Applied Energy 224 (2018) 86–102

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Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Investigation of a star flow insert in a parabolic trough solar collector T

⁎
Evangelos Bellos , Christos Tzivanidis
Thermal Department, School of Mechanical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Zografou, Heroon Polytechniou 9, 15780 Athens, Greece

H I GH L IG H T S

• AThenovel flow insert with star shape in parabolic trough collector is studied.
• The insert geometry is optimized by examining 16 different insert shapes.
• The analysis is performed using thermal, exergy and overall efficiency criteria.
• The collector performance is enhanced for all the examined flow inserts.
• maximum thermal efficiency enhancement is found up to 1%.

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The use of flow inserts is a common passive technique for enhancing the thermal performance of parabolic
Parabolic trough collector trough solar collectors. The objective of this work is to investigate a novel insert with a star shape. The shape of
Star insert this insert is optimized by examining different combinations of its geometric characteristics. Totally 16 different
Thermal enhancement cases are studied with the fin length to be varied from 15 mm to 30 mm and the fin thickness from 2 mm to
Exergy
5 mm. The evaluation criteria of the examined cases are the thermal efficiency, the exergy efficiency and the
Solar energy
overall efficiency of the solar collector. The exergy efficiency and the overall efficiency are suitable criteria for
evaluation the Nusselt number increase with the simultaneous friction factor increase. The collector is examined
for inlet temperatures between 400 K and 650 K with a volumetric flow rate equal to 150 L/min. According to
the final results, the thermal efficiency, the exergy efficiency and the overall efficiency are increased for all the
examined flow inserts. The thermal efficiency enhancement is higher with the inlet temperature increase and it
can reach up to 1%. Moreover, it is found that greater dimensions of the insert lead to higher performance
enhancements. The pressure drop is found to increases many times with the use of inserts but the pumping work
value is extremely low in all the cases. The analysis is conducted with SolidWorks Simulation Studio with a
validated model.

1. Introduction real applications with PTC in solar-only or hybrid modes [7].

Solar energy exploitation is one of the major ways for facing the
recent problems in the energy domain as the fossil fuel depletion [1],
the high greenhouse emissions [2] and the increasing electricity con-
sumption worldwide [3]. Concentrating solar power is a promising
choice for producing useful heat in medium and high temperatures for
utilization in numerous applications as industrial heat, desalination,
refrigeration and chemical processes [4], as well as for power produc-
tion in concentrating power plants [5]. The most common solar con-
centrating technologies are parabolic trough collector (PTC), linear
Fresnel reflector, solar dish and solar tower [6]. Among these tech-
nologies, PTC is the most mature concentrating collector because this
technology is investigated for many decades and there are numerous
One of the most important challenges in the PTC is the thermal
efficiency enhancement in order higher useful heat amounts to be
produced, especially in higher temperature levels. Thus, a lot of re-
search has been focused on various ways which can enhance the per-
formance of PTC. These techniques usually aim to increase the heat
transfer coefficient between the fluid and the absorber tube in order
high useful heat rates to be achieved [8]. These techniques can be se-
parated into two great categories; the use of geometrical modifications
(internal fins, flow inserts, dimpled absorbers, etc.) and the use of na-
nofluids. All these techniques have been found to be interesting and
they lead to thermal efficiency enhancement. However, the use of na-
nofluids in real applications is associated with numerous challenges as
their high cost, the preparation difficulties and the agglomeration

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: bellose@central.ntua.gr (E. Bellos).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.04.099
Received 5 March 2018; Received in revised form 15 April 2018; Accepted 28 April 2018
Available online 04 May 2018
0306-2619/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
E. Bellos, C. Tzivanidis Applied Energy 224 (2018) 86–102

Nomenclature ηex Exergy efficiency, –

ηopt Optical efficiency, –
A Area, m2 ηovr Overall efficiency, –
C Concentration ratio, – ηth Optical efficiency, –
cp Specific heat capacity under constant pressure, J/kg K μ Dynamic viscosity, Pa s
D Diameter, m ρ Density, kg/m3
E Exergy flow, W τ Cover transmittance, –
F Focal length, m φ Peripheral absorber angle, o

f Friction factor, –
Gb Solar direct beam irradiation, W/m2 Subscripts and superscripts
h Heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 K
hout Convection coefficient between cover and ambient, W/m2 a aperture
K am ambient
k Thermal conductivity, W/m K c cover
L Tube length, m ci inner cover
m Mass flow rate, kg/s co outer cover
Nu Nusselt number, – fm mean fluid
Q Heat rate, W in inlet
Re Reynolds number, – loss thermal loss
r Concentrator reflectance, – m logistic mean fluid temperature
t Fin thickness, mm max maximum
p Fin length, mm out outlet
T Temperature, K r receiver
u Fluid velocity, m/s ri inner receiver
V Volumetric flow rate, L/min ro outer receiver
Vwind Ambient air velocity, m/s s solar
W Width, m sky equivalent sky
Wp Pumping work demand, W th theoretical value
u useful
Greek symbols
Abbreviations
α Absorber absorbance, –
ΔP Pressure drop, Pa CFD Computational fluid dynamics
ε Emittance, – PTC Parabolic trough collector

