is not to keep students out, but to ensure that students allowed
into the programme will have the necessary knowledge and abilities (e.g. language
and intellectual) to complete the programme successfully. Both SBE and CBE
follows the logic of first ‘understand the scope and depth of the programme’ and then
finalise admission requirements although perspectives about suitable admission
criteria was at the back of the curriculum designers as soon as the targeted learners
profile (step 1) and the NQF level of the qualification was decided in SBE step 3 /
CBE step 4.
Step 10: Selecting the delivery mode
Once again, some designers might think the ‘delivery mode’ (full time, distance mode
or both) can be decided at SBE step 3 or CBE 4 about finalising the level and
duration of a qualification. This perspective that the delivery mode could be decided
upon earlier seems to be acceptable. At the same time there seems to be no
disadvantage if the delivery mode is done at this later stage in the design.
Step 11: Developing the assessment regulations and instruments
For assessment regulations and instruments to be valid and fair the previous design
steps must be completed, for instance, the NQF level and programme duration are
clear, the total of subjects/ modules are known, the practical learning to be assessed
and other levels of outcomes are specified. The idea of continuous assessment and
semester examinations is nowadays acceptable to SBE and CBE designers. CBE
pass percentages and admission percentages to examinations are often higher than
those of SBE because of its link to the idea of ‘criterion-based competence’. CBE
assessment policies tend to make more use of student self-assessment and peer
assessment to promote understanding and self-directed learning rather than using
these type of assessment marks for formal assessment purposes. Many SBE and
CBE higher education institutions have a ‘First and Second opportunity examination’
system in place. CBE curricula mostly requires a higher minimum scores in
examinations than SBE and continuous practical marks often count more towards
the final pass mark than in SBE.
Step 12: Obtaining programme approval from key stakeholders

At this stage the curriculum draft is completed and need to be analysed for approval.
SBE curricula are approved by Faculty boards and then Senate, while CBE curricula
are evaluated by different stakeholders affected by a qualification. Once
stakeholders approved it, the NQA in Namibia must still accredit the qualification as
a valid national qualification.

_________________________________________________________________
Compare the differences between the sequence of the design steps of SBE and
CBE.

___________________________________________________________________
The design steps sequence of an SBE qualification differ from a CBE sequence
like follows:
Table 5.3: Comparison of the curriculum design steps

sequence between SBE and CBE
SBE design steps sequence CBE design steps sequence

1: Conducting a situational analysis 1: Conducting a situational analysis
2: Drafting a programme develop 2: Drafting a programme develop-
ment timetable and action plan ment timetable and action plan
3: Finalising the title, level, duration 3: Managing the change to a new
and code of a qualification educational philosophy
4: Formulating the rationale 4: Finalising the title, level, duration
and code of a qualification
5: Establishing the broad programme 5: Formulating the rationale
structure
6: Compiling subject syllabi topics 6: Formulating the exit outcomes of
the programme
7: Determining the admission re 7: Compiling module descriptors
quirements
8: Selecting the delivery mode 8: Establishing the broad pro
gramme structure
9: Developing the assessment regula- 9: Determining the admission
tions requirements
10: Obtaining programme approval 10: Selecting the delivery mode
from Faculty board and Senate
11: 11: Developing the assessment regula-
tions and instruments
12: 12: Obtaining programme approval
from national key stakeholders
In conclusion, it makes sense, for instance, to firstly establish a task force to attend
to the development of a programme according to a time schedule. The situational
analysis examines the internal and external educational environment to determine
the current conditions and needs and the variables that would impact on the
programme design and implementation. Therefore it occurs early in the framework.
The rationale and exit outcomes focus on what the programme should achieve,
bearing in mind the discovered needs. The ‘admission requirements’ address
political aspirations of access while striving for quality and feasibility and need to be
considered before module descriptors are developed. Module descriptors reflect the
different occupational roles and academic development goals, thus attending to both
competence and knowledge. Once module descriptors are developed an accurate
programme structure can be finalised, reflecting core and elective modules.
Assessment and promotion regulations can be specified if module descriptors
content and the programme structure are determined. The final design step ensures
that relevant stakeholders approve the final design before a university considers the
programme and before implementation is embarked upon.
5.5 Explain how the cognitive taxonomy of Bloom and Marzano, et

al. impact on formulating outcomes and the overall standard of
a programme
All different ‘learning outcomes’ could be categorised into three ‘learning domains’.
These three domains are covering all knowledge, skills and values and emotions that
we are educated in. These three domains are formally referred to as the
‘cognitive domain’ (knowledge & understanding) the’ psychomotor domain’
(behaviour & physical skills) and the ‘affective domain’ (values and emotions).
Each of these three domains has different levels of complexity. These levels
influence the standard of a qualification. In the cognitive domain of Bloom, the lowest
or simplest level of learning is the knowledge level. The highest cognitive level is the
one of evaluation. Particular verbs are applied to elicit a specific level of thinking,
skill or value. For instance, the verb ‘define’ elicits thinking on a knowledge level,
while the verb ‘discuss’ assesses learning on a higher thinking level. Deep learning,
which requires understanding / insight can be assessed with verbs from the more
complex cognitive levels like, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
Table 5.4: Descriptions of the different levels of the cognitive
domain of Bloom (1956)
Outcomes of each level Typical verbs for assessing
specific outcomes
1. Knowledge (facts, lowest level) Defines, describes, identifies, labels,

 Knows common terms. lists, matches, names, outlines,
 Knows specific facts. reproduces, selects, state.
 Knows methods and procedures.
Synonyms for describe: depict,
 Knows basic concepts. portray, illustrate, outline
 Know principles.
2. Comprehension (meaning)
 Understands facts and principles. Converts, defends, distinguishes,

 Interprets verbal material. estimates, explains, extends,
 Interprets charts and graphs. generalises, gives examples, infers,
paraphrases, predicts, rewrites,
 Translates verbal material to summarises.
mathematical formulas. Synonyms for interpret: deduce,
 Estimates future consequences translate, clarify, account for,
implied in data. decipher
 Justifies methods and procedures. Synonyms for explain: clarify,
illuminate, elucidate, explicate, justify,
rationalise
3. Application (transfer)
 Applies concepts and principles Changes, computes, demonstrates,
to new situations. discovers, manipulates, modifies,
operates, predicts, prepares,
 Applies laws and theories produces, relates, shows, solves,
to practical situations. uses, applies, calculate, proposes.
 Solves mathematical problems.
 Constructs charts and graphs.
 Demonstrates correct usage of a
method or procedure.
4. Analysis (logical thinking)

Breaks down, analyses, diagrams,
 Recognises unstated differentiates, discriminates,
assumptions. distinguishes, identifies, illustrates,
 Recognises logical fallacies in infers, outlines, points out, relates,
reasoning. selects, separates, subdivides,
examines, discusses, investigates.
 Distinguishes between facts and
Synonyms for analyse: examine,
inferences. investigate, explore, dissect
 Evaluates the relevancy of data. Synonyms for discuss: argue,
 Analyses the organisational examine, debate, deliberate, review
structure of a work (art, music,
writing).
5. Synthesis (creative, problem

solving)
 Writes a well organised theme. Categorises, combines, compiles,
composes, creates, devises, designs,
 Gives a well organised speech. explains, generates, modifies,
 Writes a creative short story (or organises, plans, formulate,
poem, or music). rearranges, reconstructs, relates,
 Proposes a plan for an reorganises, revises, rewrites,
experiment. summarises, tells, writes.
 Integrates learning from different
areas into a plan for solving a
problem.
 Formulates a new scheme for
classifying objects (or events, or
ideas).
6. Evaluation (critical thinking)

 Judges the logical consistency of Appraises, compares, concludes,
written material. contrasts, criticises, judges,
 Judges the adequacy with which discriminates, discusses, justifies,
conclusions are supported by interprets, relates, summarises,
data. supports, evaluates.
 Judges the value of a work (art,
music, writing) by use of internal Synonyms for evaluate: appraise,
criteria. assess, judge
 Judges the value of a work (art,
music, writing) by use of external
standards of excellence.
(Adapted from Bloom,1956)
It is clear from the cognitive levels Table that outcomes related to logical reasoning
and problem solving is addressed by the analysis level and that creative outcomes
are addressed by the synthesis level. Critical thinking is covered by the ‘evaluation’
level and the transfer of knowledge to other situations is covered by the ‘application’
level. The levels of thinking are strongly related. Each next level presupposes the
thinking of the previous levels, for instance, to ‘comprehend’ the learner need also to
know the relevant ‘knowledge. Likewise, to ‘evaluate’ an issue the learner needs to
be able to have the ‘knowledge’ to ‘comprehend’, to be able to ‘apply’ knowledge and
so forth.
Cognitive thinking levels can already be applied to the pre-primary context. Because
pre-primary learners are mastering only basic concepts by naming, identifying or
drawing, their thinking is mainly on level 1 (knowledge) of Bloom. But other cognitive
levels of Bloom can however be activated too in the pre-primary classroom, for
example:
 Asking them to give an example = comprehension, level 2

 Learners’ build a puzzle or things = application, level 3
 Asking for reasons why something is wrong = analysis, level 4
 Retell stories, construct or draw something = synthesis, level 5
 Asking them to compare things/
experiences or why they like something = evaluation, level 6
In the senior primary classes all the cognitive levels of Bloom are applied, although
learning on a level 4 (analysis), 5 (synthesis) and 6 (evaluation) is still rare.
A new cognitive taxonomy: Marzano & Kendall
Since the days of Bloom in the 1950s much theoretical and practical research in
education has been undertaken. Perspectives about issues such as learning
processes and outcomes for education, learner-centred views, competency-based
ideas, brain-compatible learning and many more have changed. These new
understandings need to be reflected by the different domains, especially the
cognitive domain.
Marzano & Kendall (2007) propose therefore a new cognitive taxonomy with the
following six hierarchical levels of mental processing:
1. Retrieval level (lowest level of thinking)
2. Comprehension
3. Analysis
4. Knowledge utilization
5. Metacognition
6. Self-system thinking (highest level)
Level 6 is the highest level of thinking and level 1 involves the lower mental
operations.
Table 5.5: The Marzano & Kendall cognitive taxonomy
Level 6: (highest level)
Self-system Conscious mental operations
thinking
Examining Learners identify how important the knowledge is to them
importance and the reasoning underlying this perception
Examining efficacy Learners identify beliefs about their ability to improve
competence or understanding relative to knowledge and
the reasoning underlying this perception
Examining emotional Learners identify emotional responses to knowledge and
response the reasons for these responses
Examining motivation Learners identify their overall level of motivation to
improve competence or understanding relative to
knowledge and the reasons for this level of motivation
Level 5: Conscious mental operations

Metacognition
Specifying goals Learners establish a goal relative to the knowledge and a
plan for accomplishing the goal
Process monitoring Learners monitor the execution of specific goals as they
relate to the knowledge
Monitoring clarity Learners determine the extent to which they have clarity
about the knowledge
Monitoring accuracy Learners determine the extent to which they are accurate
about the knowledge
Level 4: Knowledge Conscious mental operations

utilisation
Decision making Learners use the knowledge to make decisions or make
decisions about the knowledge
Problem solving Learners use the knowledge to solve problems or solve
problems about the knowledge
Experimenting Learners use the knowledge to generate and test
hypotheses or generate and test hypotheses about the
knowledge
Investigating Learners use the knowledge to conduct investigations or
conduct investigations about the knowledge
Level 3: Analysis Conscious mental operations

Matching Learners identify important similarities and differences
between knowledge components
Classifying Learners identify superordinate and subordinate
categories related to the knowledge
Analysing errors Learners identify errors in the presentation or use of the
knowledge
Generalising Learners construct new generalisations or principles
based on the knowledge
Specifying Learners identify specific applications or logical
consequences of the knowledge
Level 2: Conscious mental operations

Comprehension
Integrating Learners identify the basic structure of knowledge and the
critical as opposed to noncritical characteristics
Symbolising Learners construct an accurate symbolic representation
of the knowledge, differentiating critical and noncritical
components
Level 1: Retrieval Automatic mental operations

Recognising Learners recognise features of information but do not
necessarily understand the structure of the knowledge or
differentiate critical from noncritical components
Recalling Learners produce features of information but do not
necessarily understand the structure of the knowledge or
differentiate critical from noncritical components
Executing Learners perform a procedure without significant error but
do not necessarily understand how and why the
procedure works
( Marzano & Kendall, 2007:62)
As can be seen, the first 4 levels appear to have similarities with Bloom’s first levels
but the latter two levels of Marzano and Kendall, (level 5 and 6) introduce some new
categories. The ‘retrieval’ level requires retention of knowledge without
understanding the meaning of it. The ‘comprehension’ level involves understanding
of the relationships of concepts and thus the meaning of knowledge. The third
‘analysis’ level involves that learners can identify patterns and elements of
information and understand the relationships among concepts which are important
for logical reasoning and problem solving. The fourth level of ‘knowledge utilisation’
requires learners to be able to not only realise the meaning of knowledge but also to
be able to apply it logically or creatively to theoretical and practical situations. The
‘metacognition’ level involves that learners reflect upon (critical analyse) their
thinking processes and motives or patterns of behaviour. The final level of ‘self-
system thinking’ incorporates that learners develop their thinking styles and personal
meanings (values, beliefs) about life.
The following differences between the Marzano and the Bloom model per level could
be noted:
Level 1 differences
The Bloom models confused the cognitive processes of retrieval with the knowledge
(the object) of retrieval. The Marzano model does not.
Level 2 differences
The two models are very similar regarding this level of ‘comprehension’.
“Symbolising’ in the new model emphasises symbolic and non-linguistic forms more
than Bloom, however the’ transfer’ of Bloom involves inferences that go beyond the
‘comprehension’ focus of the new taxonomy.
Level 3 differences
Level 3 (analysis) of the Marzano model corresponds with level 4 (analysis) of Bloom
but incorporates a variety of cognitive processes of Bloom’s level 4, 5 and 6. The
new model thus expands on the ‘analysis’ processes of Bloom.
Level 4 differences
This category of ‘knowledge utilisation’ in the new model relate to the ‘synthesis’
level of Bloom although the new model’s focus on the generation of new products or
ideas does seem to be more indirect.
Level 5 differences
The ‘metacognition’ level in the Marzano model is a new level and there is no
corresponding level of Bloom.
Level 6 differences
As in the case with the ‘metacognition’, the ‘self-system’ level of the new taxonomy
has no corollary in Bloom’s taxonomy.
I personally agree with the ‘metacognitive’ and ‘self-system’ level of Marzano and
Kendall. It would be wonderful if teaching and assessment outcomes of national
documents and teachers’ lesson plans start to incorporate these new perspectives
about cognitive processing levels. Although the two taxonomies have differences,
both advocate the use of clear outcomes with selected verbs which specify particular
levels of thinking for specific content. Although there are many factors that
influence quality education (see section 1.5 again) it is broadly accepted that
clear outcomes wit planned verbs direct the teaching, learning, assessment
and resources to be used and thus impact the quality of education greatly.
5.6 Discuss the different ways that curriculum content can be

organised
The organisation of knowledge in a curriculum can influence the quality of the

curriculum. We have already indicated (see 4.6) how SBE curricula organise
knowledge into subject syllabi and CBE curricula organise knowledge into modules
that include competencies and competences and might integrate perspectives from
different subjects. In theory the content of a qualification can be organised according
to different options, but in reality the one that has dominated education curricula is
the subject-based organisation of content. It is easier to organise the content of one
subject in the curriculum in a different fashion, but is an enormous task to move
away from a subject-based organisation of content and organise the content of the
whole curriculum in a different fashion. Let us list more options of organising
content:
 Themes and Topics, for instance as in pre-primary syllabi or as in Life Skills

or Religious and Moral Education.
 The combination of two subjects for example where History and Geography
combine as Social Studies.
 The Subject-based organisation of the curriculum content where the logical

structure of subject content determine the organisation thereof. The subject-
based organisation of a curriculum is suitable to promote conceptual learning
and different types of thinking skills, like problem solving, critical thinking,
creative thinking and logical reasoning.
 Problem and Activity-based, where the content is organised according to

practical and theoretical problems which require active experiential learner
involvement to be solved. Primary level science oriented subjects are suitable
for such an organisation of content. The problem and activity-based
organisation is sometimes also referred to as the Inquiry or Process
approach.
 Competency-based organisation specify competences and competencies to

be developed and fit knowledge into units that underpin the execution of a skill
or development of an attribute.
 Chronological organisation of content is suitable in History or historical

development sections in subjects. It is basically still a subject-based
organisation.
 The Spiral organisation of content is popular in school curricula, where topics
are repeated in the next grade on a higher level. It is basically still a subject-
based organisation.
 The Institutional organisation of curriculum content is mostly done due to

logistical reasons like availability of staff and facilities and is mostly an
emergency option which move away from the logical organisation of content.
 The Pedagogical organisation of content can include options like:

From simple to complex
From known to unknown
From question to answer
(Adapted from Posner, 1992:144-145; Conrad & Haworth (eds.) 1990:41;
Calitz, Du Plessis and Steyn, 1982:49-52).
The only organisation of content that is used fairly broadly apart from the subject-
based, is the competency-based, because CBE curricula still apply subject-based
structures but use also theory-practice integrated organisation and interdisciplinary
organisation of content. The subject-based organisation of content is mostly
following a simple to complex logic which is often similar to a known to unknown
sequence.
5.7 Evaluate the role of curriculum design steps in promoting

quality education
The heading is asking you to indicate the value or contribution of curriculum design
steps towards achieving quality education. To perform this task you need to
understand the nature of the design steps and the concept ‘quality education’.
Section 5.3 provides the information about the nature of the design steps. Revisit
section 1.5 and go also to 7.4 and study the ideas about ‘quality education’.
Section 1.5 pointed out that quality education involves active learner involvement in
learning, safe and caring learning environments, adequate teaching-learning
resources and physical facilities, content is of adequate scope and depth, well-
managed schools and classrooms, outcomes encompass knowledge, skills and
attitudes and values towards oneself, others and nature. These dimensions clarify
that quality education depends upon schools and families to develop quality learners
via attention to their health, nutrition and school attendance. ‘Quality learners’ can
learn well in quality learning environments which are made up of physical facilities,
non-violent, orderly, inclusive and caring environments. Quality learners in a quality
learning environment set the stage for learning of quality content which is selected
according to local and international aims of education and encompasses language,
mathematics and life skills that include values, attitudes, social and thinking skills.
Several processes are necessary to achieve quality education, namely, quality
teaching-learning processes, management processes and assessment processes.
Proper planning, organizing and controlling of teaching-learning activities are
important for achieving quality. Likewise, are assessment policies, techniques and
levels important for achieving quality education. Quality teaching processes are
related to well-qualified teachers with good content and pedagogical understanding.
The teacher’s quality teaching is also connected to quality school management and
support for teachers, for instance, availability of technology, physical facilities and
materials. Quality learning outcomes specify what learners need to know, need to be
/ belief and can do in particular grades. Nowadays the outcomes cover the holistic
development of learners which go beyond the former ‘reading, writing and
arithmetic’.
In addition, section 1.5 clarified some ‘quality education labels’:
‘Quality as inputs, processes and outputs or quality as proven best practice’

relates to the systems management theory where all the components of a system
must work together in a logical system of inputs, processes and outputs. Criteria for
controlling the effectiveness of each component of the system are in place to assure
quality outputs / products / services. Typically both internal and external control
measures are in place and specified personnel are held accountable for the
monitoring or controlling of processes and results. The ideal is that the national
education system in a country also has a systems approach to ensure quality
education in schools. Schools should also take responsibility to reflect upon their
management and teaching activities to determine their ‘best practices’. Best
practices involve both doing the right things (be efficient) to achieve quality
education, e.g. determine appropriate aims / outcomes and doing these right things
effectively (successfully, as it is suppose to be done).
‘Quality as value for money, or return on investment’ involves that quality of

provision, of processes or outcomes are judged against monetary cost (Newton,
2006). The government spending on education to develop particular features of the
school leaving graduate could for example be judged as preventing huge
government spending on crime, health epidemics, unemployment or violence.
Families can also compare their financial input in their children’s school education as
a good investment measured against what financial support they could get from that
children in future.
‘Quality as excellence or consistency’. Excellence implies high standards,

normally determined with great care and input from many stakeholders. National
syllabi aims and content are designed with such input from stakeholders to meet
standards of excellence which commonly meet local and international features
deemed of high value like adequate level of knowledge, thinking and social skills etc.
National examination policies and examinations are then put in place to measure the
achievement levels against the set standards. External examiners and accreditation
processes are additional elements to ensure maintenance of the excellence
benchmarks (Newton, 2006). Of course if a national percentage of 40 is deemed as
a pass in a grade, there could be no talk of excellence. It is not adequate to measure
examination results as product of the education. The process of teaching and
learning in schools should be monitored for promoting excellence. This monitoring is
one way that the national quality of education achieved would be more consistent
across schools and regions.
‘Quality as fitness for purpose’ contrasts with the traditional elitist notions of
academic quality education. The curriculum is designed towards achieving clearly
selected and specified outcomes / aims for a qualification. Like in competency-based
qualifications, content is selected that is suitable to the type of qualification and the
competencies required by that qualification. Industrial associations often need to
accredit such qualifications that are based upon ‘fitness for purpose’ (Newton, 2006).
Namibian education applies the competency-based approach to education and in
some sense many levels of our education is applying the ‘fit for purpose’ view. A
teacher should know how ‘quality education’ is described, in order to purposefully
strive to achieve that’.
I personally think that if you have to select one quality education label, I would select
‘meeting set standards’, because this label is at the basis of ‘academic and career
education standards’, ‘fitness for purpose’, ‘quality as excellence or consistency’,
quality as value for money and quality as proven best practice’. The different
curriculum orientations (see Unit 1) of course hold each a particular view of what
kind of outcomes should determine quality education.
Lets us evaluate the contribution of step 6 towards quality education and then you
can evaluate the other remaining steps. Step 6 involves the ‘formulating of the exit
learning outcomes’ . It is sensible to have clear aims / outcomes that a qualification
strives to develop in learners. This step contributes to quality education if the
outcomes specify relevant knowledge, skills and values; include local and
international knowledge; has an acceptable scope and depth; focus on practical
learning of competencies as well; if outcomes address future needs as well; if
stakeholders have an input into the curriculum outcomes; if the outcomes have
carefully selected verbs to reflect the expected level of thinking about content and so
forth. Now it is your turn to evaluate the contributions of the other design steps!
5.8 Analyse the appropriateness of curriculum development

principles
A principle is a general rule, law or accepted truth that forms the foundation of
a theory or practice, in this case the practice of designing a curriculum. It is
accepted that there are some generic curriculum design principles which promote
quality education. Such principles typically relate to many factors that could impact a
qualification design, e.g. from outcomes / aims and society issues till evaluation of
student results or facilities of an institute. A CBE curriculum design and
implementation commonly apply the following principles:
 The strengths and weaknesses of a particular selected curriculum paradigm/

orientation must be understood by the curriculum designers.
 The society need for a qualification must be established as part of the
situation analysis.
 Admission requirements must allow students into a programme that have the
abilities to attain the required level of a qualification.
 Strategies which promote access should not endanger the quality of a
programme or cause high percentages of failure.
 Formulate clear exit and learning outcomes which correlate with a rationale.
 The scope and depth of programme outcomes are crucial and deserve
careful reflection.
 Outcomes must be responsive to local needs while also taking note of
international standards.
 A curriculum must prepare students for their current as well as a future
context.
 The characteristics of the targeted student group must be taken into
consideration regarding admission, bridging, start up content levels and
learning support.
 The impact of historical, social, economical, political, psychological and
philosophical factors (local and international context) must be
accommodated in the qualification design and implementation.
 Both academic and practical education forms part of quality education
although the ratio between these two might differ for different levels of
qualifications.
 Syllabi or module descriptor formats must include all relevant information for
different stakeholders including assessors which determine accreditation of a
module or a programme.
 Relevant stakeholders are involved in the design and verification of
programme purposes and content.
 There needs to be a logical connection among the core curriculum
components such as outcomes, content, teaching-learning methods,
assessment and evaluation.
 The instructional management system must ensure that learners are actively
involved in their learning while lecturers facilitate the learning.
 Adequate teaching-learning support for students and staff must be available
as demonstrated quality learning is the ultimate measure of quality
education.
 The curriculum of a qualification must link up with prior and follow-up
qualifications and not duplicate existing programmes.
 Outcomes and standards of qualifications must allow national and
international mobility among qualifications, institutions or jobs.
 The assessment policy needs to set appropriate levels of achievement, valid
assessment opportunities and procedures as well as promotion criteria.
 Ongoing evaluation of curriculum design (summative) and implementation
(formative) issues is necessary as part of quality assurance. Evaluation
results are used to develop a curriculum on a comprehensive and not a
piecemeal basis. (Adapted from Carl, 1995; Carl, 2002 and Lubisi, et al.
1998).
It is clear that these principles address key design and implementation aspects that
could impact on the quality of a qualification. The design steps are included in the
principles, which means understanding of the manpower needs, the targeted
learners, the impact of curriculum foundations, having specific and holistic outcomes
that direct teaching methodology and assessment types and levels, learning access
and learning support are all addressed. If the principles are not correlating with the
features of CBE and its design and implementation steps, then the principles are not
correctly identified. Different curriculum orientations might agree on most of the
above principles, but they will have some different principles as well.
Identify the key words of each principle to help you remember them. Now
explain the influence of the design principles on the design steps.

___________________________________________________________________
Understand curriculum orientation; Society need for a qualification; Admission

of students with abilities; Access, quality and failure; Exit learning outcomes
and rationale; Consider scope and depth; Local needs and international
standards; Current and future preparation; Characteristics of targeted
students; Impact of foundational factors; Ratio of academic and practical
learning; Format of modules/syllabi; Relevant stakeholders involved; Logical
connection among the curriculum components; Learners actively involved;
Support for students and staff; Link with prior and follow-up qualifications;
Mobility among qualifications; Appropriate assessment policy; Ongoing evaluation
of curriculum.
Now explain the influence of the design principles on the design steps.
5.9 Evaluate the application of the design steps of a given

example of a ‘Teacher qualification document’
The following ‘Contents page’ come from a Namibian ‘Teacher qualification

document’ and reflects how the curriculum design steps are accommodated.
Table of Contents
Page
1. Situation analysis
1.1 Local and international B. Ed Honours degree qualifications………….. 8
1.1.1 Local qualifications (UNAM) ……………………………………………… 8
1.1.2 International qualifications: ………………………………………………… 10
1.1.2.1 University of Washington, USA ………….………………………. 10
1.1.2.2 Australia, Charles Sturt University……………………………….. 11
1.1.2.3 United Kingdom, University of Winchester …………................. 14
1.1.2.4 Nieu-Zeeland, University of Auckland…………………………… 14
1.1.2.5 Four South African universities ………………………………….. 15
1.2 Need for this qualification …………………………………………………... 20
1.3 Namibian Vision 2030 and teacher reform guidelines …………………... 21
1.4 International trends in teacher education ………………………………… 23
1.4.1 Career specialisation areas ………………………………...................... 23
1.4.2 Duration of education programmes ……………………………………… 23
1.4.3 Higher admission requirements ………………………………………..... 24
1.4.4 Teacher licences …………………………………………........................ 25
1.4.5 Practical field experiences ………………………………………………. 26
1.4.6 Induction and mentoring programmes …………………………………. 26
1.5 International concerns and future trends in higher education ………… 27
1.6 Employability skills research ……………………………………………... 34
1.7 Holistic aims for higher education ……………………………………….. 37
1.8 A model for quality higher education……………………………………... 44
1.9 Defining quality higher education ………………………………………… 47
1.10 Defining quality teacher education ………………………………………. 49
1.11 The National Professional Standards for Teachers in Namibia …….... 51
1.12 Curriculum design principles to achieve quality education …………… 52
1.13 Competency-based education (CBE) features ………………………… 60
1.14 The NQF level 8 requirements …………………………………………... 64
2. Rationale and exit learning outcomes

2.1 The rationale…………………………………………………………………. 65
2.2 Exit learning outcomes……………………………………………………… 66
3. Title of the qualification ……………………………………………………..... 67
4. Admission requirements ..……………………………………………………. 68
5. Duration and delivery mode of the programme ..………………………… 70
6. Curriculum framework and clarifications …………………………………. 70
7. Assessment policy .……………………………………………………………. 75
8. Administrative / implementation arrangements .…………………………. 76
9. Quality assurance and accreditation ………………………………………. 77
10. Detailed module descriptors: B. Ed honours Degree in Education..…. 79
Year 1: semester 1
Module title: Life Skills 3 ………………………………………………….. 81

Module title: Counseling and Learner Support 2 ……………………… 89
Module title: Educational Research 2 …………………………………… 94
Year 1: semester 2
Module title: One of three career specialisation modules: Module A of

Teaching and Assessment Mentoring or ………………………... 104
School Leadership and Management or ………………………… 108
Curriculum Theory and Practices ………………………………… 113
Module title: Research Project (Phase 1)…..... .……………………………….. 117
Year 2: semester 1
Module title: Educational Foundations 2 ..……………………………………… 119
Module title: Professional and Community Development …………………….. 124
Module title: Teaching Learning Resources 2 …………………………………. 128
Year 2: semester 2
Module title: One of three career specialisation modules: Module B of

Teaching and Assessment Mentoring or ……………………….. 137
School Leadership and Management or ………………………... 141
Curriculum Theory and Practices ………………………………... 146
Module title: Thinking Skills and Emotional Intelligence Development …….. 149
Module title: Research Project (Phase 2) …………………………………….. 156
11. Appendices
Appendix 1: References………………………………………………… 158

Appendix 2: Evidence of stakeholder input…………………………… 163
(Engelbrecht, 2013)
If you compare the structure of this document to the design steps, do you think the
document apply the curriculum design steps well? If you have to develop a
qualification in the future, this document will be of much help to design your
qualification well.
5.10 Analyse the format of a given module descriptor
Let us use a section of one of the CBE modules of the above qualification (5.9)
Table 5.4: Example of a CBE module format
Module title: Thinking Skills and Emotional

Intelligence Development
Code:
NQF level: 8
Notional hours: 140
NQF credits: 14
Prerequisites: Learner Development and Learning
(level 7)
Options (compulsory or elective) compulsory
Semester offered: Semester 2 of year 2
National Professional Standards: S 2, 6
Module description:
This module reviews several theoretical and practical issues of thinking skills and
emotional intelligence development in education: Discuss key issues regarding
thinking skills development; Clarify the nature of various thinking skills; Analyse
some curriculum issues regarding the development of thinking skills; Appraise and
apply ways and activities of teaching and learning thinking skills; Analyse aspects of
assessment of thinking skills; Discuss key issues regarding emotional intelligence
(EI); Evaluate models and issues about the nature of emotional intelligence (EI);
Analyse some curriculum issues regarding the development of EI; Appraise and
apply ways and activities of teaching and learning EI;
Analyse aspects of assessment of EI.
Module assessment and quality assurance:
* To obtain a semester mark per semester module students must submit one
assignment of 130 marks for modules of 14 credits.
* A 50% semester mark is required for admission to examinations.
* Where practical work is applicable, a 60% pass is required and such work could
account for 50% of the semester mark.
* The duration of the examination for 14 credits is one x 3 hours written examination
of 130 marks.
* A final pass mark of 50% is required, calculated by 60% of the examination mark
and 40% of the semester mark. A sub-minimum of 50% must be attained in the
examination.
* The setting and marking of examination papers are moderated.
Comprehensive Exit Learning Outcome:

Analyse and apply thinking and emotional intelligent skills to teaching and everyday
situations.
Specific Exit Learning Outcomes (ELO):
Upon completion of this module students should be able to:
1. Discuss key issues regarding thinking skills development

2. Clarify the nature of various thinking skills
3. Analyse some curriculum issues regarding the development of thinking skills
4. Appraise and apply ways and activities of teaching and learning thinking skills
5. Analyse aspects of assessment of thinking skills
6. Discuss key issues regarding emotional intelligence (EI)
7. Evaluate models and issues about the nature of emotional intelligence (EI)
8. Analyse some curriculum issues regarding the development of EI
9. Appraise and apply ways and activities of teaching and learning EI
10. Analyse aspects of assessment of EI
Learning Outcomes (LO) per exit outcome:
ELO 1: Discuss key issues regarding thinking skills development

1.1 Discuss the educational implications of the neurology of the brain
1.2 Outline different kinds of everyday thinking (Blooms taxonomy of thinking
levels, dispositions)
1.3 Define the concept ‘thinking skills’ (TS) and clarify the vocabulary of TS
(including quotes on thinking)
1.4 Identify categories of thinking skills (higher order,)
1.5 Discuss the question ‘if thinking skills can be developed’ using also re
search findings
1.6 Evaluate why TS of people should be developed and relate it to the well
ness goals of education
1.7 Examine the relationship between content and thinking
1.8 Outline other types of skills that education should promote in people
1.9 Analyse the relationship between TS and multiple intelligences
1.10 Outline the five stages of becoming a rational person
1.11 Clarify the types and implications of thinking styles:
 The nature of thinking styles (what is it, types, functions and forms of
mental self-government, styles and personality, positive habits of mind)
 The theory of mental self-government (levels, principles, development,
in classrooms)
 Thinking styles in home and society (research)
 Thinking styles of children
 Distorted thinking styles
1.12 Propose possible research methods for researching TS in schools
1.13 Discuss TS research findings in terms of:
 The nature of the TS classroom environment
 The teachers’ role
 The role of learners
ELO 2: Clarify the nature of various thinking skills

2.1 Revisit the categories of thinking skills
2.2 Investigate ones functional and dysfunctional thinking and relate it to uni-
versal intellectual thinking standards and styles of thinking
2.3 Outline valuable intellectual traits and their application in thinking skills
2.4 Investigate core thinking skills
2.5 Clarify thinking skills for more effective studying (+ role of concepts, obser-
vation skills, mind maps, learning styles,)
2.6 Explain the thinking processes involved in verbs
2.7 Analyse the features of analytical and critical thinking
2.8 Evaluate Bertrand Russel’s contribution to critical thinking
2.9 Explain strategies for improving critical thinking in everyday life
2.10 Examine the features of open-mindedness (relate to traits/ dispositions)
2.11 Examine the features of logical thinking and reasoning
 Inductive reasoning (premises, assumptions, conclusions,
inferences, syllogisms)
 Deductive reasoning (Sherlock Holmes)
2.12 Discuss guidelines for ‘thinking on your feet’ and how to avoid it
2.13 Clarify what creative thinking involves and strategies to develop it (scamper,
brainstorming)
2.14 Explore logical and creative problem solving (models, dec making, where
creativity fits in, types of problems, out of the box thinking)
2.15 Analyse the relationship of ethics in decision making and reasoning
ELO 3: Analyse some curriculum issues regarding the development of

thinking skills
ELO 4: Appraise and apply ways and activities of teaching and learning think
ing skills
ELO 5: Analyse aspects of assessment of thinking skills
ELO 6: Discuss key issues regarding emotional intelligence (EI)
ELO 7: Evaluate models and issues about the nature of emotional intelligence
ELO 8: Analyse some curriculum issues regarding the development of EI
ELO 9: Appraise and apply ways and activities of teaching and learning EI
9.1 Propose the features of a systematic emotional skills learning process