problems [9]. So, the use of some geometrical techniques for enhancing
the performance seems to be a more reliable technique for increasing
the performance of PTC at this time period.
In the literature, numerous ideas have been examined by many re-
searchers. Table 1 includes 31 studies [10–40] with various ideas for
enhancing the performance of PTC using flow inserts or geometrical
modifications in the absorber. More specifically, the studies [10–27]
investigated the use of flow inserts while the studies [28–40] examine
the use of modified absorbers with internal fins, dimples and other
ideas. Below, these studies are presented with details.
The most usual flow insert is the twisted tape insert which has been
examined in many studies. Ghadirijafarbeigloo et al. [10] performed a
CFD analysis using louvered twisted tape in the absorber of a PTC with
Behran oil as working fluid. They proved an increase in the Nusselt
number up to 300%. Jaramillo et al. [11] examined a twisted tape in-
sert with water working fluid and they calculated the thermal efficiency
enhancement to be about 10%. Mwesigye et al. [12] studied the use of
wall-detached twisted tape inserts and they proved overall efficiency
enhancement up to 27%. Moreover, they calculated the optimum
Reynolds number region for the examined PTC which operates with
Syltherm 800. Chang et al. [13] studied the use of twisted tape inserts
with molten salt as working fluid. According to their results, the Nusselt
number can be increased up to 200% and the friction factor up to 150%.
Rawai et al. [14] studied the use of serrated twisted tape and they
stated that this insert leads to thermal efficiency enhancement up to
5%. Moreover, Bakta et al. [15] examined the use of a nail type twisted
tape insert in a PTC experimentally. They found important enhance-
ment in the instantaneous thermal efficiency which is up to 15%, while
they stated that the increase of the pitch ratio is beneficial for the
collector performance. A wavy-tape insert was examined by Zhu et al.
[16] in a PTC which operates with Syltherm 800. This insert has a si-
nusoid shape along the tube length. This study proved that the ex-
amined insert reduces the thermal losses about 33%, increases the
Nusselt number about 3 times and the friction factor about 4 times.
The next category of flow inserts includes the wire coil inserts.
Diwan and Soni [17] and Sahin et al. [18] studied this insert type and
they found Nusselt number increase about 200%. The use of a helical
screw tape insert was found by Song et al. [19] to be a questionable
selection because of the extremely high-pressure drop which is about 23
times greater than the reference case with the empty tube. Liu et al.
[20] studied the use of two symmetrically located twisted inserts in the
absorber and they proved a decrease in the absorber temperature var-
iation in its periphery up to 39%. Moreover, Chang et al. [21] studied
the use of an eccentric insert inside the flow and they found enhance-
ments using the performance evaluation criterion. More specifically,
they found the performance evaluation criterion to be ranged from 1.11
to 1.64, while they indicated that the maximum absorber temperature
can be reduced up to 20 K.
The use of porous inserts as foams, plates and discs is also usual in
the literature. Jamal-Abad et al. [22] studied experimentally a metal
foam insert and they found thermal efficiency enhancement up to 3%.
Wang et al. [23] examined the same idea and they found an extremely
high-pressure increase, about 700 times greater than the reference case.
Mwesigye et al. [24] proved that the use of perforated plate inserts is
able to enhance the thermal efficiency up to 8%. Ghasemi and Ranjbar
[25] studied the use of porous rings in the absorber and they found
Nusselt number enhancement close to 50% and high increase in the
friction factor. Furthermore, Reddy et al. [26] investigated the use of

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E. Bellos, C. Tzivanidis Applied Energy 224 (2018) 86–102

Table 1
Literature studies about the thermal enhancement methods in PTC.
Study Examined cases Increase ηth (%) Method

Modification Working fluid

Ghadirijafarbeigloo et al. [10] Louvered twisted tape Behran oil – CFD

Jaramillo et al. [11] Twisted tape Water 10 Model
Mwesigye et al. [12] Wall-detached twisted tape Syltherm 800 27 CFD
Chang et al. [13] Twisted tape Molten salt – CFD
Rawani et al. [14] Serrated twisted tape Therminol VP-1 5 Model
Bakta et al. [15] Nail type twisted tape Water 15 EXP
Zhu et al. [16] Wavy-tape insert Syltherm 800 – CFD
Diwan and Soni [17] Wire coil Water – Model
Sahin et al. [18] Wire coil Water – CFD+EXP
Song et al. [19] Helical screw tape Dowtherm A – CFD
Liu et al. [20] Two twisted inserts Water/steam – CFD
Chang et al. [21] Eccentric insert Molten salt – CFD
Jamal-Abad et al. [22] Metal foam Water 3 EXP
Wang et al. [23] Metal foam Water/steam – CFD
Mwesigye et al. [24] Perforated plates Syltherm 800 8 CFD
Ghasemi and Ranjbar [25] Porous rings Syltherm 800 – CFD
Reddy et al. [26] Porous discs Water 6 EXP
Zheng et al. [27] Porous discs Water/steam 3 CFD
Cheng et al. [28] Longitudinal vortex generators Syltherm 800 – CFD
Reddy and Satyanarayana [29] Porous fins Therminol VP-1 – CFD
Xiangtao et al. [30] Pin fin arrays D12 Oil – CFD
Benabderrahmanee et al. [31] Two longitudinal fins DOWTHERM A – CFD
Bellos et al. [32] Eight longitudinal fins Syltherm 800 1.3 CFD
Bellos et al. [33] Eight longitudinal fins Syltherm 800 1.4 CFD
Bellos et al. [34] Various longitudinal fins Syltherm 800 0.51 CFD
Munoz and Abanades [35] Helical fins Syltherm 800 3 CFD
Fuqiang et al. [36] Asymmetric outward convex corrugated absorber D12 Oil – CFD
Huang et al. [37] Dimpled tube Therminol VP-1 – CFD
Too and Benito [38] Dimpled tube Pressurized air 0.8 Model
Bellos et al. [39] Converging-diverging absorber Therminol VP-1 4.55 CFD
Bitam et al. [40] Sinusoidal absorber tube Syltherm 800 3 CFD

porous discs. They found thermal efficiency enhancement up to 6%,
while the pressure drop increases up to 400%. In another study, Zheng
et al. [27] studied the use of porous discs with water/steam and they
found 3% thermal efficiency enhancement and a huge increase in the
friction factor, about 100 times greater than the reference case.
In the literature, there is also a great number of studies which in-
vestigates geometrical modifications of the internal absorber surface.
Many of these studies examine modifications (for instance internal fins
or dimples) in the down part of the absorber because in this area there
is high heat flux concentration and so there is a need for higher heat
transfer rates. Cheng et al. [28] examined the use of longitudinal vortex
generators in the down part of the absorber tube and they stated that
the thermal losses can be reduced up to 13% while there is duplication
in the friction factor. Reddy and Satyanarayana [29] proved that the
porous fins lead to 14% Nusselt number increase with a small penalty in
the friction factor. Xiangtao et al. [30] studied the use of fin pin arrays
in the down part of the absorber tube and they found a relatively low
increase in the Nusselt number and in the friction factor. However,
there are studies which instigate geometrical modifications in the entire
absorber tube periphery. Benabderrahmane et al. [31] examined the
use of two internal longitudinal fins in the down part of the absorber
tube and they found an increase in the Nusselt number up to 80%, while
they also found a penalty in the friction factor up to 85%. Bellos et al.
[32,33] investigated the use of internally finned absorbers with 8 rec-
tangular longitudinal fins. They found that this technique is able to
increase the thermal efficiency of the collector up to 1.5% with a rea-
sonable penalty in the pressure drop. Recently, Bellos et al. [34] in-
vestigated the optimum location and the optimum number of the in-
ternal longitudinal fins in a PTC. Using a multi-objective evaluation
procedure, they found the optimum design to be with three internal fins
in the down part of the absorber and for this case a thermal efficiency
enhancement of 0.51% is observed.
Munoz and Abanades [35] found that the helical fins increase the
performance up to 3%. Fuqiang et al. [36] studied the use of an
asymmetric outward convex corrugated tube and they found 2.5 times
greater heat transfer coefficient. Huang et al. [37] examined a dimpled
and they stated that there was a small increase in the Nusselt number
and in the pressure drop. Too and Benito [38] performed a comparative
study of twisted tape inserts, wire coil inserts and dimples. According to
their results, the use of dimples in the internal absorber surface is the
most effective method which leads to 0.8% thermal efficiency en-
hancement. Furthermore, Bellos et al. [39] investigated the use of a
converging-diverging absorber tube which leads to 4.55% mean
thermal efficiency enhancement. Bitam et al. [40] examined the use of a
sinusoidal absorber tube optical and thermally. They found 3% thermal
efficiency enhancement with a penalty on the pressure drop about 50%.
The previous literature review proved that the use of various tech-
niques is able to enhance the thermal performance of the PTC. The use
of flow inserts leads usually to higher thermal efficiency enhancement
compared to the geometrical modifications. So, the use of flow-inserts
seems to be a promising way for increasing the thermal performance of
PTC and to make them a more sustainable technology. In this direction,
this study investigates an innovative flow insert with a star geometry.
This is a symmetrical insert which aims to increase the effective thermal
conductivity of the flow. To our knowledge, there is no other study
which examines this idea in the PTC absorber or in any other tube. The
geometry of this insert is optimized and it is investigated for different
inlet temperatures (from 400 K up to 650 K). The pressure drop increase
is taken into consideration by using the exergy efficiency and the
overall efficiency criteria, while the thermal efficiency criterion is also
used. The analysis is conducted with a developed CFD model in
SolidWorks Flow Simulation Studio. This model is validated using lit-
erature results and also this model has been used in our previous work
[32,33,39,41]. The final results of this work are able to determine the
impact of the examined insert on the collector performance and to
suggest the cases (operating conditions) that this insert can be used.