9.2 Explore the implications of a focus on emotional intelligence development
for classroom teaching
9.3 Compare how to stimulate girls’ and boys’ EI development
9.4 Appraise general methods for teaching and learning emotional skills
9.5 Evaluate the role of questions in promoting EI
9.6 Explain the importance of visual materials for developing EI
9.7 Investigate some EI tools in a teachers’ ‘EI toolbox’ for developing EI in
primary and secondary subjects
 Cort tools of De Bono
 Habits of mind
 Values
 Self-management and motivation tools
 Social awareness and skills tools
9.8 Examine the impact of EI on creative thinking
9.9 Explain and demonstrate how to develop EI in grades 1-4 lessons
ELO 10: Analyse aspects of assessment of EI
Module requirements and expectations:
The attendance of all contact and practical training opportunities that are organised
by IOL is compulsory. Acquire the Study Guide and all relevant prescribed study
materials or recommended web site information. All assignments must be handed in
on time. Students with special circumstances struggling to meet deadlines should
contact IOL in time. All forms of academic dishonesty such as cheating and
plagiarism are prohibited. You are encouraged to manage your study time well and
engage in learning circles. Focus on ‘understanding’ (e.g. asking what, why and how
questions) before ‘memorising’ content. Admission to examinations depends upon
successful attainment of the required continuous assessment / semester mark.
Prescribed:
 Engelbrecht, F. D. J. 2014. Thinking skills and
Emotional intelligence in Education. Windhoek:
U-Gro Consultancy.
 Study Guide, face-to-face sessions, IOL
Learning resources centres, feedback on assignments
and support:
References in IOL centres:
Paul, R. 1993. Critical thinking. How to prepare

students for a rapidly changing world.California:
Foundation for critical thinking.
ISBN 0 944583 09 1
Goleman, D. 1996. Emotional intelligence. Why it

can matter more than IQ. Great Britain:
Bloomsbury.
ISBN 0 7476 2830 6
Equipment to be None
bought:
Additional costs: Attend face-to-face session
Implementation date: 2014
Next revision date: 2017
(Engelbrecht, 2013: 148-154)
Do you agree that such a format of a module / syllabus provide all the relevant
information for different stakeholders such as NQA, institutions, employers, lecturers,
students, study guide writers, moderators of examination papers, prospective
students, parents and others. Each Unit has an exit learning outcome which is
analysed into learning outcomes. All outcomes have carefully selected verbs to
direct the higher order thinking levels. The assessment policy is clear and learning
support and prescribed materials are indicated.
5.11 Summary
Unit 5 started off with curriculum development phases which are stages of curriculum
design and implementation, no matter how the phases are labelled. We analysed the
given design steps of a qualification which displayed the relationship among the
phases and steps. The Engelbrecht model outlines the complex details of steps for
designing a CBE higher education qualification. This model can be applied for any
other context. In section 5.4 the differences in the nature and sequence of steps for
SBE and CBE qualifications were pointed out. The Bloom and newer Marzano and
Kendall cognitive taxonomy were analysed and it was indicated that outcomes and
their verbs influence the quality of qualifications since they spell out what and on
what level something will be learned. A few ways to organise curriculum content
were listed and observed that a subject-based structure of content is dominating
curricula to this day.
It was indicated how the execution of curriculum design steps impact on the quality
of education. Likewise it was clarified how curriculum design principles of CBE
permeate the design and implementation features of a qualification. An excerpt of a
real Namibian teacher qualification show how the design steps are applied when
designing a qualification. Lastly, a section of a CBE module descriptor depicted how
the information in such a module ensure quality and inform many stakeholders about
the qualification.
5.12 References
Aguinis, H. & Kraiger, K. 2005. Practicing what we preach: Competency-based

assessment of industrial/organizational Psychology graduate students. Hyperlink
[http://siop.org/tip/backissues/tipapr97/aguinis.htm]. May 30, 2005.
Armstrong, P. 1997. Raising standards: a creative look at competence and
assessment and implications for mainstreaming in university adult education.
Hyperlink [http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00002988.htm]. January 6,
2005.
Association of African Universities. 2001. Declaration on the African university in the
third millennium. Hyperlink [http://www.aau.org/releases/declaration.html]. July 15,
2006.
Abdal-Haqq, I. 1998. Constructivism in teacher education: Considerations for those
who would link practice to theory. Eric Digest 426986. Hyperlink
[http://www.ericfacility.net/ericdigests/ed426986.html]. July 28, 2004.
Adobe go live. s.a. Constructivist learning theory. Hyperlink
[http://www.artsined.com/teachingarts/Pedag/Dewey.html]. July 26, 2004.
Bloom, B. S. (ed.) 1956. Taxonomy of educational objectives, Handbook 1:Cognitive
domain. New York: David McKay.
Blunt, R.J.S. & Cunningham, P.W. 2002. Theoretical underpinnings of
transformation: a case study. South African Journal of Higher Education. 16 (3):127-
138.
Falmer Press.
California Commission on Teacher Credentialing. 1997. California standards for the
teaching profession. California: California Department of Education. 31 p.
Calitz, L.P., Du Plessis, S.J.P. and Steyn, I. N. 1982. Die Kurrikulum: n Handleiding
vir dosente en onderwysers. Durban: Butterworth.

Cherniss, C. 2004. The business case for emotional intelligence. Hyperlink
[http://www.eiconsortium.org/research/business-case-for-ei.htm]. May 30, 2005.
Conrad, C.F. & Haworth. J.G. (eds.) 1990. Curriculum in transition. Perspectives on
the undergraduate experience. Massachusets: Ginn Press.
Dacum Waste Management Specialist. 1995. Hyperlink.
[http://www.ateec.org/career/dacum/dacum20.html]. September 11, 2003.
Department of Education, South Africa. 1997. Outcomes-based education in South
Africa. Background information for educators. Pretoria: Department of Education.
Department of Education, South Africa. 1998. Education White Paper 3.
Pretoria: Department of Education.
Department of Employment, Education and Training, Australia. 1990. Establishing
competency-based standards in the professions. Research paper no 1. Canberra:
Australian Government Publishing Service.
Dubois, D.D. 1993. Competency-based performance improvement: a strategy for
organizational change. Amherst, MA.: HRD Press.
Kogan Page.
2 (2):11-23.
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15 (2): 93-96.
Van Schaik.
dring June 1998.
Kogan Page.
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Lyon, B. 2003. Competency-based instructional system design: A model for program

assessment. Hyperlink [http://66.102.9104/search?q=cache:Nolunpe-
wgmj:www.tamu.edu/qep/conference/2003]. May 30, 2005.
Marzano, R.J. and Kendall, J.S. 2007. The new taxonomy of educational objectives.
2nd edition. California: Corwin Press, a Sage Publications company.

Mostert, J.M. 1985. Situasie-analise en die bepaling van doelstellings vir
vakkurrikula. Verslag 0-285. Pretoria: RGN.
National Qualification Authority of Namibia. 1998. Criteria for the evaluation of

teacher education programmes. Windhoek: Ministry of Higher Education, Training
and Employment Creation.
May 14, 2014.
NCRVE MDS-777. s.a. The skill standards pilot project. Hyperlink

[http://vocserve.berkeley.edu/abstracts/MDS-777/Projects3.html]. September 11,
2003.
Pretorius, J.D. 2001. The higher education business – can it cope with international
challenges? South African Journal of Higher Education. 15 (2):74-79.
2005.
Purdue University Calumet. 2003. Syllabus for Operations Management. (MGMT
660-84,85) Purdue University: School of Management.
Report of the National Standards and Guidelines for Initial Teacher Education
Project. 1998. Canberra: Australian Council of Deans of Education.
Ryan, M.P. and Martens, G.G. 1989. Planning a college course: a guidebook for
grauate teaching assistant. Ann Arbor, Mich: National Center for Research to
improve Postsecondary Teaching and Learning.
SENA. 2002. Columbian curriculum manual. Hyperlink
[http://66.102.9.104/search?q=cache:sgkbxDExqisJ:www.ilo/org/public/English/regio
n/am…]. May 3, 2005.
51 (6):18–22.
Sultana, R.G. 1995. Developing a vision for teacher education programmes: a value-
based approach. European Journal of Teacher Education, 18 (2/3):215–228.
Toohey, S., Ryan, G., Mclean, J. & Hughes, C. 1995. Assessingcompetency-based
Van Niekerk, L.J. & Killen, R. 2000. Recontextualising outcomes-based education for
teacher education. South African Journal of Higher Education. 14 (3):90-99.
Westraad, S. 2003. Designing outcomes-based learning programmes: Roadmap to
learning and skills development. Randburg: Knowres Publishing.
UNIT 6
Analyse curriculum implementation steps
Contents
Introduction
Learning outcomes
6.1 Explain the importance of proper implementation steps to ensure
effective education …………………………………………………………… 370
6.2 Analyse the features of the following Engelbrecht implementation steps:
 Step 1: Leading and managing administrative changes ………. 371
 Step 9: Selecting staff and acquiring teaching-learning
resources
 Step 10: Training staff in relevant theory and practices
6.3 Discuss the possible changes to the sequence of the Engelbrecht
implementation steps ………………………………………………………... 379
6.4 Summary ……………………………………………………………………… 381
6.5 References ……………………………………………………………………. 381
Introduction
Unit 6 deals with the question ‘How to proceed from the design to the implementation
of a qualification? You can have a well designed qualification on paper, but if the
implementation of the programme is not managed equally well, the quality of the
qualification could be mediocre. The implementation is ‘where the design rubber
meets the classroom road’ and the Engelbrecht curriculum implementation model
guides the implementation process systematically. Possible changes to the
sequence of the proposed implementation process is also examined.
Learning outcomes
6.1 Explain the importance of proper implementation steps.

6.2 Analyse the features of 13 implementation steps.
6.3 Discuss possible changes to the sequence of the Engelbrecht implementation
steps.
1. Explain the importance of proper implementation steps.

2. Examine what an effective instructional management system involves.
3. Discuss possible changes to the sequence of the Engelbrecht implementation
steps.
6.1 Explain the importance of proper implementation steps to

ensure effective education
It is logical that a good idea for a business is not worth anything until you implement
the idea and make good money. Or you may feel attracted to someone, but there is
no relationship until you ‘implement the feeling’ by telling the other person about your
feelings. The same is true for qualifications. You may have a quality designed
qualification, but it is not having any impact until you implement it. Obviously, the
qualification can be implemented poorly or excellently and the quality of the
implementation will influence the perceived quality of the qualification.
You stop shopping at a particular shop if the shop items are not organised clearly so
that you can find what you want quickly; or the items you look for is constantly out of
stock; or the staff are not helpful or do not have answers for your questions and so
on. To ensure a curriculum is excellently implemented, the teaching staff must be
adequately qualified, enthusiastic, friendly and understand the teaching and learning
process well. They must also acquire teaching-learning resources and have physical
facilities that create a supportive learning environment. This is what the following
implementation steps are all about: it indicates what needs to be addressed to
ensure excellent implementation of a curriculum and consequently ensure the quality
of the programme.

_________________________________________________________________
Explain the importance of proper implementation steps.

___________________________________________________________________
Your answer must clarify why all the typical implementation steps are necessary
and why the sequence of the implementation steps are also important.
6.2 Analyse the features of the following implementation steps
As in the case with the design steps, the nature and sequence of the implementation
steps will differ for different curriculum orientations. The Engelbrecht model of
curriculum implementation steps are CBE oriented and after the steps section 6.3
will investigate some changes to the nature and sequence of implementation steps
for SBE qualifications. Most of the following CBE implementation steps are valid for
all kinds of curriculum orientations, so the model is very helpful to curriculum
designers as it proposes what implementation issues need to be addressed and that
there is a sequence to consider. The Engelbrecht CBE implementation model
proposes the
following steps: (Engelbrecht, 2007:144-150).
 Step 1: Leading and managing administrative changes

 Step 9: Selecting staff and acquiring teaching-learning resources
 Step 10: Training staff in relevant theory and practices
Let us investigate the details of each implementation step.
Table 6.1: Engelbrecht model of CBE curriculum

implementation steps
Step 1: Leading and managing administrative changes
 The dean and departmental heads reflect on leadership and management

functions
 Revisit the policy regarding lecturers’ compulsory office and consulting hours in
order to provide more individual / small group tutoring
 Integrate the increase in instructional management hours due to meetings,
individual tutoring, scanning non-grading tests, marking re-tests, admission test
marking, etc. into the workload formula of lecturing staff
 Create assessment records that could accommodate re-test and non-grading
scores.
 Ensure administrative staff understand the new assessment records in terms of
re-testing and non-grading columns
 Align the recognition and reward system with effective CBE practices, including
the official student feedback form on lecturers performance
 Revisit registration fees to cover admission tests, possible tutor assistants, RPL
activities, multiple registration …
 Revisit the academic and financial autonomy of a faculty
 Motivate the need for changes to workload policy
 Negotiate the type of required input from other faculties regarding your
particular programme
 Consider the introduction of a school-based mentoring system
 Formulate a policy regarding the contracting of teachers for teaching subject
methodologies
 Formulate a policy regarding the goals of subject methodology teaching
 Consider ways to support departmental heads with their administrative duties
 Create plans for inter-faculty collaboration
Sources: Blank, 1982:26; Fletcher, 1995:67; McCann, Babler and Cohen,

1998:197-207; Foxcroft, Elkonin & Kota, 1998:11-23; VETNET Symposium,
2000:3; Burke, 1989:146; Wolf, 1995:131; Spady, 1994:102; Department of
Education of South Africa,1997:34; Sullivan, 1995:6; State of Kansas, s.a.:8,10;
Catri, 2002:3; Grant, et al.1979:227, 252.
Step 2: Establishing an instructional management system
 Discuss possible restructuring of departments in the faculty e.g., programme-

based structures
 Disseminate documents with guidelines for team teaching, student support,
setting of papers, giving feedback and CBE teaching-learning characteristics
 Create or restructure committees to promote departmental collaboration
 Revisit the nature and tasks of a unit to organise the logistics of work-based
learning / teaching practice
 Assign new duties to staff to promote instructional management
 Indicate what type of instructional management documents must be available
on file per department, e.g. module descriptors, workloads, previous
examination papers, analysis of examination results
 Put a system for student feedback in place

Foxcroft, Elkonin & Kota, 1998:11-23; Seidman, 1998:1; Blunt and
Cunningham, 2002:127-137; Van Heerden, Myburg & Poggenpoel, 2001:158-
159; Luckett, 2001:56; Davies & Pillay, 2000:197-198; Bowden and Marton,
1998:115; Venter, 2001:91; Evans & King, 1994:13.
Step 3: Compiling bridging (pre-entry) courses and material
 Reflect on the type and purposes of bridging / foundation courses

 Against the background of learner characteristics and admission criteria
develop possible needed bridging modules and materials as separate modules
or to be part of relevant modules
Sources: Hay and Marais, 2004:59-75; Du Plessis, Janse van Rensburg and
Van Staden, 2005:868-869; Namibia Vision 2030, 2004:91; Spady, 1994:9,
Grant et al. 1979:221; Jessup, 1991:3; Penington, 1994:71; Blank,
1982:26, Breier, 2001:2, Rothwell and Kazanas, 1992:44.
Step 4: Appraising the need for staff
 Match the expertise and interests of available faculty staff with the programme
needs
 Determine whether the workload of individual lecturing staff members could
accommodate the new programme needs
 Appraise the need for additional administrative staff if re-application of staff is
not enough
 Consider the benefits and limitations of contract staff, particularly the
contracting of teachers for subject methodologies
Source: SENA, 2002:11.
Step 5: Appraising the required physical facilities
 Are there adequate lecturing and tutoring venues?

 Consider also what venues can be used for meetings.
 Is there a need for a computer, simulation (micro teaching) or other type of
laboratory?
 Are enough offices available for possible additional staff?
Sources: Foxcroft, Elkonin & Kota, 1998:11-23; SENA, 2002:11.
Step 6: Designing a timetable
 The programme timetable reflects the allocated weight per module

 Provision is made for core and electives
 Provision is made for work-based learning (e.g. teaching practice)
 Synchronise the programme timetable with the broader institutional timetable if
students are involved in both types of timetables
 Inform other faculties well in advance about students’ absence from lectures
while doing teaching practice
Sources: Foxcroft, Elkonin & Kota, 1998:11-23; SENA, 2002:11; Westraad,

2003:9-23.
Step 7: Identifying required teaching-learning resources
 Consult module descriptors and compile a list of teaching-learning resources

required
 Identify textbooks and other learning resources to promote self-directed and
experiential learning
 Consider transport needs for lecturing staff during teaching practice
 Select schools involved in the teaching practice that are providing an adequate
learning environment for students, since not all schools do
 Consider the introduction of teachers trained as mentors for students
 Consider the effectiveness of the current Internet bandwidth of the university
 Provide lecturing staff with computers and Internet access
 Consider the development of an online system

SENA, 2002:11; Westraad, 2003:9-23; Lyon, 2003:5-11; Venter, 2001:91;
Sullivan, 1995:5-6.
Step 8: Advertising to procure students and staff
 Employers, parents and donors need to understand the new type of education
and the expected quality of the graduate
 Advertise internally among other faculties for the needed expertise
 Advertise externally for administrative and academic staff according to the
determined needs
 Market the new qualification through various means
 Indicate in advertisements possible additional costs, related career
development options and the RPL possibility
 Adapt yearbook to reflect programme and policy changes
Source: Foxcroft, Elkonin & Kota, 1998:11-23.
Step 9: Selecting staff and acquiring teaching-learning resources
 Interview lecturing and administrative staff

 Acquire the previously identified resources (see step 19)
 Develop learning materials / packages
 Reproduce module descriptors and learning materials
 Reproduce student feedback questionnaires
 Develop some performance and written tests
Sources: Blank, 1982:26; Fletcher, 1995:67; Westraad, 2003:9-23.
Step 10: Training staff in CBE theory and practices
 Lecturing staff need to understand the CBE philosophy and characteristics,

their expanded facilitation role as well as their instructional management role,
the assessment system, team teaching, etc.
 Administrative staff need to understand the new policies, procedures and
documents
Sources: McCann, Babler and Cohen, 1998:197-207; Foxcroft, Elkonin & Kota,
1998:11-23; Argüelles and Gonzi, 2000:27; Sullivan, 1995:5; Luckett, 2001:55;
Smith, 1999:61; Burke, 1989:129-130; Grant, et al.1979: 252.
Step 11: Drawing up a budget
 Analyse the financial implications per step for students and the institution
 Consider phasing in and phasing out costs
Source: Foxcroft, Elkonin & Kota, 1998:11-23.
Step 12: Piloting the programme
 Consider multiple registration opportunities

 Register students and apply the developed RPL system (cf. step 3)
 Clarify for students the programme features and their expected roles
 A monitor team, e.g. the development task force and project co-ordinator, are
appointed to monitor the implementation
 Monitor availability and effectiveness of learning materials
 Monitor student support plans
 Monitor team teaching and workload of staff
 Monitor the level of students taking responsibility for their own learning
 Use performance assessment instruments during instruction
 Reflect on organisation and effectiveness of workplace competence
assessment
 Monitor problems experienced with the assessment policy
 Faculty management and staff apply the new policies and practices decisively
 Require from departmental heads to evaluate the instructional management
effectiveness
 Students evaluate the lecturers’ performances via questionnaires that reflect
CBE oriented perspectives
 Use the results from the monitor process to improve the system
Sources: Blank, 1982:26; Kennedy, 1993:7; McCann, Babler and Cohen,

1998:197-207; Foxcroft, Elkonin & Kota, 1998:11-23; York Technical College,
2001:ch 1-6; Westraad, 2003:9-23; Lyon, 2003:5-11; Blunt and Cunningham,
2002:127-137; Jessup, 1991:67; McNeir, 1993:1; Kerka, 2000:2; Bowden,
2000:7; Toohey, et al. 1995:92.
Step 13: Continuous evaluation of the programme quality and institutional

environment
 Appoint a quality control / evaluation team in the Faculty of Education

 Conduct both formative and summative evaluation
 Evaluations often move beyond judging contextual factors to consider
international developmental trends as well
 Different evaluation methods are applied: survey questionnaires, telephone
surveys, interviews, participant observation, analysis of programme
documentation, reports on teaching practice students, critical incidents and
non-traditional methods such as diaries or videos. Ensure instruments
incorporate the features of CBE
 Semesterly: staff evaluate scope and depth of course outcomes; staff
evaluate assessment instruments; students evaluate lecturing
staff; faculty management analyses enrolment and assessment data;
 Annual / bi-annual evaluation: programme outcomes; enrolment data; final

assessment results; evaluation of assessment policy and procedures; external
review of programme structure and module descriptors; incorporation of
existing modules into other programmes; evaluate the success of RPL and
bridging programmes
 Every three to five years evaluation: monitor the institutional effectiveness in

terms of the mission; goals; programme quality; quality assurance unit and
policy; administrative policy and structures’ effectiveness; staff and student
support; growth in student numbers;
 Use feedback to refine aspects of the programme
 Inform stakeholders of successes and changes to a programme

McCann, Babler and Cohen, 1998:197-207; Foxcroft, Elkonin & Kota, 1998:11-
23; York Technical College, 2001:ch 1-6; SENA, 2002:11; Westraad, 2003:9-
23; Lyon, 2003:5-11; Sullivan, 1995:5-6; Covey, 1992:250,275; Bowden and
Masters, 1993:52; The Population Health Directorate of Canada, 1996:14-17;
Gravett and Geyser, 2004:142; BJA Center for Program Evaluation in the
United States, 2005:2-7.
Step 14: Certifying students
 Consider multiple exit points with certification

 Add a refined DACUM chart to certification documents to reflect competencies

Sources: Catri, 2002:3; Sullivan, 1995:7; Bowden and Masters, 1993:26.

_________________________________________________________________
Consult the relevant step and explain what proper ‘instructional management
‘entails.
___________________________________________________________________
Your answer is to be found in step 2. First you need to understand ‘instructional’
refers to your’ teaching activities’ and ‘management’ refers to the planning,
organising and controlling activities of your teaching. Now the ideas of step 2
will make sense.
6.3 Discuss the possible changes to the sequence of the

Engelbrecht implementation steps
Some steps should logically be addressed before others but the implementation
steps could be attended to in a more flexible manner than the design steps. The
steps appear linear but the cohesion between them often requires a cyclical process,
for instance, the facilities available determine how many students can be admitted
per module and per qualification. The facilities and students admitted has
implications for staff needed while the total of staff employed influence the budget
and so on. The steps are thus cyclical because the curriculum implementers do not
finish a step never to use the information of that step again. Rather, the details of
some steps have to be kept in mind when implementing another step.

_________________________________________________________________
Discuss the possible changes to the sequence of the Engelbrecht
implementation steps.

___________________________________________________________________
Your answer should address the following ideas: Table 6.1 reflects that the
first implementation step requires that institutional leaders and managers need
to manage administrative changes according to CBE requirements. SBE oriented
institutions do not need this step because there is no administrative changes.
Once the institutional policies are addressed the departmental and individual
management of instruction can be developed. SBE curricula also need this
instructional management step. Both lecturers and teachers need to have a
syllabus, prescribed books and learning materials, the assessment policy,
previous examination papers, a timetable and student feedback forms. The
massification of education since it has become a basic human right brought new
challenges with it. Many learners are not prepared enough for the education to
be successful. Bridging programmes is one option to address this problem, but it
is expensive in terms of need for classrooms, teachers and special materials. It
is now wonder that economic reasons put bridging courses on hold even in CBE
oriented institutions. Many SBE institutions expect parents to address learners
special education needs by hiring private tutors.
A flexible sequence is possible when the steps regarding ‘appraising of physical

facilities’, the ‘need for staff’ and timetable design’ is addressed. In fact,
these three steps could be tackled simultaneously. These three steps should,
however, consider the determined maximum enrolment figure as specified under
‘admission requirements’. CBE institutions might have a stronger focus than SBE
ones on physical facilities that allow the development of competencies and would
preferably hire teachers with a curriculum orientation of ‘education is
developing people, not transmitting subject knowledge’. In addition, the CBE
timetable will make provision for enough ‘practical learning opportunities’
through laboratories, simulations and field experiences.
SBE institutions do not need to train staff in CBE perspectives but it does not
mean that staff could not be trained in teaching science aspects. The
‘acquiring of teaching-learning resources’ step if often neglected because the
focus is on the physical facilities and hiring staff. Resources like syllabi,
textbooks, learning materials and Internet access are immensely important for
achieving quality education and should receive due attention and money.
Electronic Smart boards in classrooms are promoting understanding but
learners need their own electronic or paper text for studying. The ‘drawing up a
budget’ is at the end of the planning of the implementation steps, so that by
looking back on all the previous steps, the nature of the steps can accurately
help to calculate the budget figures. It is sound that ‘continuous evaluation’
regarding several factors is conducted after ‘the pilot’ but perhaps the
continuous evaluation phase should be the last phase and ‘certifying students’
just before the ‘continuous evaluation’.
In conclusion, although a systematic design implies a logical sequence, the

interdependence among steps and flexibility of the process should be
recognised. It could be expected that the amount of time and energy involved in
introducing a first CBE programme would be far greater that introducing
following CBE programmes. Although the labels of steps might appear similar to
subject-based labels the activities per step reflects how CBE perspectives are
accommodated. Slightly more flexibility was observed regarding the sequence
of implementation steps than for the design steps.
6.4 Summary
Unit 6 emphasised that the implementation of a qualification should be as well

managed as the design of a qualification. Very specific implementation steps were
identified and the nature of each step clarified. Although some steps must be
logically done before other steps, some of the steps’ sequences is flexible.
Curriculum implementers need to keep the details of previous steps in mind when
addressing following steps, because there is a connection among steps. Most of the
Engelbrecht CBE implementation model steps are valid for SBE qualifications too.
Sometimes however, the implementation activities under a step will differ
considerably for a CBE and SBE qualification.
6.5 References
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A world perspective. Mexico: Noriega Editores.
BJA Center for program evaluation, USA. 2005. A guide to program evaluation.
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Blunt, R.J.S. & Cunningham, P.W. 2002. Theoretical underpinnings of
transformation: a case study. South African Journal of Higher Education. 16 (3):127-
138.
Bowden, J.A. 2000. Competency-based education – neither a panacea nor a pariah.
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California Commission on Teacher Credentialing. 1997. California standards for the
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Calitz, L.P., Du Plessis, S.J.P. and Steyn, I. N. 1982. Die Kurrikulum: n Handleiding
vir dosente en onderwysers. Durban: Butterworth.

Catri, B.D. 2002. Testimony regarding competency-based education an assessment
of whether the Certified Professional Midwife Process is in fact competency-based.
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Cherniss, C. 2004. The business case for emotional intelligence. Hyperlink
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Conrad, C.F. & Haworth. J.G. (eds.) 1990. Curriculum in transition. Perspectives on
the undergraduate experience. Massachusets: Ginn Press.
Dacum Waste Management Specialist. 1995. Hyperlink.
[http://www.ateec.org/career/dacum/dacum20.html]. September 11, 2003.
Davis, T-A. & Pillay, D. 2000. Small, medium and micro enterprise (SMME)
partnerships: a tertiary initiative to create a unique co-operative education model in
commerce. (The business clinic). South African Journal of Higher Education.
14 (3):196-203.
Department of Education, South Africa. 1997. Outcomes-based education in South
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Department of Education, South Africa. 1998. Education White Paper 3.
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Department of Employment, Education and Training, Australia. 1990. Establishing
competency-based standards in the professions. Research paper no 1. Canberra:
Australian Government Publishing Service.
Dubois, D.D. 1993. Competency-based performance improvement: a strategy for
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Du Plessis, L.A., Janse van Rensburg, G. & Van Staden, C.J. 2005. Realities of a
foundation programme implemented as a vehicle to align learners cognitively for
entry into a National Diploma in information and communication technology. South
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Evans, K.M. & King, J.A. 1994. Research on OBE: what we know and don’t know.
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(2):49–60.
Lyon, B. 2003. Competency-based instructional system design: A model for program

assessment. Hyperlink [http://66.102.9104/search?q=cache:Nolunpe-
wgmj:www.tamu.edu/qep/conference/2003]. May 30, 2005.
Marzano, R.J. and Kendall, J.S. 2007. The new taxonomy of educational objectives.
2nd edition. California: Corwin Press, a Sage Publications company.

McNeir, G. 1993. Outcome-based education. Hyperlink
[http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC-Digests/ed363914.html] June 1, 2001.
Mostert, J.M. 1985. Situasie-analise en die bepaling van doelstellings vir
vakkurrikula. Verslag 0-285. Pretoria: RGN.
Namibia Vision 2030. 2004. A policy framework for long-term national development.
Main document. Windhoek: Office of the President.
National Qualification Authority of Namibia. 1998. Criteria for the evaluation of
teacher education programmes. Windhoek: Ministry of Higher Education, Training
and Employment Creation.
May 14, 2014.
NCRVE MDS-777. s.a. The skill standards pilot project. Hyperlink
[http://vocserve.berkeley.edu/abstracts/MDS-777/Projects3.html]. September 11,
2003.
Penington, D.G. 1994. Is a competency-based approach suitable for education?

Higher Education Review. 27 (1):69-81.
Pretorius, J.D. 2001. The higher education business – can it cope with international
challenges? South African Journal of Higher Education. 15 (2):74-79.
2005.
Purdue University Calumet. 2003. Syllabus for Operations Management. (MGMT
660-84,85) Purdue University: School of Management.
Report of the National Standards and Guidelines for Initial Teacher Education
Project. 1998. Canberra: Australian Council of Deans of Education.
Ryan, M.P. and Martens, G.G. 1989. Planning a college course: a guidebook for
grauate teaching assistant. Ann Arbor, Mich: National Center for Research to
improve Postsecondary Teaching and Learning.
SENA. 2002. Columbian curriculum manual. Hyperlink
[http://66.102.9.104/search?q=cache:sgkbxDExqisJ:www.ilo/org/public/English/regio
n/am…]. May 3, 2005.
Seidman, R. 1998. Re-engineering four years of College into three: The makings of
a competency-based three years Bachelors’s Degree. Paper presented at the
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Smith, E. 1999. How competency-based training has changed the role of teachers in
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51 (6):18–22.
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[http://www.ksbe.state.ks.us/outcomes/10section5.html]. May 31, 2005.
May 5, 2001.
Sultana, R.G. 1995. Developing a vision for teacher education programmes: a value-
based approach. European Journal of Teacher Education, 18 (2/3):215–228.
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participatory approach. Hyperlink [http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/ncfv-
cnivt/familyviolence/html/fvprojevaluation-e.html]. July 27, 2005.
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of challenges and threats in changing epistemic contexts. South African Journal of
Higher Education. 15 (2):158-161.
Van Niekerk, L.J. & Killen, R. 2000. Re-contextualising outcomes-based education
for teacher education. South African Journal of Higher Education. 14 (3):90-99.
Venter, E. 2001. A constructivist approach to learning and teaching. South African
Journal of Higher Education. 15 (2):86-92.
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Westraad, S. 2003. Designing outcomes-based learning programmes: Roadmap to
learning and skills development. Randburg: Knowres Publishing.
Wolf, A. 1995. Competency-based assessment. Buckinghamshire: Open University
Press.
UNIT 7
Create a career education curriculum for Namibian
secondary schools
Contents
Introduction
Learning outcomes
Learning activities for insight
7.1 Discuss the need and validity for differentiation in national curricula ….. 389
the lessons learnt from that type of curriculum……………………………. 395
7.3 Analyse the latest (2014) Namibian primary curriculum …………………. 396
7.4 Analyse the latest (2014) Namibian junior secondary curriculum .……… 399
7.5 Analyse the 2014 senior secondary curriculum ……..…………………… 404
7.6 Explain factors that could improve secondary education in Namibia……. 407
Mexico, Norway, USA ………………………………………………………… 409
oriented schools and identify other careers suitable for Namibian schools 413
curriculum ……………………………………………………………………… 415
system in Namibia …………………..………………………………………… 424
7.11 Create an implementation plan for the career education curriculum ……. 426
7.12 Summary ………………………………………………………………………. 430
7.13 References …………………………………………………………………….. 431
Introduction
Unit 7 is investigating the need for and features of an alternative curriculum stream
for secondary learners in Namibia. The latest national curriculum changes are
examined and the proposed features of a career education stream are analyzed and
a different career education curriculum than the government one, is proposed after
analyzing the features of oversees career education features and the current
circumstances in Namibia. If a proper career education curriculum could be
established, many current social problems like unemployment and poor quality of life
for school leavers could be addressed. Why should Namibia not implement a
suitable career education curriculum? Recommendations are made for the design
and implementation of a suitable career education curriculum in Namibia.
Learning outcomes
7.1 Discuss the need and validity for differentiation in national curricula.
the lessons learnt from that type of curriculum.
7.3 Analyse the latest (2014) Namibian primary curriculum.
7.4 Analyse the latest (2014) Namibian junior secondary curriculum.
7.5 Analyse the 2014 senior secondary curriculum.
7.6 Explain factors that could improve secondary education in Namibia.
Mexico, Norway, USA.
oriented schools and identify other careers suitable for Namibian schools.
curriculum.
system in Namibia.
7.11 Create an implementation plan for the career education curriculum.
1. Discuss the need and validity for a career education curriculum in Namibia.
2. Identify how a career education curriculum in Namibia correlate with the ‘factors
that could improve secondary education in Namibia.
3. Propose a Namibian senior secondary career oriented curriculum.
7.1 Discuss the need and validity for differentiation in national

curricula
The term ‘differentiation’ in curricula means the curriculum must make provision for
the abilities and interests of individual learners. The question in our heading is: Is it a
valid need that curricula should accommodate individual abilities and interests?

__________________________________________________________________
Discuss the need and validity for a career education curriculum in Namibia.

___________________________________________________________________
The following headings discuss why curricula should address individual learning
needs and abilities.
7.1.1 Multiple abilities, interests and intelligences
It is a widely accepted practice that discrimination based on gender, ethnicity,

religion, social status or age is unacceptable. The area of education practice is
however neglecting this idea of not discriminating against learners with different
abilities and interests. It is acknowledged that education is a human right and
therefore the national curriculum should not discriminate against learners by not
offering alternative curriculum options which suit learners’ different abilities and
interests.
Education is seen by many nations as a tool for changing and developing society to
the benefit of individuals and the country as a whole. Senior secondary enrolment
figures across the world are shockingly low with negative consequences for both the
countries and individuals. One of the reasons for young people to lack interest in
secondary schooling is their ‘feeling that secondary education do not prepare them
adequately for life and work’ (UNESCO, 2012:236). The best strategy to serve
learners and countries well is to provide a good basic education for all up to the age
of 15 and then offers a range of career education in the senior secondary phase
(UNESCO, 2012:237). These career education schools commonly find job
internships for learners with relevant businesses to the benefit of learners, schools
and employers. If learners impress employers during these internships, they often
find a job with such companies especially if their training focused on problem solving,
communication and ICT skills (UNESCO, 2012:244, 246). The worldwide experience
seems to point out that senior secondary career oriented options is a less expensive
strategy than to let learners drop out of school and then create ‘alternative education
routes such as ‘Second chance center’ or ‘Adult education center’ or ‘Distance
education routes’. The Dutch Ministry of Education spent (in 2008) US$ 451million
on measures to prevent drop out and giving learners a second chance, while
expecting the amount to increase to US$ 556 million by 2011(UNESCO, 2012:249).
The price to pay for addressing the social illnesses growing due to youth without the
required character and skills to get employment, is adding to the price of not offering
career education to the youth.
Huge amounts of national budgets are allocated to the education sector, but are
often having little effect on productivity, economic growth or reducing poverty and
unemployment. Why? One key reason of a low impact by education is when the
educational curriculum design and implementation do not prepare people for a wide
range of occupations in synchronization with abilities and gender via the
development of generic employability skills as well as job specific training. A single
academic curriculum negates the different intelligences and interests of many
learners and therefore do not stimulate personal and national economic growth that
could lead to better quality of living.
Gardner's theory argues that intelligence, particularly as it is traditionally defined,

does not sufficiently encompass the wide variety of abilities humans display. In his
conception, a child who masters multiplication easily is not necessarily more
intelligent overall than a child who struggles to do so. The second child may be
stronger in another kind of intelligence. According to Multiple Intelligence theory,
there are eight basic types of intelligence. Originally Gardner listed seven
intelligences, but in 1999 he added the eighth' one: ‘naturalist intelligence’. He has
also considered ‘existential intelligence’ and ‘moral intelligence’, but does not find
these acceptable. The eight intelligences that currently are accepted in Multiple
Intelligence theory are:
 Spatial. This area deals with spatial judgement and the ability to visualize
with the mind's eye, so to speak. Careers that suit those with this type of
intelligence include artists, designers and architects. Perhaps leaders,
managers and strategic planners should be added here.
 Linguistic. This area has to do with words, spoken or written. People with
high verbal-linguistic intelligence display a facility with words and languages.
They are typically good at reading, writing, telling stories and memorizing
words along with dates. They tend to learn best by reading, taking notes,
listening to lectures, and discussion and debate. Careers that suit those with
this intelligence include pastors, teachers, lecturers, psychologists, actors,
politicians, public relations persons, marketing staff, radio or TV presenters.
 Logical-mathematical. This area has to do with logic, abstractions,
reasoning, and numbers. Careers that suit those with this intelligence include
scientists, physicists, mathematicians, logicians, engineers, doctors,
economists and philosophers.
 Kinaesthetic. The core elements of the bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence are
control of one's bodily motions and capacity to handle objects skilfully.
Learners with this intelligence often learn best by doing something physically,
rather than by reading or hearing about it. Careers that suit those with this
intelligence include: athletes, dancers, musicians, actors, extreme sport types,
surgeons, doctors, builders, police officers, and soldiers.
 Musical. This area has to do with sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, tones, and
music. People with a high musical intelligence normally have good pitch and
are able to sing, play musical instruments and compose music.
 Interpersonal. This area has to do with interaction with others. In theory,
people who have a high interpersonal intelligence tend to be extroverts,
characterized by their sensitivity to others' moods, feelings, temperaments
and motivations, and their ability to cooperate in order to work as part of a
group. Careers that suit those with this intelligence include sales, politicians,
managers, teachers, and social workers.
 Intrapersonal. This area has to do with introspective and self-reflective
capacities. People with intrapersonal intelligence are intuitive and typically
introverted. They are skilful at deciphering their own feelings and motivations
and have a deep understanding of their strengths/ weaknesses. What makes
them unique is that they can predict their own reactions/ emotions.
 Naturalist. This area has to do with nature, nurturing and relating information
to one’s natural surroundings. Careers that suit those with this intelligence
include naturalists, farmers, and gardeners (Armstrong, 2010).
In spite of criticism against the intricacies of Gardner's theory

it is still true that people display these abilities and that students will be better
served by a broader curriculum of education, wherein teachers use different
methodologies, exercises and activities to reach all students, not just those
who excel at linguistic and logical abilities / intelligence.
7.1.2 Wellness dimensions
The idea of ‘holistic’ or comprehensive education was already dealt with under
section 1.9. The challenge for curriculum designers is to determine the best ratio
among these wellness areas in different levels and types of qualifications. As a rule
school education covers all areas of development until about the end of grade 9 and
then a little specialisation starts with the eye on future employment or higher
education. The higher the post-graduate education goes, the more specialised it
becomes. The wellness areas are listed here so that you can observe the
‘Occupational wellness’, which relates to the idea of introducing a secondary career
education curriculum to address this occupational preparation of senior secondary
school learners adequately.
 Social wellness: quality of interaction with others, respect for others,
contribute to community welfare
 Physical wellness: maintain fitness, healthy nutrition, safe sex, drug abuse,
medical checks, general safety practices, HIV/ AIDS
 Emotional wellness: express and control emotions, self-image
 Occupational wellness: job satisfaction, recognition for contributions,
advancement, professional development
 Intellectual wellness: expanding knowledge and thinking skills, solve
problems, manage stress, adaptability and tolerance, perception of others
 Environmental wellness: understand interdependence with others and
nature, neighbourhood, home and workplace
 Spiritual wellness: seek meaning and purpose in life, develop love, values,
religion, trust and ethics
(Saskatchewan Government, 2004).
These dimensions are interconnected, interdependent and constantly interacting with
each other. Maintaining or improving one’s wellness – one’s quality of life – requires
continuous balancing and rebalancing of these seven dimensions in response to the
events in our lives. Underemphasizing (neglecting) or overemphasizing any one
dimension will have a negative impact on the others. This implies that Namibian
curricula need to be revisited to evaluate the extent to which they accommodate
these wellness dimensions and especially the occupational area.
7.1.3. Employability skills
A third valid need for introducing career education in Namibian secondary schools is
the research findings on ‘employability skills’. The competency-based movement
highlighted the challenge of the purposes of education again. CBE maintains that all
levels of education should include general holistic development (theory) as well as
the development of skills (practice). For CBE, quality education needs to incorporate
both purposes: ‘education includes training’. Much research and debates have been
conducted about the skills that are relevant for ‘employability’ if education is
perceived as a ‘means to an end activity’ and one of those ‘ends’ is ‘preparing
learners for the world of work’. ‘Employability skills’ refer to general employable
skills relevant to most jobs such as the following:
 Collecting, analysing and organising information