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E. Bellos, C. Tzivanidis Applied Energy 224 (2018) 86–102

Moreover, the thermal efficiency enhancement, as well as the increase formula. The pressure drop (ΔP) has been calculated by the simulation
of the pressure drop, is clearly calculated for all the examined cases. tool.
ΔP D
2. Material and methods f= 1
·⎛ ri ⎞
2
·ρ ·u2 ⎝ L ⎠ (7)
2.1. The examined parabolic trough collector The mean fluid velocity (u) is calculated as:
m
The examined parabolic trough collector is the LS-2 module which u=
π·Dri2
has an evacuated tube receiver and it is depicted in Fig. 1. The con- ρ·⎛ 4
⎞
⎝ ⎠ (8)
centration ratio of this module is 22.74 and the total aperture is 39 m2.
The module length is 7.8 m, the module width is 5 m and the focal The Reynolds number (Re) of the flow in a circular tube is calculated
distance of the parabola is 1.84 m. The absorber outer diameter is as below:
70 mm and the cover outer diameter is 115 mm. The maximum optical 4·m
efficiency of this collector is about 75.5% and it is achieved for zero Re =
π·Dri ·μ (9)
incident angle [42]. More specifically, the absorber absorbance is 96%,
the cover transmittance 95%, the concentrator reflectance 83% and the In this work, the flow is turbulent in all the cases because the
intercept factor close to 100%. It is important to state that the re- Reynolds number is over 2300. Below, two theoretical equations for the
flectance has a reduced value in order to take into consideration many Nusselt number and the friction factor are given. These equations re-
factors as tracking errors, possible manufacturing errors, mirror and the gard the case with the empty tube and turbulent flow conditions. These
receiver clearness. Table 2 includes all the proper information about the equations are used only for validation reasons in this paper.
examined module. The theoretical value of the Nusselt number (Nuth) is given as [43]:
In this work, a novel flow insert is tested in order to investigate how
it influences on the flow. The examined flow insert has a star geometry Nuth =
( )·Re·Pr
fth
8
0.68
which is depicted in Fig. 2. The shape of this insert is optimized by 1 + 12.8·
fth
·(Pr−1)
examining different combinations of the fin length (p) and the fin 8 (10)
thickness (t). More specifically, the length of the fin is examined for the The theoretical value of the friction factor (fth) is given as [43]:
values 15 mm, 20 mm, 25 mm and 30 mm, while the fin thickness is
0.184
examined for the values 2 mm, 3 mm, 4 mm and 5 mm. All the ex- fth =
Re 0.2 (11)
amined inserts are depicted in Fig. 3. Totally, sixteen different cases are
examined and compared to the reference case which is the one with the
absorber without flow insert. 2.2.2. Exergy and overall flow efficiency definitions
The pumping work demand is an important parameter in this work
2.2. Mathematical formulation because the use of the flow insert increases the pressure drop. The
pumping work (Wp) can be calculated as:
2.2.1. Basic thermal and hydraulic analysis m ·ΔP
In this section, the basic mathematical equations which are used for Wp =
ρ (12)
the evaluation of the results are given with the proper details.
The useful heat production (Qu) of the collector is calculated using In this work, the useful thermal production has to be evaluated with
the energy balance in the fluid volume: the pumping work. For this reason, two criteria have been selected to be
used. The first one is the exergy efficiency which evaluates the useful
Qu = m ·cp·(Tout −Tin ) (1) heat production as equivalent possible work production. The other
The available solar direct beam energy on the PTC (Qs) is the pro- criterion is the overall efficiency which evaluates the pumping work
duct of the aperture (Aa) and the of the solar beam irradiation (Gb). consumption as the equivalent heat (or primary energy) for its pro-
duction.
Qs = Aa ·Gb (2) The useful exergy production (Eu) can be calculated as [44]:
The thermal efficiency of the collector (ηth) is the ratio of the useful T T ·m ·ΔP
heat to the solar irradiation: Eu = m ·cp·(Tout −Tin )−m ·cp·T0·ln ⎡ out ⎤− 0
⎢
⎣ Tin ⎥
⎦ Tfm·ρfm (13)
Q
ηth = u or
Qs (3)
T T
The heat transfer coefficient (h) in the flow is calculated according Eu = Qu·⎛1− 0 ⎞− 0 ·Wp
⎜ ⎟

to the following equation. The useful heat (Qu), the receiver mean ⎝ Tm ⎠ Tfm (14)
temperature in its inner surface (Tr) and the mean fluid temperature
(Tfm) are known parameters by the CFD analysis.
Qu
h=
(π·Dri ·L)·(Tr −Tfm) (4)
The mean fluid temperature (Tfm) can be calculated as:
Tin + Tout
Tfm =
2 (5)
The mean Nusselt number (Nu) is defined as:
h·Dri
Nu =
k (6)
The friction factor (f) of the flow is calculated using the following Fig. 1. The examined parabolic trough collector (LS-2) designed in SolidWorks.

89
E. Bellos, C. Tzivanidis Applied Energy 224 (2018) 86–102

Wp
Table 2 Qu− η
Data about the LS-2 module [42]. el
ηovr =
Qs (18)
Parameters Symbols Values
The electrical efficiency (ηel) is the equivalent electrical efficiency of
Module width W 5.0 m
the power grid. It has usually values close to 33% and a typical value
Module length L 7.8 m
Parabola focal distance F 1.84 m
according to the literature is 32.7% [46].
Total aperture Aa 39.0 m2
Concentration ratio C 22.74 2.3. Simulation of the examined model
Receiver inner diameter Dri 66 ·10−3 m
Receiver outer diameter Dro 70 ·10−3 m
Cover inner diameter Dci 109 ·10−3 m The simulation of the PTC is performed in SolidWorks Flow
Cover outer diameter Dco 115 ·10−3 m Simulation. This tool performs simultaneously optical, thermal and
Cover emittance εc 0.86 hydraulic analysis. Totally 17 cases (16 with flow inserts and the re-
Cover transmittance τ 95% ference one) are examined for different operating conditions. In every
Absorber absorbance α 96%
Concentrator reflectance r 83%
case, the same boundary conditions are applied in order a suitable
Intercept factor γ ∼100% comparative study to be performed. In this section, the most important
Maximum optical efficiency ηopt,max 75.5% parameters that have been used in the developed model are defined.
More details about the developed model can be found in Refs.
[32,33,39–41,47–49].

2.3.1. Boundary conditions definition

The most important boundary conditions of the model are given
below:

– The volumetric flow rate (V) is selected at 150 L/min (reference

Fig. 2. The examined star insert.
value) according to the analysis in Refs. [32,33]. This parameter is
also examined from 50 L/m to 250 L/min with a step of 50 L/min in
the flow rate sensitivity analysis.
– The inlet temperature (Tin) is selected to be ranged from 400 K to
650 K with step 50 K.
– The pressure in the tube outlet is selected to be 15 bar in order to
keep the working fluid in liquid phase.
– The ambient temperature is selected to be 300 K.
– The heat convection coefficient between the cover and the ambient
(hout) is selected at 10 W/m2 K. This value is calculated by using the
Eq. (19) [50] and for wind speed close to 1 m/s [50].
0.58 −0.42
hout = 4·V wind ·Dco (19)

With the logistic mean temperature Tm to be defined as:
T
ln ⎡ Tout ⎤
Tm = ⎣ ⎦
in
Tout −Tin (15)
It is useful to state that the logistic mean temperature Tm is close to
the mean fluid temperature (Tfm). The expression of Eq. (14) clearly
indicates that the pumping work is taken into consideration in the ex-
ergy useful production. So, the exergy analysis is a proper technique for
the evaluation of the flow insert.
The exergy flow of the solar irradiation is calculated using the Petela
model which is suitable for the solar beam irradiation. This model takes
into consideration that the sun is a radiation reservoir and so the exergy
low of the solar irradiation (Es) can be written as [45]:
2.3.2. Materials, thermal and radiative properties
The examined working fluid is Syltherm 800 [51]. This thermal oil
for operation in can operate with safety from −40 °C up to 400 °C with
a pressure level of about 10–15 bar [51]. The thermal properties
(thermal conductivity, density, dynamic viscosity and specific heat
capacity) of this fluids were inserted in the material libraries of the
SolidWorks. Table 3 includes these thermal properties for some tem-
perature levels from 400 K up to 650 K. It is important to state that in all
the examined cases, the temperature levels have been kept under the
maximum permitted temperature of 673 K (or 400 °C). (See Table 4)
The absorber of the examined model is selected to be made of
stainless steel with absorbance (α) equal to 96%. The emittance of the
absorber (εr) is calculated using the next formula [42]:
εr = 0.05599 + 1.039·10−4 ·Tr + 2.249·10−7·Tr2 (20)

4 T 1 T
4 The cover of the evacuated is selected to be made of glass. The cover
Es = Qs ·⎜⎛1− ·⎡ 0 ⎤ + ·⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎞⎟ transmittance (τ) is selected to be 95% and its emittance (εc) 86% [42].
3 ⎢ T ⎥
⎣ sun ⎦ 3 ⎢
⎣ sun ⎥
T ⎦⎠ (16)
⎝ The evacuated tube is assumed to be without air and so there are no
convection thermal losses between the absorber and the cover but only
The sun temperature (Tsun) can be selected at 5770 K, while the
ration thermal losses. At this point, it is important to state that the cover
reference temperature (T0) at 298.15 K. The selected sun temperature is
is selected to radiate to an equivalent sky temperature (Tsky) which was
a mean temperature value in the outer layers of the sun [44].
selected to be 287 K. This value is calculated using the following for-
The exergy efficiency (ηex) can be defined as:
mula [52] and for ambient temperature equal to 300 K.
Eu 1.5
Tsky = 0.0553·Tam
ηex = (21)
Es (17)
Lastly, the concentrator is selected to be a “mirror surface” with
The overall efficiency (ηovr) is defined as: reflectance (r) equal to 83% [42].

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E. Bellos, C. Tzivanidis Applied Energy 224 (2018) 86–102

Fig. 3. The examined star flow inserts.

Table 3 beam irradiation (Gb) is selected to be 1000 W/m2 and it has a zero
Thermal properties of Syltherm 800 [51]. incident angle to the collector aperture. These values are not examined
T (K) k (W/m K) ρ (kg/m3) μ (Pa s) cp (J/kg K)
parametrically because the goal of this work is to focus on the thermal
analysis of the collector and in the flow insert impact on the thermal
400 0.1149 840.3 0.00222 1791 performance.
450 0.1055 794.8 0.00133 1876 In this work, there is non-uniform heat flux distribution in the ab-
500 0.0961 747.2 0.00084 1962
550 0.0867 696.2 0.00056 2047
sorber periphery. Fig. 4 depicts the local concentration in the absorber
600 0.0773 640.0 0.00039 2133 periphery. This figure has been created by the results of the simulation
650 0.0679 577.7 0.00029 2218 tool about the heat flux distribution in the absorber periphery. The
obtained profile is similar to other literature studies [31,53]. It is ob-
vious that the local concentration ratio is greater in the lower part of
2.3.3. Optical analysis the absorber tube because of the concentration of the solar rays over
The optical analysis has been performed also by SolidWorks Flow this absorber part.
Simulation tool. Totally, 107 solar rays have been used, after per-
forming a simple sensitivity analysis. In the present work, the solar

Table 4
Model test with experimental results from Ref. [55].
Cases Gb Tam Tin V Outlet temperature Tout (K) Thermal efficiency ηth (%)