 Communicating ideas and information
 Planning and organising activities
 Working with others in teams
 Using mathematical ideas and techniques
 Solving problems
 Using technology
 Understanding cultures
(Gonczi, Curtain, Hager, Hallard & Jarrison, 1995).
Research in the USA indicated that employers expect the following competences
and skills from employees:
 Resource competencies: manage time, money, materials and human
resources
 Information competencies: acquire and evaluate information, organise and
interpret information, communicate information and use computers to gather,
organise and communicate information
 Interpersonal competencies: participate as a team member, teach others,
serving customers, exercise leadership, negotiate to arrive at conclusions,
working with cultural diversity, understand social and organisational systems,
monitor and correct performance, improve systems
 Technology competencies: select, apply and troubleshoot technology
 Basic skills: read, write, speak, listen and perform arithmetic computations
 Thinking skills: think creatively, interpret visual information, make decisions,
solve problems, reason and know how to learn
 Personal qualities: be responsible, have a positive self-esteem, demonstrate
social adaptability, manage yourself, e.g. your stress, be aware of your own
strengths and weaknesses, be honest / have integrity.
(Skills that work, 1998).
Evans-Klock of the ILO (International Labour Organisation, 2010) suggests that
employability skills training assist current workers to adjust to workplace changes;
assist young employees to meet the current demand for skills; prepare workers for
the next generation of technologies and give more young people a better chance for
equal access to work. These employability skills relate positively to the holistic
wellness aims as described earlier. A big challenge however, is that the teaching of
skills require particular contexts and not merely theory. The implication is therefore
that if it is decided that such employability skills need to be taught in secondary
school career courses, it would be best to integrate the theory and skills of
particular jobs. Real or simulated working conditions and facilities are thus
important for job skills training.
7.1.4 International career oriented or pre-vocational education
The philosophical question is whether career education is acceptable on a senior

secondary or even junior secondary level.
Some international schools reconsidered the traditional ‘general educational’/ ‘basic

education’ purpose of secondary schools and introduced career oriented schooling in
line with the different abilities of learners and the employment market needs of
society. The argument further seems to be that (a) the career stream provides
learners with an alternative option to the academic steam; (b) if typical schooling
aims to prepare learners to cope with life, why not place a bigger emphasis on
coping with work life; in order for learners to also choose between some jobs within
a school or visit other schools that offer the desirable job training; (c) most learners
who completed the academic stream up to grade 12 do not enroll for tertiary
education but seek a job, so why not prepare learners, to a high degree, for a job in
which they are interested; (d) many learners that cannot afford post-secondary
vocational training can get access to workplace training via career schools; (e)
employees who have a job in which they are interested, are more diligent and
motivated/ productive than those who take any job for the sake of survival; (f) career
oriented schooling could reduce youth unemployment and combat the negative
personal and national consequences of unemployment; (g) learners who select their
own career stream are more motivated and cause less disciplinary problems and (h)
business people might be more supportive of quality career oriented schools that
prepare employees that are immediately employable.
Post-grade 12 vocational or career education prepares trainees for a particular job,

trade or vocation. Increasingly, vocational education takes place on a secondary
level as well, but is in line with the post-secondary apprenticeship system of a
country. Up until the end of the twentieth century vocational education focused on a
few trades only, but nowadays it focuses on a range of labour market jobs e.g. in
retail, tourism, information technology and cosmetics (Wikipedia, 2010, June 21).
The status of ‘vocational training’ is much more positive since competency-based
education debates pointed out that modern quality education should incorporate both
‘training (practical) and education (theoretical)’ elements. UNESCO (2010) is also
supporting secondary education which prepares learners for the world of work
because such education could contribute much more to individual and national social
and economic growth.
I personally think that career education in the junior secondary phase (grade 7-9 in
Namibia) is not appropriate if that career education is like in the secondary
education focused on a specific job. The junior secondary education is very much
part of broad and general basic education and learners are too young to start with
any type of career specialisation in grade 7. The only junior secondary career
education that one could defend would be if the nature of the career education is
crafts oriented and include some career oriented subjects which introduce
learners to various job fields, such as:
 Entrepreneurial basics
 The ideal worker
 Life skills (addressing employability skills, relationship skills and moral values)
 Design and Technology
 Technical Drawings
 Computer Literacy (ICT including basic information science)
 Home Economics
 Fashion and Fabrics
 Practical Thinking skills
 Health and Safety (including work and road safety)
 Management concepts and skills
 Career Explorations / Guidance
 Art: music and painting
 Landscaping
 Fitness development
 The world of Tourism
 The world of Electronics
 The world of Electricity
 The world of mechanical engineering
 The world of Construction
Depending on the time available on the timetable of schools, learners could select
one or two Career exploration subjects’ per year for three years (grade 7-9). That will
expose them from three to six job areas from which they might select one to pursue
in the secondary phase.
7.2 Analyse the features of the former ‘technical education’ in

Namibia and the lessons learnt from that type of curriculum
7.2.1. Former Technical High Schools in Namibia
The former ‘technical high schools’ mostly have workshop facilities and hostels to
accommodate staff and students from out of town. These schools can be revamped
to support new job training courses. The schools are:
 Windhoek Technical High School
 Cosmos Technical high School
 Herman Gemeiner Technical High School (Swakopmund)
 Mweshipandeka Secondary School (Oshakati)
 Noordgrens Secondary School (Rundu)
 P.K. de Villiers Secondary School (Keetmanshoop)
 Caprivi Secondary School (Katima Mulilo)
 Luderitz Secondary School
(Brunette, 2006)
The conversion of Cosdec centres and other possible facilities that are underutilised
should also be examined.
7.2.2 Some lessons to be learned from these former technical high schools:
 Vocational or career oriented training should address modern job needs. The
technical focus was the initial trade apprenticeship focus.
 Different stakeholders in career education should be involved in the design of
job standards, because if employers perceive the standards as too low the
system is doomed to failure.
 It is of no use introducing a job area if the necessary facilities and equipment
are not in place in schools, e.g. fitting and turning machines are simply too
expensive.
 Job experts need to be paid a proper salary to attract and keep them
irrespective of whether they have teaching qualifications.
 Vocational education is supposed to be a different alternative to
academic education not merely additional career subjects on top of the
common academic stream.
 The status of modern Namibian career education should be promoted and the
quality of it should indeed be on par with international career oriented
education.
 The status and quality of the career oriented education must be supported by
proper assessment policies and practices for theoretical and practical work
and no automatic promotion should be allowed.
 Secondary and post-secondary career education must be aligned into a
seamless qualification system.
 Practical facilities determine the amount of learners that will be enrolled for a
particular job programme. If more than one class per vocation is enrolled more
staff must be appointed and the current teacher-learner ratio formula must be
revised for the career stream context.
7.3 Analyse the latest (2014) Namibian primary curriculum
In October 2011 NIED disseminated a second draft proposal for basic education
reform which moves toward career oriented curriculum (NIED, 2011). The focus of
this Unit is on secondary schooling but an overview of the junior and senior primary
curriculum is given for the sake of having the total picture. (Some changes might
have been made since 2011 to this curriculum but those changes are not formally
available on the NIED website or latest official documents).
The new school phases from 2014 onwards will be as follows:
Phase Grades included in this phase

Lower Primary (4 years) Pre-Primary plus grades 1-3 (ages 5-8)
Upper Primary (3 years) Grades 4-6 (ages 9-11)
Junior Secondary (3 years) Grades 7-9 (ages 12-14/15)
Senior Secondary (3 years) Grades 10-12 (ages 15-17/18)
Proposed changes
Mother tongue instruction will be from pre-primary till the end of grade 4 with a
transition to English medium of instruction from grade 5. From this new model it is
clear that grade 7 learners will now be part of the secondary school and not the
primary school as in the past. This is a debatable change. The curriculum for the
Pre-primary and grades 1-3 will remain in its current format of 7 promotional subjects
in grade 1-3: English, Mother Tongue, Mathematics, Environmental Studies, Arts,
Physical Education and Religious and Moral Education.
The learner-teacher ratio should be 25:1 throughout this phase. An additional

reading period per week should be offered in grades 1-3 to instil a reading culture.
Learning support will be improved in each school to assist learners with special
needs. A school readiness test will be administered in pre-primary school, and Early
Grades Reading Assessment will be administered in grades 2 and 3. The curriculum
and period allocation looks as follows:
The 2014 Junior Primary phase (pre-primary and grades 1-3)

First Language 10 First Language 10
Second Language 5 Second Language 6
Environmental Studies 3 Environmental Studies 3
Arts (music, dance, drama, visual ) 2 Arts (music, dance, drama, visual ) 2
Physical Education 2 Physical Education 2
Reading period 1
7 subjects. Total periods p w 32 7 subjects. Total periods p w 34

21 hrs 20 min 22 hrs 40 min
(NIED, 2011:6)
 Handwriting might become a separate subject with 2 periods which will be
deducted from the 10 periods of the First Language.
Evaluative comments: The pre-primary phase commonly aims to prepare learners

for the ‘real’ school. The focus is on developing listening skills, disciplined behaviour,
recognising names of shapes, colours, learn to play together and share things, wait
your turn, expand vocabulary and concepts of numbers. The universal emphasis is
more on developing knowledge and some preliminary writing skills than on
developing the managing of emotions, of spiritual values and thinking skills. This
universal focus is also applied in Namibia, e.g. compare the 2 periods of the above
Namibian ‘Religious and moral education’ to the amount of periods for other subject
content. Clearly, the curriculum orientation underpinning the universal and Namibian
curriculum design is one of transmitting subject knowledge instead of developing the
holistic person, especially development of managing emotions, of spiritual values
and thinking skills.
One can only hope that the subject content taught from grade 1 to the end of grade 4
in the mother tongue, is also taught in English to prepare learners’ vocabulary for the
English medium of instruction from grade 5 onwards.
The 2014 Senior Primary phase (grades 4-6)

Promotional core: 5 x Promotional core subjects:
English 7 English 7
Another Language 6 Mother Tongue /Another Language 6
Natural Science and Health Educ 5 Natural Science and Health Educ 5
Social Studies 5 Social Studies 5
One of: Design and Technology One promotional elective:
Home Ecology 3 Craft and Technology or 3
Elementary agriculture Elementary agriculture
(Entrepreneurial skills are integrated in
each of these)
Support subjects: 3 Support subjects:
Life Skills 1 Life Orientation (Life skills & RME) 3
Arts (music, dance, drama, visual) 2 Arts (music, dance, drama, visual) 2
ICT literacy 1 Information and Communication 2
Basic Information Science 1 (integrate ICT literacy and Basic
Information Science)
Physical Education 1 None
Religious and Moral Education 1 Reading period 1
12 subjects Total periods p w 40 10 subjects Total periods p w 41

The curriculum consists of 5 core promotional subjects, one promotional elective and
3 support subjects which are not assessed by a summative examination, but only via
continuous assessment. At the end of grades 5 and 7 a Standardised Achievement
Test will be administered.
Evaluative comments: Again, the curriculum orientation underpinning the

curriculum design is one of transmitting subject knowledge instead of developing the
emotions, spiritual values / attitudes, social skills and thinking skills in a holistic
fashion. All the subjects that could actually develop the ‘humanness’ of
learners are non-promotional subjects with only continuous assessment. The
curriculum is clearly saying these support / non-promotional subjects are not
really important because they receive few periods and require less rigorous
assessment. It is nothing less than tragic that our primary education do not
emphasise the development of ‘humanness’ as primary education should.
7.4 Analyse the latest (2014) Namibian junior secondary

curriculum
The former 9 compulsory subjects are reduced to 7, comprising 5 promotional (core)

subjects and 2 optional promotional subjects. All 7 subjects have equal time
allocation (7 x 5 periods) and all periods are 40 minutes each.
Table 7.1: The 2014 Junior Secondary phase curriculum

(grades 7-9) for an academic stream
Take 2 Optional promotional subjects from the last 5 columns

Compulsory Career- Career-
promotional Languag Sciences oriented oriented Arts
subjects es subjects: subjects:
(core) Technology Commerce
(5 x 5 periods)
- English - Any - Agriculture -Computer -Accounting -Visual Art

- Another first, Studies
Language second -Life Science -Keyboard and -Integrated
- Mathematics or foreign -Design and Word Performing
or Additional language -Physical Technology Processing Arts
Mathematics Science
One of: -Entrepreneur-
-Natural -Geography ship
Science
-Physical -History
Science
-Life Science
One of:
-Social Studies
-Geography
-History

* Life Orientation (3 periods)
* Information and Communication Technology
(3 periods)
* Reading period (1 period)
Note: 1. Geography and History cannot be taken with Social Science, because
Social Science is already a combination of Geography and History.
2. Agriculture, Life Science and Physical Science cannot be taken with
Natural Science, because Natural Science is already a combination of the
other three subjects.
Discussion of the proposed Junior Secondary academic curriculum
1. A reduction in the number of compulsory promotion subjects could result in an

increase in the teaching time for the remaining 7 promotional subjects. This will
allow time for teachers to teach the JS curriculum in more depth, thereby
enabling learners to have a better understanding of the curriculum content.
2. It is unnecessary to offer additional options to ‘Natural Science’, ‘Social Studies’

and Mathematics because learners actually start from grade 10 with
specialisations and higher levels. These options of Physical and Life Science
and separate Geography or History and Additional Mathematics up to grade 9 is
expensive, make the timetable difficult and has no better academic benefit than
‘Natural Science’ , ‘Social Studies’ and ‘Mathematics’. By taking Natural
Science’, ‘Social Studies’ and ‘Mathematics’ in grade 7-9 learners can make an
informed decision which subjects they would like to specialise in from grade 10
onwards.
3. Fewer different textbooks will be needed for the JS phase if the unnecessary
options are taken away.
4. A 7-day timetable is not adding more teaching time spent on a subject, so all
schools could simply follow a 5-day cycle without the complicated administration
of a 7day timetable. A school day from 7:15 till 13:15 has 6 hours or 360
minutes. 8 Periods per day (or 40 periods per week on the timetable) would
amount to 320 minutes per day. The remaining 40 minutes is enough for a break
but there are 3 periods short. That means to fit 43 periods into a 5-day week,
the periods must be shorter and/ or total of periods for some subjects must be
one less period. Periods of 35 minutes long create 9 periods per day and 45 per
week. Each day has then 45 minutes left on top of the 9 periods for school
opening and breaks.
5. Again, the curriculum orientation underpinning the curriculum design is one of

transmitting subject knowledge instead of developing the emotions, spiritual
values / attitudes, social skills and thinking skills in a holistic fashion. All the
subjects that could actually develop the ‘humanness’ of learners are non-
promotional / support subjects with only continuous assessment. The curriculum
is clearly saying these support / non-promotional subjects are not really
important because they receive few periods (Life Orientation =3 periods, Art =1,
and Information and Communication Technology =3 periods) and require less
rigorous assessment.
6. ‘Keyboard and Word Processing’ as a subject duplicates the ICT and should be
taken out of the curriculum.
7. The core group of subjects already specify ‘Another language’ which could be a
first, second or foreign language, so why have another column of ‘Languages’?
8. The core group of subjects already specify the ‘Sciences’ and ‘Social Studies’ of
the additional Sciences column, so this Sciences column is unnecessary.
Table 7.2: The Junior secondary curriculum for a career-oriented

stream: (grades 7-9)
Select 4 optional promotional subjects from the last 3 columns,

(take at least one subject from each group)
4 x 5 periods = 20 periods
3 x Compulsory
promotional Sciences Career-oriented Career-oriented
subjects subjects: subjects:
(3 x 5 periods each Technology Commerce
per week =15 ppw
- English - Agriculture - Computer Studies - Accounting

- Another Lan - Natural Science - Design and - Keyboard and
guage (first, 2nd - Life Science Technology Word Processing
or foreign) - Physical Science - Technical Drawings - Entrepreneurship
- Mathematics or - Social Studies - Building
Additional - Geography Construction
Mathematics - History (including
Bricklaying,
Plastering, Tiling
Painting, Carpentry,
Plumbing and Pipe
fitting)
- Electricity /
Electronics
(including Basic
Electricity/ Electronics,
Air Conditioning)
-Automotive (including
petrol and diesel, Auto
Mechanics,
Automotive Electricity)
- Engineering
(including Fitting and
Turning, Metalwork
and Welding)
- Hospitality, Tourism
and Tour Guiding
- Hairdressing
- Home economics
- Fashion and Fabrics
- Childcare