(W/m2) (K) (K) (L/min) Ref. [55] Model Deviation Ref. [55] Model Deviation

1 934 294.4 375.4 47.7 397.2 397.4 0.05% 72.51 73.51 1.38%
2 968 295.6 424.2 47.8 446.5 446.8 0.07% 70.90 72.52 2.29%
3 982 297.5 470.7 49.1 492.7 493.0 0.06% 70.17 71.45 1.83%
4 910 299.5 523.9 54.7 542.6 542.6 0.00% 70.25 69.71 0.76%
5 938 299.4 571.0 55.5 589.6 590.0 0.07% 67.98 67.40 0.85%
6 881 302.0 572.2 55.6 590.4 589.9 0.08% 68.92 67.09 2.66%
7 903 300.7 629.1 56.3 647.2 646.9 0.05% 63.82 63.07 1.18%
8 921 304.3 652.7 56.8 671.2 670.6 0.09% 62.34 61.02 2.12%
Mean – – – – – – 0.06% – – 1.63%

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E. Bellos, C. Tzivanidis Applied Energy 224 (2018) 86–102

60 Nu (theoretical) Nu (model) f (model) f (theoretical)

700 0.040

50 0.035
Local Concentration Ratio

600

0.030
40 500

Nusselt number - Nu

Friction factor - f
0.025
400
30
φ 0.020
300
20 0.015
200
0.010
10 Absorber
100 0.005

0 0 0.000
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000
Peripheral absorber angle - φ (o) Reynolds number - Re

Fig. 4. Local concentration ratio distribution in the peripheral of the absorber. Fig. 5. Results about the accuracy of the Nusselt number and the friction factor
with the developed model in SolidWorks Flow Simulation.

2.3.4. Details for the flow conditions and the computational mesh
The governing equations of continuity, momentum and energy
equation are solved by SolidWorks Flow Simulation [54] for turbulent
flow conditions. In this work, the turbulent model is k-ε is selected
because it is usual in similar studies [12,24,32,33]. At the tube inlet, the
flow has been selected to be fully developed.
The computational mesh is created also by SolidWorks Flow
Simulation. A mesh independence procedure has been performed and
finally, 2 million cells have been selected. More details about this
procedure can be found in Refs. [32,33]. Special treatment has been
given for the fluid cells and the partial cells with the proper refine-
ments, as well as with an extra local mesh.
2.3.5. Followed methodology
The simulation tool was used for the 17 examined cases, and for
every case 6 different inlet temperatures have been applied (400–650 K
with 50 K step). The selected temperature levels are usually in real
applications with PTC. The flow rate is selected at 150 L/min which is a
reliable choice according to the Refs. [32,33] for the present PTC. The
examined flow inserts are modeled with two main parameters, the fin
length (p) and the fin thickness (t). The fin length (p) takes values
15 mm, 20 mm, 25 mm and 30 mm, while the fin thickness (t) is ex-
amined for 2 mm, 3 mm, 4 mm and 5 mm.
For every case, the simulation tool calculated the following para-
meters:
• Fluid outlet bulk temperature (Tout)
• Mean Receiver temperature (Tr)
• Thermal losses of the receiver (Qloss)
• Pressure drop along the tube (ΔP)
These parameters were further used for the calculation of the fol-
lowing parameters:
2.4. Model validation
The first validation test investigates the accuracy of the thermal
model for the PTC. Experimental results from Ref. [55] (Dudley et al.)
about the LS-2 module are used for testing the present model. This
validation procedure is performed for the reference case with empty
absorber tube. The results indicate that there are extremely small de-
viations in the outlet temperature which are close to 0.5 K and the mean
deviation in the absolute value is 0.06%. The mean deviation in the
thermal efficiency is about 1.63% and its maximum value is 2.66%.
These values indicate that the present model gives results close to the
respective experimental and thus it can be adopted as reliable.
The next validation procedure regards the flow characteristics. The
Nusselt number and the friction factor values are tested for different
Reynolds numbers. The theoretical Nusselt number value is calculated
using the Eq. (10) and the theoretical value of the friction factor is
calculated using the Eq. (11). Fig. 5 indicates that there are small de-
viations between the calculated and the theoretical values of these
parameters. The mean deviation in the Nusselt number is about 3% and
in the friction factor is about 5%. So, the obtained results for the re-
ference case are close to the theoretical values and the developed model
can be adopted as reliable.
3. Results
3.1. General results
The main results of the simulations are illustrated in Figs. 6–14. In
these figures, the right axis gives the values of the examined parameter
for the reference case (empty and smooth absorber tube), while the left
axis gives the enhancements (or the deviations) of the other examined
parameters compared to the reference case. The results are given for
inlet temperatures from 400 K up to 650 K.

• Useful heat production (Q ) u

3.1.1. Thermal performance results
• Useful exergy production (E ) u
The use of the flow inserts aims to increase the Nusselt number in
• Pumping work demand (W ) p
the flow and this parameter is depicted in Fig. 6. It is obvious that there
• Thermal efficiency (η ) th
is an enhancement in all the cases with inserts. The enhancements are
• Exergy efficiency (η ) ex
lower for temperature levels close to 400 K and they are higher for
• Overall efficiency (η ) ovr
temperature levels close to 600 K. The enhancement in the Nusselt
number is generally ranged from 10% up to 50%, while the absolute
Moreover, extra studies about the impact of the flow rate on the value of the Nusselt number is ranged from 267 up to 660. The highest
results, the absorber temperature distribution on its periphery and the enhancements are observed for the cases with 5 mm fin thickness and
turbulence intensity increase are performed. All the results are given in fin length equal to 25 mm and 30 mm. The lowest enhancements are
the Section 3 with the proper details. found for the cases with the thinnest fins (2 mm). These results indicate

92
E. Bellos, C. Tzivanidis Applied Energy 224 (2018) 86–102

p = 15 mm - t = 2 mm p = 15 mm - t = 3 mm p = 15 mm - t = 4 mm p = 15 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 20 mm - t = 2 mm p = 20 mm - t = 3 mm p = 20 mm - t = 4 mm p = 20 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 25 mm - t = 2 mm p = 25 mm - t = 3 mm p = 25 mm - t = 4 mm p = 25 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 30 mm - t = 2 mm p = 30 mm - t = 3 mm p = 30 mm - t = 4 mm p = 30 mm - t = 5 mm
60% 700

Nusselt number of the reference case

650
50%
Nusselt number enhancement 600
550
40%
500
30% 450
400
20%
350
300
10%
250

0% 200
400 450 500 550 600 650
Inlet temperature (K)
Fig. 6. Nusselt number enhancement for the examined cases and Nusselt number values for the reference case.