(8 periods in total) * Life Orientation (3 periods)
* Information and Communication
Technology (3 periods)
* Reading (1 period)
Note: 1. The 4 optional promotional subjects have each 5 periods per week, 20
periods in total.
2. Technical Drawings cannot be taken with Design and Technology.
3. Technical Drawing Skills are integrated in each of the subjects under the
headings of ‘Building Construction, Electricity / Electronics, Automotive,
and Engineering’.
4. The personal selection of their 7 promotional subjects should promote
interest in subjects and the same junior secondary subjects could be
taken in the senior secondary phase which enhances deeper
understanding in selected areas of career interest.
5. This new curriculum will be offered according to a 5- day week time table,
which reduces the complicated administration of the 7-day week time
table.
This government curriculum is discussed next, but under section 7.9 alternative
career education curricula for the junior and senior secondary phase are proposed.
Discussion of the above junior secondary Career-oriented curriculum
1. The career curriculum is suppose to be an alternative curriculum to the aca-

demic one by offering career related subjects. To add some ‘career’ subjects on
top of the full academic curriculum is not an alternative to the academic
curriculum. It is in fact not recognising the multiple intelligences (abilities and
interests) of different learners. (See section 7.1)
2. There are three universal career-oriented curriculums for secondary education:

(a) The lowest level is where learners learn some skills related to a selected job
as well as general employability skills; (b) The middle level curriculum prepares
apprentices that will not get admission to Universities but will get admission to
Higher Vocational Institutions; (c) The top level curriculum prepares apprentices
that will also get admission to Universities. The career oriented curriculum to be
addressed by Namibian secondary schools should be the (b) or middle level
option of preparing apprentices that could get admission to the Polytechnic or
other ‘higher vocational qualifications Institutions’. Perhaps some day in the
distant future the top level career option curriculum could be introduced as well,
when the socio-economic level of our society displays a need for such a
curriculum.
3. The middle level career education curricula for preparing competent beginner
employees / apprentices start after grade nine or the junior secondary phase,
not at grade 7 or the beginning of the phase.
4. The purpose of introducing career education at grade 7 must be to provide

learners with an introduction to some job areas and not to start with actual
training a particular job. For example, an introduction to the Construction area
will describe many of the jobs within the construction world. The grade 7-9
exploration period might enable learners to discover their passion related job
rather than doing any kind of job to survive.
5. Learners should follow the basic general academic curriculum until the end of
grade 9 / junior secondary phase. There is no need for the alternative options
apart from Natural Science, Mathematics and Social Studies, because this
career curriculum leads not to University admission. Learners could in any case
proceed with ‘ordinary level’ until the end of grade 9 and then take higher level
subjects should they wish to do that. Together with the basic academic core
subjects learners take one or two ‘Career Area Exploration subjects per year’
from the beginning of grade 7. That way they can be introduced to 3-6
Occupational areas such as Construction, Electricity, Tourism and so on offered
by a particular school. From grade 10 onwards they then select their job of
interest from a job area. (See the proposed junior and senior secondary career
curriculum further on).
6. The 2014 proposed career curriculum for the junior secondary phase is
apparently NOT aiming for an introduction to Job Areas but rather training in a
particular selected job and is therefore not an acceptable curriculum. UNESCO
(2012: 237) advises that career education starts from grade 10 / end of junior
secondary phase onwards.
7.5 Analyse the 2014 senior secondary curriculum
Until recently, junior secondary learners followed a very broad curriculum until the
end of grade 9 and then select their subjects of choice for grade 10-12. A national
external examination was written at the end of grade 10 and another one at the end
of grade 12 which could be on NSSC Ordinary or Higher level. The new secondary
academic curriculum allows learners to select their subjects already in the junior
secondary phase and write an external examination at the end of grade 11 on a
NSSC Ordinary level. This is a welcome improvement as learners might understand
subjects better and be more motivated to study subjects they selected themselves.
Learners who intend to pursue further education must complete at least 4 subjects in
grade 12 on a Higher level (NSSCH) to meet university admission requirements. The
government reasoning for this new model is that it is hoped that more learners will
stay in school until the end of grade 11 instead of grade 10 to obtain a school leaving
certificate since the grade 10 national examination is now at the end of grade 11.
This implies learners will be one year older when they leave school to enter the job
market and grade 11 learners will then be in possession of a national certificate
which will allow them admission to vocational training centres, agricultural colleges
and other possible training institutes that require grade 11 ordinary level for
admission. This is a good improvement.
Table 7.3: The 2014 grade 10-11 Senior secondary academic

and career curriculum is as follows:
3 Promotional core subjects (3 x 5 = 15 periods per week)
- English First or Second Language

- Another Language (First , Second or Foreign)
- Mathematics or Additional Mathematics
2 Support Subjects (2 x 3 = 6)
- Life Orientation
- Information and Communication
3 Promotional elective subjects (3 x 5 = 15 periods per week)
 One of 13 Namibian  Physical Science  Office Administration and

languages  Chemistry Key boarding*
 Accounting  Physics  Hospitality and Tourism
 Agriculture*  Design and Technology  Tour Guiding
 Art and Design  Technical Drawings **  Hairdressing
 Biology  Bricklaying, Plastering,  Home Economics*
 Business Studies Tiling  Fashion and Fabrics
 Computer Studies  Plumbing and Pipe fitting  Childcare
 Development Studies*  Electricity / Electronics
 Economics
 Air Conditioning
 Geography
 Fitting and Turning
 History
 Metalwork & Welding
 Mathematics
 Motor / Auto Mechanics
 Carpentry
(Total periods: 36 periods are allocated according to junior secondary model)
Note: 1. Learners who opt for a one-language stream, must take English,
Mathematics and 4 promotional electives instead of the normal 3 electives.
2. The list of promotional electives makes provision for career-oriented
streams in senior secondary (grade 10-11) as well.
3. * Subjects are available on NSSC only and future decisions must determine
which career-oriented subjects might be available on both levels.
4. ** Subjects cannot be taken with Design and Technology.
5. All languages will be offered at Higher level, except for Namibian Sign
language.
6. Learners that continue with grade 12 must take at least 4 of the subjects
they passed in grade 11 on a Higher level to qualify for international tertiary
admission.
7. Learners who want to take Mathematics on a Higher level in grade 12 need
to take Additional Mathematics in grade 10 and 11.
8. Initially, one school per region with hostel facilities will promote
career stream subjects.
9. The grading structure and pass requirements need to be raised in the new
curriculum if Namibia is striving for better quality education.
10. Learners with severe special educational needs will be accommodated in
current Special Schools which will be transformed into Resource Schools.
Learners with special needs that can be accommodated in mainstream
classrooms will be supported in such classrooms (NIED, 2011).
System changes
At the end of grade 11 learners will write a national examination (NSSC Ordinary
Level) while grade 12 learners will write the NSSC Higher Level examination. The
new grading structure of 5 or 6 levels (A-E) will be implemented and pass
requirements will be raised. The new pass requirements are not specified, but at
least the intention to raise them is positive.
Discussion of proposed changes to the Senior Secondary phase

(grades 10-12)
1. The new curriculum will offer a career-oriented and academic stream. ‘One or
more secondary schools with hostel facilities per region will be identified
and equipped to offer a career-oriented steam where special work rooms
will be established’. The former ‘Technical High Schools’ with their hostels
would be ideal for a start-up of the career education curriculum. The proposed
‘one school per region with hostel facilities will promote career stream subjects’
is completely inadequate and unacceptable. All the senior secondary schools
should offer training for three or more jobs. Pre-fabricated buildings are
inexpensive and quick to erect. (See the recommendations for implementation of
the career education system later on).
2. The former ‘Vocational Trades’ are still dominating the career options. It will be
clever if the school career options do not merely duplicate the training done in
the few Vocational Training Centres in Namibia. More modern jobs suitable for
males and females should be offered, e.g. singers, visual artists, event
managers, secretaries, stock controller, housekeeper, bank clerk. ‘Fashion
and Fabrics’ and ‘Home Economics’ sounds like theoretical subjects and the
titles should rather be indicating a job like the other options, such as
‘dressmaker’ or ‘assistant chef’. The start-up of a proper career curriculum will
be expensive, but once in place the costs will be acceptable, especially if the
price of not having such a career oriented curriculum is calculated. In any case, it
is less expensive to fit a classroom for training Dress makers than fitting a room
for Carpentry or Fitting and turning. The minimum practical and theoretical
periods for the career subjects must be spelled out in the curriculum. (See
section 7.9)
3. The academic and career-oriented curriculum should for the sake of clarity for
stakeholders be presented separately. (See section 7.9)
4. Admission to examinations and passing percentages must be higher than in the

past. Having a national certificate that is worth nothing in the eyes of employers
or universities is of no benefit to learners.
5. Teachers must receive in-service training about teaching for promoting

understanding and thinking skills in the academic stream.
6. The Life Skills and ICT in the academic stream must have more than 3 periods.
7. Learners in the career stream could complete their job training at the end of
grade 11, or if the course is more complex at the end of grade 12.
8. The one-language option is a positive option in the academic stream.
9. Moving back to a 5-day week is a positive development.
7.6 Explain factors that could improve secondary education in

Namibia
It is twenty five years after independence and it is time to address simultaneously

‘education for all’ and ‘quality education for all’. The theory of quality education is
covered in earlier sections (e.g. 1.5) and will not be repeated here again. This
section will suggest ways to improve secondary education based upon analysis of
the Namibian practical circumstances and thus points out what the current
secondary reality needs in order to improve. ‘To improve education’ implies to
change and add something to enhance the quality of education. The aspects to
be changed or added in the secondary curriculum are obviously part of the key
curriculum design and implementation issues that impacts quality education.
Table 7.4: Factors that can improve the Namibian secondary

education reality
1. W e need a stronger emphasis on developing Life Skills, Thinking skills, Values

and Managing ones emotions.
2. Teaching that promotes real deep learning or understanding which emphasizes

the understanding of the meaning of words/ concepts and the value/ implication
and application of knowledge as opposed to current surface learning which
emphasizes the memorization of unrelated facts.
3. Better use of available teaching time.
4. More curriculum options to develop individual talents and national manpower

needs, e.g. modern job education.
5. We need the introduction of across curriculum training of learners in study

methods and how to think according to higher level thinking verbs.
6. The allocation of appropriate marks per assessment question. Unrealistic high

marks allocated to a question lowers the standards.
7. The allocation of appropriate marks for the level of thinking as required by the
verb of the question, e.g. 6 marks for facts and 4 marks for discussing the facts
out of a 10 mark discussion question.
8. The qualification level of under-qualified teaching staff must be raised through

further formal studies and in-service training.
9. The performance of teachers must be appraised regularly and actions must be

taken against teachers not performing on par or disregarding the code of
conduct.
10. The effectiveness of management to streamline implementation of the curricu-

lum must also be appraised and actions must be taken against under perform-
ers.
11. The availability of physical facilities such as enough classrooms, water,

electricity and sanitation in schools need urgent attention.
12. The support available for both teachers and learners need appropriate
upgrading, for instance teaching-learning resources, workloads, Internet,
textbooks, decent career path related salaries, ICT labs, libraries, sport
equipment, etc
13. The motivational level of both teachers and learners need to be purposefully
addressed.
14. Up- to- date statistics about the conditions and results of the Namibian school
ing reality so that the government can address priorities systematically. The
EMIS statistics appear two years behind time.
15. A teacher-learner ratio formula which does not reduce quality education
because teachers are overloaded and teachers are forced to teach outside their
area of expertise.
16. A promotion policy which requires proper pass percentages that emphasize
quality teaching and learning and establish faith of employers and higher
education institutions in the quality of the school certificates.
17. Lack of an independent professional teacher body that manages teacher

registration, licensing, performance appraisals and a school auditing system.
18. A visionary perspective regarding the possible holistic role of schools in a

community is lacking. Such a vision would advise the creative use of school
grounds / property by parents and business people.
19. The government needs to respect decisions of school boards’ when they have
correctly applied existing policies.
20. A national auditing system must be linked to a reward and recognition system
for schools and teachers.
21. Provision of in-service training for secondary teachers which is related to

teacher licensing and career path development, e.g. Salary structures for
teachers according to management responsibilities, (HOD’s, principals)
teaching support responsibilities (sport, culture, life skills, inclusive) and master
teacher responsibilities (mentor in teaching and assessment) as 3 possible
career paths.
22. A set of proper selection criteria must be applied to select appropriate teachers
for the profession before they get government bursaries or are admitted to
university.
23. Financial support to schools for their teachers/ principals who attend yearly
Namibian Teacher Conferences.
More factors could be listed but the point is that in the eyes of many teachers and
learners the Namibian schooling system falls short regarding many of these factors.
Quality education is especially poorly addressed when it comes to curriculum
implementation in Namibia.
7.7 Analyse the features of career oriented education in secondary
schools in various Countries, e.g. Netherland, Finland, Hong
Kong, Korea, Mexico, Norway, USA
7.7.1 International career oriented secondary schools

A few countries that have established secondary ‘career schools’ or ‘vocational
schools’ with a mixture of job-specific skills and academic education, are identified
below:
Netherland, Amsterdam
The career oriented secondary schools offer four sectors in which learners can
specialize:
 The technical sector which is subdivided into construction, graphics, metal,
vehicles, electrical installation, transport and logistics.
 The agriculture sector which is subdivided into agriculture and natural
surroundings and food technology.
 The economic sector which is subdivided into administration, catering,
commercial services, fashion and clothing and
 The care and welfare sector which is subdivided into external care and
welfare. (I Amsterdam, 2010).
Australia
In Australia vocational education is mostly post-secondary where syllabi are mainly
compiled by industry (Wikipedia, 2010).
Finland
The Finnish system offers 52 secondary vocational qualifications over a three year
period. At least half a year of these 3 years is spent in on-the-job training. Vocational
secondary qualifications allow learners to be admitted to Polytechnics and
Universities. There is a logical link between pre- and post-secondary vocational
qualifications. The vocational programme content takes note of global standards of
particular jobs. Co-operation in the placing of learners in workplaces is done by the
schools and ensure development of current workplace competencies. The
programmes incorporate the development of entrepreneurship and citizenship.
Qualifications also include a final project as part of assessment. The main emphasis
is on career studies; about 70% vocational theory and practice focus and 30% on
academic / core subjects which is adapted to the needs of a particular vocation. All
vocational qualifications include the following compulsory core subjects: The national
language; physics and chemistry; social, business and labour-market subjects;
physical and health education; arts and culture. The curriculum also focuses on
information and workplace technology, entrepreneurship, occupational health and
safety, learning skills, problem solving skills, communication skills, co-operation
skills, ethical and esthetical skills. The Ministry of Education mainly finances the
vocational education but the Ministry of Labour also contributes. The financing of
vocational education is done on the basis of a unit price calculated per student.
Quality awards competitions can earn schools extra money. Staff performances are
measured and rewarded. Quality assurance is achieved by the involvement of
employers and industrial bodies in the syllabi, workplace learning assessment and
national examinations. Syllabi are also compared to international standards for
particular jobs.
The career oriented stream offers qualifications in 8 fields of study at all levels of
career / vocational education and training:
 Humanities and education
 Culture
 Social sciences, business and administration
 Natural sciences
 Technology, communication and transport
 Natural resources and the environment
 Social services, health and sport
 Tourism, catering and domestic services
(Finnish National Board of Education, 2010).
Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, vocational education is post-secondary in fields such as applied
science, business administration, child education and community services,
construction, design, printing, textiles and clothing, hotel service and tourism studies,
information technology, electrical and electronic engineering, mechanical
engineering, manufacturing and industrial engineering (Wikipedia, 2010).
Hungary
At the end of elementary school learners can opt to follow a vocational track for 4
years. The same secondary schools also offer the post-secondary vocational
programmes for the ones that they offer at secondary level (Wikipedia, 2010).
Korea
Vocational secondary schools offer programmes in 5 fields: agriculture, technology/
engineering, commerce/ business, maritime/ fishery and home economics. In the first
year (grade 10) of the 3 year programme, learners follow a common national
program, while in the following 2 years learners take courses relevant to their
specialization. Workplace learning is part of many programmes. About half of the
secondary vocational schools are private schools (Wikipedia, 2010).
Mexico
Mexico has a complex upper secondary vocational education system where some
programmes prepare you for work, but one could not access tertiary education.
Other programmes have a different ratio between general and vocational subjects
and one could enter tertiary education (Wikipedia, 2010).
Norway
The upper secondary school curriculum offers 9 career oriented programs. The
duration of such programmes is typically 2 years. The first year focuses strongly on a
general education alongside relevant vocational knowledge while the second year
emphasizes the vocational knowledge. The secondary programme is followed by
another 2 years of apprenticeship in a company (Wikipedia, 2010).
USA
One example of a pure vocational secondary school is the Diman Vocational High
School in Massachusetts. The Massachusetts common core curriculum forms the
basis of the academic curriculum. Diman offers learners three programmes to
choose from. The ‘school-to-work’ one allows learners to pursue their trade after
school, another track prepares learners to pursue further studies at a post-secondary
vocational college and the third prepares learners for academic college programs.
Diman offers 16 vocational programmes, e.g. air conditioning and refrigeration,
automotive technology, culinary arts, drafting, electricity, electronics technology,
plumbing, facilities management, graphic communications, health assisting and
office technology. The school also has a night school director responsible for the
‘continuing education program’ or ‘night school education’. Adults enrolling for these
night school programmes must be 16 years and older and pay for the courses. Such
night school courses are mostly similar to the day school programmes, for instance,
‘Journeyman electric code (81 hours and $260), Air conditioning and refrigeration I,
Construction safety course (10 hours @ $100), Pastry creations, Creative bead
works and Dance lessons (12 hours @ $60).
In the grade-9 year learners are exposed via the ‘Exploratory programme’ to 8
vocational programs the school offers. This overview and bit of practical work assist
learners in selecting the vocational programme that they will pursue through grades
10-12. Diman has a Workplace placement Coordinator that actively seeks work for
final year learners. This Coordinator also assists learners in compiling proper
resume’s and develops their interview skills (Diman Vocational High School, 2010).
7.7.2 A Diman programme example: ‘Heating, Ventilation and Air

conditioning’
Programme overview
This programme is designed to prepare students for entry-level employment. Upon
completion of the programme, students will be able to repair and install the relevant
equipment. In order to do that they cover the mechanical and electrical basics, learn
to assemble and troubleshoot the devices. This school programme provides the
basis for a national 2 year or 4 year qualification.
Career options
The three areas of this program allow for several career focuses: a commercial or
residential HVAC/R apprentice; a Ductwork installer; HVAC/R supply person; an
apprentice HVAC/R technician; an assistant maintenance technician and a HVAC/R
installer trainee.
Skill areas
 Fundamentals of refrigeration
 Refrigeration tools and materials
 Soldering and welding equipment
 Basic refrigeration system
 Refrigerants
 Domestic refrigerator and freezers
 Pipe fitting
 Install and service small hermetic systems
 Electrical-magnetic fundamentals
 Electrical motors
 Steam type service valves
 Gauge manifold
 Refrigerant controls
 Commercial systems and application
 Commercial systems installing and servicing
 Automobile air conditioning
 Commercial systems heat loads and piping
 Blueprint reading
 Electrical circuits and controls
(Diman Vocational High School, 2010).
Although it is not clear whether these are topics or subjects, the job training content
appear to be excellent. As said earlier, some ‘common academic’ school subjects
are to be added to these subjects.
7.8 Identify job standards already compiled in Namibia for use in

career oriented schools and identify other careers suitable for
Namibian schools
7.8.1 Job standards already available in Namibia
The availability of national job standards on levels 1-4 means that syllabi for some
jobs in a career stream in secondary schools could be compiled reasonably quickly
at low cost. According to the NTA (30 June 2010 meeting) the following ‘career
stream’ relevant national standards for levels 1-4 have been approved by the NQA
already:
 Automotive Electronics and Electrical
 Automotive Mechanics
 Clothing production
 Bricklaying
 Hospitality and Tourism
 Joinery and Cabinet Making
 Metal Fabrication (Boiler maker and Welding)
 Office administration
 Plumbing
 Tour Guiding
 ICT Fundamentals
 ICT for Educators
In addition, the following standards have already been submitted to the NQA for
approval. This implies additional jobs that could be offered in a phase 1 start-up by
secondary career streams.
7.8.2 Job standards already submitted to the NQA
 Civil Society Management
 Entrepreneurship
 Pharmacist assistant
 Air Conditioning and Refrigeration
 Hairdressing
 Occupational Health and Safety and Basic First Aid
 Road Construction
 Postal Services
Upon approval of these job standards it could be introduced into the secondary
career stream too.
National standards under development
 Electro technology
 Fire Fighting
 Rigger, Scaffolding and Fork lifting
 Spray painting and panel beating
7.8.3 NTA industrial committees