that the fin thickness seems to be an important parameter in the present reduced from 3% up to 14%. The thermal losses of the reference case
work. Moreover, the fin length is a remarkable parameter and it is are ranged from 411 W up to 4113 W and they are higher for higher
found that greater fin length generally increases the Nusselt number. inlet temperatures. It is noticeable that the percentage decrease in the
The next examined parameter is the heat transfer coefficient (Fig. 7) thermal losses is getting lower with the inlet temperature increase. This
which is directly associated with the Nusselt number (see Eq. (6)). The result is explained by the increase of the thermal loss values which
trends in the lines of the heat transfer coefficient are similar with the makes the relative decrease, as a percentage, to have a decreasing rate.
trends for the Nusselt number. Again the enhancements area ranged However, the absolute values of the thermal losses decrease are higher
from 10% to 50% and the highest values are observed for the cases with with the increase of the inlet temperature. For instance, the thermal
5 mm fin thickness and 25 mm or 30 mm fin length. The values of the losses decrease is 58 W at inlet temperature equal to 400 K and it is
heat transfer coefficient for the reference case area ranged 466–683 W/ 258 W at inlet temperature equal to 650 K, for the case (p = 30 mm –
m2 K. It is important to notice that the small differences of the trends in t = 5 mm). But, the percentage decrease of this case is 14.10% for
the curves, between Figs. 6 and 7, are explained by the variation of the Tin = 400 K and 6.28% for Tin = 650 K. Moreover, it is essential to state
thermal conductivity with the temperature (see Eq. (6)). that the thermal losses decrease is higher for the cases with higher
The increase of the Nusselt number and of the heat transfer coeffi- Nusselt number enhancement. More specifically, the inserts with higher
cient leads to decrease in the thermal losses of the solar collector, as it is fin length and fin thickness lead to a higher decrease in the thermal
shown in Fig. 8. This figure indicates that the thermal losses can be losses.

p = 15 mm - t = 2 mm p = 15 mm - t = 3 mm p = 15 mm - t = 4 mm p = 15 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 20 mm - t = 2 mm p = 20 mm - t = 3 mm p = 20 mm - t = 4 mm p = 20 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 25 mm - t = 2 mm p = 25 mm - t = 3 mm p = 25 mm - t = 4 mm p = 25 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 30 mm - t = 2 mm p = 30 mm - t = 3 mm p = 30 mm - t = 4 mm p = 30 mm - t = 5 mm
70% 700
Heat transfer coefficient of the reference
Heat transfer coefficient enhancement

60% 650

50%
600
case (W/m2K)

40%
550
30%
500
20%

10% 450

0% 400
400 450 500 550 600 650
Inlet temperature (K)
Fig. 7. Heat transfer coefficient enhancement for the examined cases and heat transfer coefficient values for the reference case.

93
E. Bellos, C. Tzivanidis
p = 15 mm - t = 2 mm
p = 20 mm - t = 2 mm
p = 25 mm - t = 2 mm
p = 30 mm - t = 2 mm
0%
Thermal losses deviation -3%
-6%
-9%
-12%
-15%
400 450
Fig. 8. Thermal losses decrease for the examined cases and thermal losses values for the reference case.
The next examined parameter is the thermal efficiency of the solar
collector which can be characterized as the most important parameter
because the use of the flow inserts aims to its increase. Fig. 9 shows that
there is an increase in the thermal efficiency in all the examined cases.
The thermal efficiency enhancements are greater for higher inlet tem-
perature levels and they can reach up to 1.02% for the case (p = 30 mm
– t = 5 mm) at 650 K. The thermal efficiency of the reference case is
74.34% for Tin = 400 K and 64.85% for Tin = 650 K. Generally, it can
be said that the optimum cases are these with fin length equal to 25 mm
and 30 mm, with fin thickness equal to 4 mm or 5 mm. These four cases
lead to the highest thermal efficiency enhancements for all the ex-
amined temperatures range.
For inlet temperatures equal to 400 K, the thermal efficiency en-
hancements are relatively low and they are up to 0.2%. It is important
to state that the thermal losses are relatively low at low inlet tem-
peratures and so there is small thermal efficiency enhancement margin
at low inlet temperatures. This is the reason for having smaller thermal
p = 15 mm - t = 2 mm
p = 20 mm - t = 2 mm
p = 25 mm - t = 2 mm
p = 30 mm - t = 2 mm
1.1%
1.0%
Thermal efficiency enhancement
0.9%
0.8%
0.7%
0.6%
0.5%
0.4%
0.3%
0.2%
0.1%
0.0%
400 450
Fig. 9. Thermal efficiency enhancement for the examined cases and thermal efficiency values for the reference case.
Applied Energy 224 (2018) 86–102
p = 15 mm - t = 3 mm p = 15 mm - t = 4 mm p = 15 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 20 mm - t = 3 mm p = 20 mm - t = 4 mm p = 20 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 25 mm - t = 3 mm p = 25 mm - t = 4 mm p = 25 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 30 mm - t = 3 mm p = 30 mm - t = 4 mm p = 30 mm - t = 5 mm
4500
Thermal losses of the reference case (W)
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
500 550 600 650
Inlet temperature (K)
enhancements for Tin = 400 K and higher thermal enhancements for
Tin = 650 K for instance. This result indicates that the use of the
thermal enhancement methods, as the use of a flow insert, is more ef-
ficient at high temperatures because at these cases the thermal losses
are higher and the increase of the heat transfer coefficient can lead to
higher enhancement in the collector performance. Moreover, the PTC
usually operates in high temperatures close to 600–650 K and so there is
compatibility between the real operating conditions and the optimum
operating conditions for maximum thermal enhancements with the
flow inserts.
3.1.2. Hydraulic performance results
The next part of this analysis aims to present the penalty in the
pressure drop by the use of the flow inserts. Fig. 10 depicts the friction
factor and Fig. 11 the pressure drop. These figures present results with
similar trends and the only reason for the small deviations are explained
by the variation of the fluid density with the temperature (see Eq. (7)).
p = 15 mm - t = 3 mm p = 15 mm - t = 4 mm p = 15 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 20 mm - t = 3 mm p = 20 mm - t = 4 mm p = 20 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 25 mm - t = 3 mm p = 25 mm - t = 4 mm p = 25 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 30 mm - t = 3 mm p = 30 mm - t = 4 mm p = 30 mm - t = 5 mm
76%
Thermal efficiency of the reference case
74%
72%
70%
68%
66%
64%
500 550 600 650
Inlet temperature (K)
94
E. Bellos, C. Tzivanidis
p = 15 mm - t = 2 mm
p = 20 mm - t = 2 mm
p = 25 mm - t = 2 mm
p = 30 mm - t = 2 mm
1000%
900%
Friction factor increase 800%
700%
600%
500%
400%
300%
200%
100%
0%
400 450
Fig. 10. Friction factor increase for the examined cases and friction factor values for the reference case.
For the reference case, the friction factor is ranged from 0.0168 up to
0.024, while the pressure drop along the tube from 308 Pa to 641 Pa.
The increase in the friction factor and consequently in the pressure drop
is high and it is up to 900%. The highest values are observed for the
cases with fin length equal to 30 mm which is the maximum examined
value. The lowest increase in the friction factor is about 200% and it is
observed for the cases with the lowest examined fin length (15 mm).
The greatest friction factor is observed for the case of (p = 30 mm –
t = 5 mm), with the cases (p = 30 mm – t = 4 mm), (p = 25 mm –
t = 5 mm) and (p = 30 mm – t = 3 mm) to follow respectively. The
result of the increased pressure drop is the higher pumping work de-
mand. Fig. 12 shows this quantity of the examined cases. The trends of
this figure are again similar to the trends of Figs. 10 and 11. The
pumping work of the reference case is ranged from 0.77 W up to
1.60 W. The highest increase in the pumping work is 900% and it is
observed for the case (p = 30 mm – t = 5 mm), which means maximum
p = 15 mm - t = 2 mm
p = 20 mm - t = 2 mm
p = 25 mm - t = 2 mm
p = 30 mm - t = 2 mm
1000%
900%
800%
Pressure drop increase
700%
600%
500%
400%
300%
200%
100%
0%
400 450
Fig. 11. Pressure drop increase for the examined cases and pressure drop values for the reference case.
Applied Energy 224 (2018) 86–102
p = 15 mm - t = 3 mm p = 15 mm - t = 4 mm p = 15 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 20 mm - t = 3 mm p = 20 mm - t = 4 mm p = 20 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 25 mm - t = 3 mm p = 25 mm - t = 4 mm p = 25 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 30 mm - t = 3 mm p = 30 mm - t = 4 mm p = 30 mm - t = 5 mm
0.025
0.024
Friction factor of the reference case
0.023
0.022
0.021
0.020
0.019
0.018
0.017
0.016
0.015
500 550 600 650
Inlet temperature (K)
pumping work close to 16 W. These values are very small compared to
the useful work production which takes values over 25 kW in all the
examined cases.
At this point, it is important to conduct a deeper analysis of the
proper evaluation of the increased pumping work. This quantity is very
important because it determines the consumption in the pumping
system and it has an important impact on the operating cost of the
installation. For the solar collectors, the evaluation of the pumping
work can be performed with the suitable combination of the useful heat
production and of the pumping work. The exergy efficiency and the
overall efficiency are the indexes which are used in this paper. More
details about these indexes have been given in Section 2.2.
Fig. 13 depicts the exergy efficiency and Fig. 13 the overall effi-
ciency. In all the examined cases, these indexes are enhanced, the fact
that proves that the use of the flow inserts improves the performance of
the collector by taking into account the penalty of the increased
p = 15 mm - t = 3 mm p = 15 mm - t = 4 mm p = 15 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 20 mm - t = 3 mm p = 20 mm - t = 4 mm p = 20 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 25 mm - t = 3 mm p = 25 mm - t = 4 mm p = 25 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 30 mm - t = 3 mm p = 30 mm - t = 4 mm p = 30 mm - t = 5 mm
800
Pressure drop of the reference case (Pa)
700
600
500
400
300
200
500 550 600 650
Inlet temperature (K)
95
E. Bellos, C. Tzivanidis Applied Energy 224 (2018) 86–102

p = 15 mm - t = 2 mm p = 15 mm - t = 3 mm p = 15 mm - t = 4 mm p = 15 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 20 mm - t = 2 mm p = 20 mm - t = 3 mm p = 20 mm - t = 4 mm p = 20 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 25 mm - t = 2 mm p = 25 mm - t = 3 mm p = 25 mm - t = 4 mm p = 25 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 30 mm - t = 2 mm p = 30 mm - t = 3 mm p = 30 mm - t = 4 mm p = 30 mm - t = 5 mm
1000% 1.8

Pumping work of the reference case (W)

900%
1.5
Pumping work increase 800%
700%
1.2
600%
500% 0.9
400%
0.6
300%
200%
0.3
100%
0% 0.0
400 450 500 550 600 650
Inlet temperature (K)
Fig. 12. Pumping work increase for the examined cases and pumping work values for the reference case.

pressure drop (or pumping work). The enhancement in the exergy ef-
ficiency is up to 1% and in the overall efficiency up to 0.94%. These
enhancements are higher for higher inlet temperatures. These results
are in accordance with the results of the thermal efficiency enhance-
ment of Fig. 9. The exergy efficiency of the reference case is ranged
from 20.53% up to 37.71%, while the overall efficiency from 64.85%
up to 74.33%. The overall efficiency presents values close to the
thermal efficiency. On the other hand, the exergy efficiency has totally
different values compared to the other indexes because it takes into
account the operating temperature. Thus, the exergy efficiency has an
increasing rate of the inlet temperature increase.
3.2. Comparative results
The main simulation results have presented in Section 3.1. A deeper
comparative analysis of the results is presented in Section 3.2. Firstly, it
is important to give the specific values of the three examined indexes
(thermal, exergy and overall efficiency) for the examined cases. Table 5
includes this information with the proper important digits in order the
differences among the cases to be clearly presented.
Figs. 15–17 show the comparison of the examined indexes for inlet
temperatures levels of 400 K, 500 K and 600 K respectively. There are
three typical temperature levels and the comparative analysis is con-
ducted for them. Fig. 15 (for Tin = 400 K) indicates that the highest
thermal efficiency is observed for the case of (p = 30 mm – t = 5 mm),
while the exergy and the overall efficiency criteria indicate the
(p = 20 mm – t = 5 mm). The increase pumping work for the cases with
high fin length is the main reason for the different optimum cases with
the different criteria.
Fig. 16 (for Tin = 500 K) shows that the case (p = 30 mm –
t = 5 mm) is the optimum one with all the examined criteria. In this
temperature level, this case presents the maximum thermal efficiency,

p = 15 mm - t = 2 mm p = 15 mm - t = 3 mm p = 15 mm - t = 4 mm p = 15 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 20 mm - t = 2 mm p = 20 mm - t = 3 mm p = 20 mm - t = 4 mm p = 20 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 25 mm - t = 2 mm p = 25 mm - t = 3 mm p = 25 mm - t = 4 mm p = 25 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 30 mm - t = 2 mm p = 30 mm - t = 3 mm p = 30 mm - t = 4 mm p = 30 mm - t = 5 mm

1.0% 40%
Exergy efficiency of the reference case

0.9%
Exergy efficiency enhancement

35%
0.8%

0.7%
30%
0.6%

0.5% 25%
0.4%
20%
0.3%

0.2%
15%
0.1%

0.0% 10%
400 450 500 550 600 650
Inlet temperature (K)
Fig. 13. Exergy efficiency increase for the examined cases and exergy efficiency values for the reference case.