The NTA has industrial committees that are doing ground work related to
determining national job standards, for instance: Tourism and Hospitality; Mining and
Quarrying; Fisheries and Maritime; Agricultural and Forestry; Financial and
Business services; Health care and Social Services; Transport, Warehousing and
Logistics; Wholesale and Retail Trade; Post and Telecommunications;
Manufacturing; Automotive sales; Arts and Crafts (NTA website, September 2014).
As more job standards become available they can be introduced in the secondary
career stream as part of development phase 2 or phase 3. The National
Development Plan number 4 advises that the areas of Tourism, Logistics and
Manufacturing need urgent expansion and manpower training for economic
development of Namibia. That means secondary career education should also focus
on these areas.
7.9 Create and discuss a curriculum for career education in

Namibian secondary schools and the consequences for not
implementing such a curriculum
7.9.1 Proposed changes to the current junior secondary career curriculum
Namibia does not need a ‘cosmetic-career-curriculum’ but rather a ‘quality-of life-

career-curriculum’.
There are three universal career-oriented curriculums for secondary education: (a)
the first level is where the curriculum focus more on learning about a selected job
and general employability skills with less focus on academic subjects; (b) The
second level curriculum prepares apprentices that will get admission to Higher
Vocational Institutions but not get admission to Universities; (c) The third level
curriculum prepares apprentices that will also get admission to Universities.
The career oriented curriculum to be addressed by Namibian secondary schools

should be the (b) or second level option of preparing apprentices that could get
admission to the Polytechnic or other ‘higher vocational qualifications Institutions’.
Some day in the distant future the third level career option curriculum could be
introduced as well when the socio-economic level of our society displays a need for
such a curriculum.
Table 7.5: Proposal for a Junior secondary Career-oriented

curriculum (gr 7-9)
Compulsory promotional subjects Career options: 1 support subject

(6 x 5 periods per week = 30 ppw) Select a different job area in grade 7, 8, and 9
(9 periods p w)
- English - Building Construction area (including
- Mathematics Bricklaying, Plastering, Tiling Painting, Carpentry,
- Information and Communication Plumbing and Pipe fitting, Sales person in
hardware shop)
Technology (including Basic
information Science) - Electricity / Electronics area
(including Basic Electricity/ Electronics,
- Life Orientation (RME and Life Skills)
Air Conditioning)
- Natural Science
- Automotive area (including petrol and diesel,
- Social Studies Auto Mechanics, Automotive Electricity, Parts
salesman)
- Engineering area (including Metalwork and
Welding)
- Hospitality and Tourism area (receptionist,
secretary, housekeeping, waiter, bar tender, tour
guide, event organizer, singer, actor, visual artist,
stock controller, transport manager, assistant
chef,)
- Personal image area (Hairdressing, pedicures
,manicures, beautician, clothing styles for figures,
Total periods per week: health and fitness training, fashion and fabrics,)
30 + 9 = 39 - The world of banking
- Logistics area
- Manufacturing area
- Wholesale and Retail Trade
- Post and Telecommunications
- Health care and Social Services
Clarification and discussion of the above Engelbrecht junior secondary career

education curriculum
1. The junior secondary phase is part of ‘basic education’ and this means a
‘general broad education’ creates a basis for further specialisation in the
senior secondary phase. Apart from having a broad base for all junior
secondary learners, they are too young and inexperienced about the world of
work to be able to make any career choice that might match their passion or
talents.
2. The career education features of the different countries above (in section 7.7),
show that actual job training starts only after grade 10 or after the end of the
junior secondary phase. The purpose of the junior secondary phase is then to
introduce learners to different job areas such as the Hospitality and Tourism
area; Logistics; Personal image area; Wholesale and Retail Trade; Post and
Telecommunications; Health care and Social Services; Construction and so
forth. These job areas offer modern jobs and cater for both genders. Subjects
such as Design and Technology or Fashion and Fabrics is not appropriate for
the new purpose of the career exploration programme.
All junior secondary learners in Namibia could go through this ‘Career

exploratory programme’ if the professional careers are added to the job areas
above. The motivation and thus productivity of employees will be much higher if
employees actually perform work that match their abilities and interests, instead
of doing any kind of job to survive financially. Although the ‘Career exploratory
programme’ might cover many job areas in theory, the three to five job areas
for which the school has equipped classrooms will be the ones that is
counting as support subjects with continuous assessment only.
The above Engelbrecht proposed career curriculum proposes that learners from
grade 7-9 have a compulsory core academic stream and then explore a job
area in each grade. The 3 job areas that learners explore in the junior phase of a
school, should be offered by that school in the secondary career curriculum. This
grade 7-9 ‘Career Exploratory programme’ enables learners to discover their
possible career talents and interests and includes career guidance
discussions, virtual or real visits to workplaces, aptitude tests, projects and
explorations of what particular jobs entail as well as general employability
skills. This grade 7-9 ‘Career Exploratory programme’ should preferably include
some practical activities of the job areas as well as entrepreneurial knowledge.
Guest speakers from the different job areas offered in a school could be invited
to bring the work reality to the classroom.
3. The 6 compulsory academic core subjects are pomotional subjects. The selected
‘job area exploration subject’ from grade 7-9 is a support subject with only
continuous assessment. The academic core follows the ‘one language option’
currently available. In the world of work, learners must be able to communicate
in oral and written format in English. The second language option is simply not a
necessity in the career stream. Many learners with a more practical intelligence
are not performing well in languages, so why burden them with something the
world of work does not require.
Life Orientation incorporates RME and Life Skills and is a promotional core
because it is the one subject that develops the humanness of learners. The Life
Skills subject should also include development of general employability skills,
values and attitudes as attributes of the ideal employee (See 7.1.3). Life Skills
should also develop different thinking skills and values incorporated in our laws.
The ‘Natural Science’ and ‘Social Studies’ provide a sound basis for basic
education and some career relevant knowledge in these areas from grade 7-9.
There is no need for duplication of these subjects by offering the separate
subjects such as History or Physical Science from grade 7-9. This means there
could be a basic junior secondary curriculum that looks the same for the
academic and the career stream. This basic curriculum will be less expensive
than the current proposed junior secondary curriculum and the money saved
could be used to establish the career ‘Exploratory programme’ and the textbooks
necessary for that.
The core subject of ‘Information and Communication Technology’ (including Basic

Information Science) is an important modern job requirement because all employ-
ees need to be able to work with computers and process information logically.
4. The job area option has 9 periods per week, which cover job / trade theory (6
periods) and practical training of 3 periods per week. The theory periods might
include Technical drawings when relevant for a job area, general Occupational
health and safety measures and Entrepreneurial knowledge. The
‘Entrepreneurial knowledge’ focuses on understanding how a business works, a
few facts about the Labour Law, how to start a business and the management of
a business in order to promote their understanding of the employee rights and
responsibilities in the working environment.
5. A ‘Basic curriculum’ applicable to both the academic and the career stream could
save millions in textbooks, do not make the timetable difficult and fewer teachers
are necessary. The above proposed basic junior secondary curriculum
emphasises ‘academic subjects, personal development and career guidance.
Secondary teacher qualifications could add one ‘Exit Learning Outcome’ (ELO)
in the subject ‘Counselling and learner support’ about ‘career guidance’ that
would support secondary teachers to provide better career guidance in the
‘Career Exploration programme’.
6. The fewer promotional subjects and thus periods per week (30), for grade 7-9,
allow learners to cope better with the transition from primary to secondary school
without being so overwhelmed. The total of periods also fit into a 5-day week
time table.
7. The 6 promotional subjects have the current continuous assessment and a

formal examination, while the career exploration support subject has no formal
examination at the end.
8. Physical education and Arts should be purposefully promoted by the hidden

curriculum via sport and cultural activities in the afternoon.
7.9.2 Proposed changes to the current Senior secondary Career curriculum
The latest (2014) national curriculum changes were prompted by several factors,
among which were: The Namibian grade 12 performances are not meeting
expectations for many years now. Many grade 12 learners do not get admission to
tertiary institutions or the schools and also do not get a job. This negative situation
for individuals and the country are now addressed before poverty, crime and
violence consequently de-stabilize the country.
The need for differentiation in the national curriculum was addressed under section
7.1 and will not be repeated here. Let us quickly remind ourselves of the features of
the educational system that are not meeting the educational needs of both
individuals and the country. Currently, the Namibian secondary system aims at
preparing learners for further academic studies in natural sciences, social sciences,
commerce and so forth. This differentiation does not offer enough individualization
considering the fact that 90% of grade 12 learners do not enter higher education. But
the academic curriculum also does not prepare the 90% of learners for getting a job.
The following Engelbrecht senior secondary career curriculum provides an
alternative to the pure academic stream that will prepare learners in certain job areas
which will make them attractive beginner employees due to their job knowledge
(understanding), values (being) and other employability attributes (doing).
It is important that the secondary career education do not merely duplicate the
vocational courses in the current Vocational Training Centres in Namibia, but instead
focus on modern jobs in a range of job areas such Hospitality and Tourism, Logistics
area, Manufacturing area, Wholesale and Retail Trade, Post and
Telecommunications, Health care and Social Services. A new name such as ‘career
education’ is therefore preferable above any old name, e.g. ‘pre-vocational’ schools
to avoid any negative connotations linked to the old name and system.

__________________________________________________________________
Imagine you are asked to propose and discuss a Namibian senior secondary
career oriented curriculum. How and why so will your ideal career curriculum
look like for senior secondary learners?

___________________________________________________________________
The following headings propose how (and why so) a senior secondary career
curriculum could look for Namibia. Does your proposal agree with this one?
Table 7.6: Proposal for a Senior secondary Career-oriented

curriculum (gr 10-11)
Compulsory promotional subjects Career options: 1 promotional subject

(5 x 5 periods per week = 25 ppw) Select a job for grade 10-11. (10 periods p w)
- English (first of second language) - Building Construction area (including

Bricklaying, Plastering, Tiling Painting, Carpentry,
- Information and Communication Plumbing and Pipe fitting, Sales person in
hardware shop)
Technology (including Basic
information Science) - Electricity / Electronics area
(including Basic Electricity/ Electronics,
Air Conditioning)
- Life Orientation (RME and Life Skills)
- Automotive area (including petrol and diesel,
Auto Mechanics, Automotive Electricity, Parts
- Natural Science
salesman)
- Engineering area (including Metalwork and
- Social Studies Welding)
- Hospitality and Tourism area (receptionist,
secretary, housekeeping, waiter, bar tender, tour
guide, event organizer, singer, actor, visual artist,
stock controller, transport manager, assistant
chef,)
- Personal image area (Hairdressing, pedicures
,manicures, beautician, clothing styles for figures,
health and fitness training, fashion and fabrics,)
- The world of banking
- Logistics area
Total periods per week: - Manufacturing area
25 + 10 = 35 - Wholesale and Retail Trade
- Post and Telecommunications
- Health care and Social Services
Clarification and discussion of the Senior secondary Career curriculum
1. Learners select a job at the beginning of grade 10 according to their interests

and abilities and continue with this job training until the end of grade 11 or even
until the end of grade 12 if a particular job requires more training time.
2. Mathematics should not be compulsory any longer for this senior career phase.
The mathematic base up to grade 9 provide adequate basics for the jobs on offer
in the career curriculum. In addition, as is the case with languages, many
practical intelligence oriented learners struggle to pass Mathematics.
3. As for the junior career phase, no second language is required. What career
purpose would another serve? Of course any additional language might be
helpful in some work places, but the curriculum can only accommodate the
necessities, not the ‘nice to haves’. The fact remains that the national language
is the only one that everybody should be competent in. Once again, it is a ‘fit for
career purpose approach’ versus a traditional ‘a bit of everything available’.
English might incorporate ‘assertive communication and other styles’ while the
writing, reading and speaking as in job and life situations are emphasized.
4. Although the junior secondary ‘Career exploratory programme’ might cover

many job areas in theory, the three to five job areas for which the school
has equipped classrooms will be the ones that is counting as career
promotional subjects with the common final examination as well.
5. Life Orientation incorporates RME and Life Skills and is a promotional core
because it is the one subject that develops the humanness of learners. The Life
Skills subject should also include development of general employability skills,
values and attitudes as attributes of the ideal employee (See 7.1.3). Life Skills
should also develop different thinking skills and values incorporated in our laws.
Life Skills would further need to incorporate study skills, emotional intelligence
skills, HIV/AIDS, road safety, co-operation skills, esthetical skills, aspects of
‘citizenship’.
6. The ‘Natural Science’ and ‘Social Studies’ provide an adequate general

education and some career relevant knowledge in these areas from grade 10-11.
There is no career need for offering the separate subjects such as History or
Physical Science in grade 10-11 as in the academic stream.
7. The core subject of ‘Information and Communication Technology’ (including Basic

Information Science) is an important modern job requirement because all employ-
ees need to be able to work with computers and process information logically.
8. The job area option has 10 periods per week, which cover job / trade theory (6
periods) and practical skills training of 4 periods per week. The theory periods
might include Technical drawings when relevant for a job, but should include
relevant Occupational health and safety measures, general employability skills
and Entrepreneurial knowledge. The ‘Entrepreneurial knowledge’ focuses on
understanding how a business works, a few facts about the Labour Law, how to
start a business and the management of a business in order to promote their
understanding of the employee rights and responsibilities in the working
environment. Relevant guest speakers could be invited and DVDs bought or
produced to bring the work reality to the classroom.
9. Unlike in the junior secondary career curriculum, the senior career curriculum will
need qualified and experienced persons in the jobs offered by a school. They
should be appointed with the same or better salaries as teachers, even if they do
not have a teaching qualification.
10. The fewer periods per week (35) for grade 10-11, allow learners to achieve better
understanding of theoretical knowledge and allows time for developing practical
skills. The total of periods also fit into a 5-day week time table.
11. The admission criteria to post-school career education qualifications must be

changed to fit the senior secondary subjects, e.g. a C in English, Social Studies,
Natural Science and Selected Job must be accepted for admission to further
education qualifications.
12. Practical or workplace training over a 2 year period would enable learners to
become competent beginners or assistants in jobs. Especially, if grade 11
learners could be attached to real work situations during school holidays
for a week or two.
13. Physical education and Arts should be purposefully promoted by the hidden
curriculum via sport and cultural activities in the afternoon.
The philosophical perspective on ‘quality education’ applied in this curriculum is a

combination of fairly ‘broad academic knowledge’; a ‘fit for career purpose’; an
effective ‘value for money’; the ‘meeting of set standards’; a ‘meeting of employer/
market needs’ and some ‘general education’.
7.9.3 Implementation issues of a career curriculum
(a) All secondary schools (not one per region) should eventually include a
‘career stream’ as soon as physical facilities are provided. The 8 former
Technical High Schools have some facilities that could be used immediately for
career stream purposes with some adaptations. A career oriented school stream
could offer as many careers as facilities and staff could deal with. In Namibia it is
likely however that schools would not offer more than 3 to 5 job oriented training
programmes with appropriate workshops and facilities needed for such jobs.
Grade 10 to 12 learners can follow a career oriented curriculum which will offer
job oriented training most needed by a town and region. Ideally new secondary
schools need to be built with the financial and expert input from business people
and municipalities but that might be only feasible in a phase 2 and 3 of
establishing career education in schools.
(b) Selection
Towards the end of grade 9, learners choose a specific job training after being
exposed to career guidance and to 3 job trainings in a school. Parents and
teachers collaborate to assist learners in making the best choice. Apart from
marks, relevant career and aptitude tests could be applied.
(c) National standards

Employers and academic experts must play an active part in determining the
Namibian standards for jobs which are comparable to international ones. It is
especially the functions of the Namibia Training Authority to develop
occupational standards, promote effectiveness of vocational education
programmes and promote articulation between vocational and other education
programmes. The NTA supports the idea that career education needs to be
introduced with modern job options (meeting of 30 June 2010). The NTA is also
already addressing the issue of career education options for special needs
learners.
(d) National assessment

As in the case of the current national examination system, the career track
examinations for grade 10 and grade 11 should also be a national examination.
In addition, theoretical pass rates must be not less than 50% and a 60% pass
rate for practical work is introduced. If the career education quality fails to be
accepted by employers the whole career curriculum was a waste of money.
(e) Examples of jobs

A national survey should identify the current and future job needs in towns and
regions, but international examples of jobs that different career streams might
focus on, are:
 Computer technician
 Printer technician
 Assistant chef / cook; bakery assistant; waiter;
 Housekeeper
 Security guard/ police assistant
 Plumber
 Electrician
 Painter
 Tiler
 Welder
 Secretary / Receptionist/ Switchboard operator
 Hairdresser
 Beautician
 Singer
 Actor
 Dancer
 Nursing / physiotherapy assistant
 Tourist guide
 Crafts person
 Visual artist
 Radio/ TV presenter
 Journalist
 Writer
 Fitness and health instructor
 Dress maker
 Transport manager
 Stock controller
 Agricultural worker
 Gardener
 Air conditioning and refrigeration assistant
 Bank clerk
 Electronic or motor part sales person
 Event organizer
Refer to the curriculum table and observe the other job areas that the NTA is already
exploring via their industrial committees and which jobs could be added to this list.
The different career syllabi are based upon the approved NTA level 1-4 syllabi in
order to have a seamless career education system.
(f) A single standardized core curriculum for all career stream learners that focuses
on career relevant academic subjects would be cost effective for the government
while addressing all wellness areas, for example: RME addresses ‘spiritual
wellness’; History or Geography addresses ‘environmental or social wellness’;
Life Skills addresses ‘intellectual, emotional, social wellness and deep learning
and partly physical wellness by addressing health issues, drugs and HIV/AIDS;
the career subject addresses the theory and practice of ‘occupational wellness’,
including employability and entrepreneurial skills.
(g) Job placements

The appointed job experts must assist learners to be placed at some organisa-
tion during the last year of their training during holidays to get real work
experience. The more work experience a learner could get, the better. These
placements also demonstrate to employers to potential of candidates and the
quality of the career education programme, which might lead to better support
from organizations for the career education needs.
For too long Namibia has stagnated in her believes about the purposes and nature of
secondary education. Unemployment of the school-leaving youth is one of the
biggest challenges and dangers to a stable and prosperous Namibia. Career
oriented secondary schools can address unemployment and the drop-out rate
greatly with a curriculum that mixes some academic subjects with occupational
training up to the point of entering the job market as entrepreneur, apprentice or
competent assistant.
7.10 Propose recommendations for the design of a career

education system in Namibia
Revisit Unit 5 about the curriculum design steps and observe how these steps are
applied in the designing of a secondary career curriculum for Namibia.
Recommendations for the design of a career curriculum
1. Obtain the current projected manpower needs from the Ministry of Labour and
Manpower and relate them to the manpower needs as depicted by Vision 2030.
2. Take note of the need for differentiation in school curricula and the design of
international secondary career education curricula and how such career schools
provide in the manpower needs of countries.
3. Managing the change to a new system, by conducting a regional survey to

determine perspectives and attitudes of different stakeholders such as parents,
teachers, employers, principals, teachers’ Unions employers and businesses’
views on the envisioned career schools as well as on which priority job needs
career schools should focus in particular towns and regions. The survey should
also explore the willingness of employers to assist in designing job syllabi and
to accommodate grade 11 learners for a week or two during holidays for real
workplace experience. Tasks executed by learners must be recorded in a
logbook by employers.
4. Consider the features of the national post-school vocational training centres and
the role of the NTA and the Polytechnic in Namibian career education. The
school career training must form a seamless system with the post-school career
training system.
5. Against the gathered information about the Namibian manpower needs,

stakeholders’ perspectives and international secondary career education
trends, the Namibian secondary school career education model (see 7.9) is
selected.
6. Formulate the rationale and exit learning outcomes for the junior secondary
career curriculum and the senior secondary career curriculum, while taking note
of modern views about quality education, holistic wellness aims and
employability skills research.
7. Determine how grade 10 learners will be screened and advised for selecting
specific jobs.
8. The duration of the career training will be mostly from grade 10 till the end of
grade 11, but for some jobs the training might be till the middle or end of grade
12.
9. Involve stakeholders to determine the career curriculum for the junior and the
senior secondary phase according to the career model, the manpower needs
identified and less expensive job training options for the first phase of
implementing career education. The Namibia school career curriculum should
be designed in such a fashion that there are seamless pathways of education
that connect junior to senior and senior to further education and training
opportunities. Tertiary as well as NTA stakeholders should thus be involved.
This accreditation link could be established through both relevant content and
changes in admission policies of further education institutions.
10. Involve employers, associations and other stakeholders to compile syllabi /

module descriptors for the job exploration areas in the junior secondary phase.
These syllabi must accommodate indigenous circumstances and suggest
practical training activities as well. The syllabi of the career subjects must not
only correlate with Namibian national job descriptor standards but also compare
favourable with international syllabi for the same job, because education has
become internationalized as the world becomes a global environment. These
syllabi will guide the production or buying of textbooks and other learning
materials.
11. Proper national examinations for both theory and practical demonstrations in
the job areas is a necessity. In addition, the quality of such curricula should be
assured by a 50% pass rate for theory and a 60% pass rate for practical tasks.
Theory and practical tests must be passed independently, and not by average
of the two scores. Unemployment will not be addressed if employers do not
experience quality levels in learners. Therefore the assessment system needs
to monitor the final level of performances accurately. In future, it is possible that
schools could get external moderators to supervise the ‘career / trade tests’ in
the school facilities.
12. If Employers Associations and Professional Associations were not continuously

involved in compiling career syllabi the final draft must be presented to them for
quality assurance and accreditation inputs before implementation plans
commence.
7.11 Create an implementation plan for the career education

curriculum
The following tasks must be undertaken by the MOE departments or internal and
external consultants to implement the designed career curriculum:
1. Launch in conjunction with partners like the NTA, a campaign that promotes the
status, relevancy and envisaged system features of the career oriented stream.
Present also career guidance information at schools. Possible donors and
private education providers must be invited to elicit their support for the
establishing of career oriented schools that apply the national syllabi.
2. Organise a national conference to discuss drafts on the table for a phase 1 and 2
and 3 career education implementation in schools.
3. Manage administrative changes: The policies and all other factors that clearly
impact negatively on the attaining of quality career education for all should be
addressed. New policies must be introduced to suit the needs of the career
stream, for instance regarding job experts without a teaching qualification; policy
regarding salaries; policy regarding workloads; teacher-learner ratio formulas;
funding of schools; the role of schools in society, e.g. ‘night school’ courses for
community development; the development and use of school property by
parents/ business people; several issues of assessment, e.g. no automatic
promotion; performance appraisals; teacher licensing; whole school auditing and
reward system.
4. Plan the instructional management: Provide appointed job experts with no

teaching qualifications with ‘Instructional Management files’ which contain all
relevant information about duties, code of conduct, time tables, practical training,
school rules, and so forth.
5. Appraise the national need for job training staff for phase 1, 2, and 3 of
implementing the career curriculum in regions. The qualifications , experience of
job experts, fair salaries and school duties must be determined.
6. Appraise the required physical facilities needed for implementing career

education in phase 1,2 and 3. For instance, the former Technical High Schools
were designed for vocational education and those facilities could be upgraded.
Modern pre-fabricated buildings could be used to build additional classrooms for
schools which has open space available. The ideal would be that secondary
schools offer 3-5 job training courses which implies the need for equipped
classrooms. Career classrooms must be spacious enough to accommodate the
practical training stations and desk space for theory teaching.
7. Identify the required teaching-learning resources needed for the national career
curriculum implementation of the first phase, second phase and third phase per
region. Use the syllabi to identify the needed teaching-learning resources per
job.
8. Costing of the implementation of the career stream per phase needs to consider
the following: Renovation of and new Facilities and equipment; Staff related
costs; Teaching and learning resources; Assessment practices; the quality
marketing of the ‘career stream status’ project; syllabus development of the core
and elective subjects; Maintenance and insurance and so forth. In the end the
envisaged positive impact of the new career stream on the overall development
and stability of the country cannot be stopped on account of reasonable costs
involved. The psychological, social, political and economic growth that might not
take place without a new career track would be far more costly to individuals and
the state.
The Ministry of Education mainly finances the secondary vocational education

but the Ministry of Labour could also contribute partly. Municipalities of towns
could be requested to contribute to the establishment of the career stream option
since it would benefit the general development and possibly reduce social
problems in towns. In Namibia there is the VET levy that could be applied to
career education in secondary schools as well. Parents or business persons
could be enticed to invest money in proper career oriented facilities by having
some career facilities named after them.
9. Start providing the physical facilities for phase 1 and equip classrooms with the
relevant job training equipment.
10. Advertise to procure relevant staff and learners. Select lecturing and
administrative staff. Experienced and qualified persons should be appointed as
teachers at market related salaries, no matter whether such persons have a
teaching qualification or not. In-service training linked to performance appraisals
and teacher licensing could support the development of teaching abilities.
11. Schools are to be advised on which jobs to offer, based on a national survey of
current and future occupational needs and skills for both genders in towns
and regions. If specific job needs of rural towns are addressed by that rural
schools, people do not have to flock to other towns to find work, and they stay
with their families and have accommodation.
12. Provide schools with guidelines for the 5-day time tables of the career curriculum
in schools are compiled. Also provide schools with materials to test learners
interests and abilities for particular jobs on offer at schools.
13. Once the career education kicks off, in-service training needs of career staff in
schools should be researched, e.g. with regards to teaching skills,
entrepreneurship, Life Skills, RME, career guidance and instruments to test
learners’ career interests and abilities.
14. Career schools should use their career staff to organize ‘workplace learning or
job experience’ for 1 or 2 weeks during holidays in the grade 11 year. The career
staff could also assist learners to get interviews for jobs in their industry after
completion of there training.
15. A national auditing and reward system could be introduced for all career
curriculum aspects to establish a proper control and data gathering mechanism
that guides improvements.
16. Upon graduation in the career stream, national feedback on the career
curriculum must be obtained from every grade 11 group in schools. In addition,
within 6 months of graduation, feedback must also be obtained from relevant
employers about the effectiveness of the career stream in preparing learners for
the particular jobs and the world of work. This feedback serves as input to
improve the career curriculum design and implementation. Feedback forms must
be designed to be completed by grade 12 ‘career stream’ learners as well as by
employers of these learners about the effectiveness of the program to prepare
learners for a particular job and the world of work.
17. Career schools could offer their job training also to adult members of the
community via ‘night school or evening courses’ and thus upgrade workers’
skills while making money out of fees for their services. Such schools should
then have a night school principal responsible for the ‘continuing education
programme’ or ‘night school education’. Having adult education courses changes
the role of schools in the community. Adults enrolling for these night school
programs must be 16 years and older and pay a minimum fee for the courses.
18. Before phase 2 is implemented the NTA could investigate relevant new jobs of
the international ‘green jobs’ drive, e.g. electrical car mechanic and compile such
green job standards for Namibia as well.
Consequences of not implementing the career stream
Resistance to change is human but progressive change in order to move forward is

also inevitable. Ministries are the leaders that plan strategically to manage the future
of a country. The educational information in this document supports the proposed
changes to the junior and secondary curriculum for the benefit of individuals and the
country. The Namibian low pass rates in grade 10 and 12 and the growing
unemployment due to fact that the current school system does not harness the
abilities of many students can no longer be ignored. If a career stream is not
established and most of the recommendations not implemented the consequences
could involve the following:
 Petitions by angry parents and community members and organizations
 Strikes by learners and teachers
 Growing numbers of unemployment with possible revolutionary actions
 Social problems escalating at huge costs for the state which could have been
spent on career education in the first place
 Slow economic growth due to lack of trained staff and low productivity
 Fewer entrepreneurial successes
 Less gender equality and job creation for women
 Lower competitiveness of Namibia on the global market
 Worsening relations of the business sector with the Ministry of Education /
government, resulting in less financial support for education
 Lower status of Namibia in the eyes of ILO, UNESCO and other international
donors
 Unacceptable poor quality of life for a large percentage of the population
 Ignoring factors that impact on quality education
Changes to a national curriculum must both support individuals to cope in life and
manage the national human resources development. The Engelbrecht junior and
senior secondary career curriculum will support people to have a better quality of
life.
7.12 Summary
This Unit started off by discussing why there is a need for differentiation in school
curricula. The Namibian society profile counts a ‘developing country. We simply are
not a first world society which is strongly academic oriented. A career oriented
education is more suitable for the stage of our socio-economic development. Most of
the Namibian grade 12 learners do not qualify for higher education admission, but
we still need competent workers. A career education curriculum could deliver that
competent beginners while higher education deliver competent professionals,
managers and leaders. The former Technical High Schools in Namibia was a move
in the right direction but the curriculum was not really an alternative to the academic
stream, since learners were expected to be successful in a full academic plus a
vocational area.
The latest (2014) proposed junior secondary career curriculum is so flawed that it is
not acceptable. Career education should not start at the age of grade 7, rather
career guidance via introduction to different job areas should take place in the junior
secondary phase. The senior secondary career curriculum starts from grade 10
onwards and learners should have a core academic curriculum plus training in a
selected modern job.
Some factors were identified that will improve the secondary education in Namibia,
especially the career education. The features of secondary career education in many
countries were explored in order to design a Namibian career curriculum for the
junior and senior secondary phase.
The NTA has identified many modern jobs for our learners that are important for our
economic development. That is the kind of jobs that schools should offer and not
repeat old vocational trades that are offered by vocational centres in Namibia. The
Engelbrecht proposed senior secondary career curriculum includes an academic
core, development of learners’ humanness, plus training in a selected job.
Recommendations were made as to how a national secondary career curriculum

could be designed and implemented. The consequences of not having a proper
career education system were spelled out.
7.13 References
Armstrong, T. 2010. Multiple Intelligences. Hyperlink
[http://www.thomasarmstrong.com/multiple_intelligences.php]. June 22, 2010.
Brunette, H. C. 2006. Technical Education in Namibia: Past Trends, Present
circumstances and Future prospects. Bloemfontein: University of the Free State.
Diman Vocational High School. 2010. Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning
program. Hyperlink [http://dimanregional.org/vocational]. April 23, 2010.
Evans-Klock, C. 2010. Skills and Employability. Geneva: International Labour Office.
Finnish National Board of Education. 2010. National core curriculum for general
upper secondary education. Helsinki: Finnish National Board of Education.
Gonczi, A., Curtain, R., Hager, P., Hallard, A. & Jarrison, J. 1995. Key
Competencies in on-the-job-training. A Report. Sydney: University of Technology.
I Amsterdam. 2010. Branches of secondary education. Hyperlink
[http://www.iamsterdam.com/en/living/education/vmbo-havo-vwo]. April 23, 2010.
NIED. 2011. Draft 2 proposal for basic education curriculum reform. Okahandja:
NIED.
NTA. 30 June 2010 meeting.
NTA. 2014. Namibia Training Authority. Hyperlink [www.nta.com.na]. September
17, 2014.
Saskatchewan Government. 2004. Wellness 10. A curriculum guide for the
secondary level. Hyperlink
[http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/wellness/dimensions.html]. January 11, 2007.
Skills that work. 1998. Definitions of 37 competencies and skills. Hyperlink
[http://www.sccc.org/skillsthatwork/98%20definitions.htm]. February 3, 2004.
UNESCO. 2010. Technical and Vocational Education and Training. Hyperlink
[http://www.unesco.org/en/tvet]. June 21, 2010.
UNESCO. 2012. Youth and skills: Putting education to work. EFA Global Monitoring
Report. Paris: UNESCO.
Wikipedia. 2010. Vocational Education. Hyperlink
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocationaleducation]. June 21, 2010.
Wikipedia. 2010. Vocational School. Hyperlink
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocationalschool]. April 23, 2010.

UGR Curriculum Studies For Primary and Secondary Teachers IOL Dr. F.D.J Engelbrecht

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TEXTBOOK and STUDY GUIDE

Instructional Layout / Editing / Design / Publishing

Copyright © 2014. Dr. F. D. J. Engelbrecht

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

This Textbook / Study Guide is available at: Dr. F. Engelbrecht

Date of next revision: 2018

Exit learning outcomes…………………………………………………………………………. 10

Study support in this module…………………………………………………………………… 11

Module assessment and quality assurance………………………………………………….. 14

Verbs’ thinking processes……………………………………………………………………… 14

Prescribed text books…………………………………………………………………………… 18

References in IOL centres……………………………………………………………………… 18

UNIT 1: Discuss key features of curricula and quality education ...........….............. 20

UNIT 2: Analyse the historical progress of curriculum development science

UNIT 3: Discuss the foundations / forces that influence curriculum

UNIT 4: Evaluate the curriculum theory and practices of competency-

5.1 Describe the typical phases of curriculum development …………………………. 324

UNIT 6: Analyse curriculum implementation steps ………………………. 370

6.1 Explain the importance of proper implementation steps to ensure effective

UNIT 7: Create a career education curriculum for Namibian secondary

The terminology of this module is in line with modern learner-centred and

Psychology of Education underpins Learner Development and Learning which

This module focuses on the study of theoretical and practical dimensions of

Decide whether you want to be a successful teacher or not. If your answer is

Dr. Frikkie Engelbrecht

1. Discuss key features of curricula and quality education

Study support in this module

 The brain also requires that information must be understood to be

serve a helpful learning purpose.

 Typically, vacation school sessions are offered with face-to-face lecturing.

Module assessment policy and quality assurance

Verbs’ thinking processes

Table 1.1: Meanings of and thinking required by verbs

VERB THINKING REQUIRED AS STANDARDS / LEVELS OF

Analyse Examine information in detail to discover the main ideas/

Calculate A numerical answer from given figures or information is required

Comment Describe something and discuss briefly by giving the positive

Indicate both similarities / resemblances and differences of

Criticise Give a reasoned judgement of something after careful weighing

Deduce Use the information provided, e.g. reference to a law, principle

Define Give the precise, brief meaning of something, often referring to

Provide detailed features of an issue or stages of a process in a

Determine Use the information given to work out the answer.

Discuss Give a clear description and then argue about features by

Distinguish Describe two phenomena / things according to relevant criteria.

Estimate Provide a reasoned projection or hypothesis; an evaluation of

Evaluate Determine the value / worth / quality / success of something

Find A general term that means calculate, determine or measure.

Identify Recognise and name / list features.

Illustrate Describe by giving examples or making drawings.

Interpret Describe something, explain the meaning, significance or

Investigate Identify detailed features of something / problem systematically

Outline Give an overview of, or indicate the main features of something

Make a logical deduction either from your own knowledge or

Relate Indicate and describe the relationship / connections between

Give a brief account of the essence of a matter through the

Write Specify structured headings or unstructured essay and specify

Level 4 verbs = outline, describe, list

References in IOL centres

Icons used in this study guide

Objectives / learning outcomes

Read and study

Feedback on learning activities

Subject: _________________________________ Hours per week _