96
E. Bellos, C. Tzivanidis
p = 15 mm - t = 2 mm
p = 20 mm - t = 2 mm
p = 25 mm - t = 2 mm
p = 30 mm - t = 2 mm
1.0%
0.9%
Overall efficiency enhancement
0.8%
0.7%
0.6%
0.5%
0.4%
0.3%
0.2%
0.1%
0.0%
400
Fig. 14. Overall efficiency increase for the examined cases and overall efficiency values for the reference case.
while the pressure drop is not so huge, as in the case (p = 30 mm –
t = 5 mm). So, the optimum result is found for the 25 mm fin length.
Fig. 17 (for Tin = 600 K) shows that the optimum case according to
the thermal and the exergy efficiency is the (p = 30 mm – t = 5 mm).
The overall efficiency indicates that the (p = 30 mm – t = 5 mm) case is
the best one, with an extremely small difference from the other op-
timum case (p = 30 mm – t = 5 mm).
It can be said that the reason for the difference optimum cases
among the examined inlet temperatures is explained by the variation of
the thermal efficiency enhancements and the pumping work increase
among the examined temperatures.
Table 6 summarizes the optimum cases with the three criteria for
the tree typical temperature levels. The first conclusion is that all the
optimum cases have fin thickness equal to 5 mm. The optimum fin
length is ranged from 20 mm to 30 mm. A general sense is that the
optimum fin length is higher for higher temperature levels. More spe-
cifically, the case (p = 20 mm – t = 5 mm) can be characterized as the
best one for Tin = 400 K, the case (p = 25 mm – t = 5 mm) for
Tin = 500 K and the case (p = 30 mm – t = 5 mm) for Tin = 600 K.
These optimum cases are the cases which are found with at least two
criteria in every case as the optimum cases. These conclusions are im-
portant and indicate that the optimum insert geometry is associated
with the operating temperature levels and different inserts are suitable
for different operating temperatures. Finally, the obtained results in-
dicate that different flow inserts can be used in different applications
with PTCs.
3.3. Deeper analysis of the results
Section 3.3 is devoted to presenting extra data about the obtained
cases. More specifically, the temperature distribution on the absorber
periphery, the impact of the flow rate on the results and the turbulence
intensity increase due to the flow inserts are given. These results are
given for inlet temperature equal to 600 K which is a usual temperature
level for the majority of the applications with PTC.
3.3.1. Temperature distribution in the absorber periphery
Figs. 18 and 19 depict the temperature distribution in the absorber
periphery for various cases. These results regard the temperature levels
Applied Energy 224 (2018) 86–102
p = 15 mm - t = 3 mm p = 15 mm - t = 4 mm p = 15 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 20 mm - t = 3 mm p = 20 mm - t = 4 mm p = 20 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 25 mm - t = 3 mm p = 25 mm - t = 4 mm p = 25 mm - t = 5 mm
p = 30 mm - t = 3 mm p = 30 mm - t = 4 mm p = 30 mm - t = 5 mm
76%
Overall efficiency of the reference case
74%
72%
70%
68%
66%
64%
450 500 550 600 650
Inlet temperature (K)
at the middle of the absorber and this presentation technique has been
also performed in Refs. [32,33]. The results are obtained for inlet
temperature equal to 600 K.
Fig. 18 depicts the results for the cases with 5 mm fin thickness, as
well as the smooth case. The cases with the 5 mm thickness have been
found to be the optimum cases, according to the results of Section 3.2. It
is obvious that the cases with the insert present lower values of the
receiver temperature. This result indicates that the mean absorber
temperature is lower with the use of inserts, so the thermal losses are
lower and the thermal efficiency increases. Moreover, it is found that
the increase of the fin length leads to lower temperature levels, but the
profiles for 25 mm and 30 mm are approximately the same. This results
proves that the designs (p = 25 mm – t = 5 mm) and (p = 30 mm –
t = 5 mm) lead to similar thermal performance. Fig. 19 depicts the
results of different fin thicknesses and fin length equal to 30 mm. The
results show that the increase of the fin thickness leads to lower tem-
perature values in the absorber temperature.
Moreover, Table 7 includes analytical values about the absorber
temperature for all the cases. More specifically, the average values, the
maximum value, the minimum value, the temperature range, as well
the standard deviation of the temperature distribution are included in
Table 7 for all the examined cases. The results of Table 7 show that the
increase of the fin length and the fin thickness leads to a lower mean
value of the receiver temperature in its middle. For the smooth case, the
mean value is 628.31 K, while for the case (p = 30 mm – t = 5 mm) is
619.63 K. The maximum values in the absorber periphery of the tem-
perature are ranged from 645.49 K for the smooth case and 634.39 K for
the case (p = 30 mm – t = 5 mm). The minimum values in the absorber
periphery are ranged from 612.66 K for the smooth case and 606.20 K
for the case (p = 30 mm – t = 5 mm).
The temperature range in the absorber periphery is a critical para-
meter because it is associated with the existence of thermal stresses.
This parameter is 32.83 K for the smooth case. The minimum value of
this parameter is 28.19 K for the case (p = 30 mm – t = 5 mm). So, it is
found that temperature range can be reduced up to 15%. Furthermore,
the standard deviation of the temperature has a similar behavior; it is
maximized for the smooth case with 12.29 K and it is minimized for the
case (p = 30 mm – t = 5 mm) with 10.62 K. The other cases present
intermediate values between the smooth case and the case (p = 30 mm
97
E. Bellos, C. Tzivanidis Applied Energy 224 (2018) 86–102

Table 5 of the smooth absorber case and the case (p = 30 mm – t = 5 mm) re-
Summarizing the efficiency results. spectively. The case (p = 30 mm – t = 5 mm) has been found to be the
Case Index Inlet temperature (K) optimum one for the 600 K and thus it is used for the given sensitivity
analysis.
400 450 500 550 600 650 Fig. 20 shows that the use of the insert leads always to higher
thermal efficiency and the thermal efficiency enhancement is higher for
Reference ηth (%) 74.345 73.564 72.404 70.705 68.250 64.853
ηex (%) 20.530 26.787 31.471 34.820 36.901 37.712 the lower flow rates. The reason for these results is based on the lower
ηovr (%) 74.332 73.554 72.394 70.698 68.243 64.847 thermal efficiency of the smooth collector in lower temperature levels,
p = 15 mm ηth (%) 74.406 73.648 72.511 70.846 68.439 65.102
the fact that gives higher enhancement margins at low flow rates. More
t = 2 mm ηex (%) 20.542 26.814 31.515 34.887 37.002 37.856 specifically, for 50 L/min, the thermal efficiency enhancement is
ηovr (%) 74.372 73.620 72.488 70.826 68.422 65.087 2.21%, for 150 L/min is 0.73% and for 250 L/min is 0.45%.
p = 15 mm ηth (%) 74.411 73.658 72.524 70.862 68.460 65.127 Fig. 21 depicts the impact of the volumetric flow rate on the exergy
t = 3 mm ηex (%) 20.543 26.817 31.521 34.895 37.013 37.871 efficiency of the collector. Higher enhancements are observed at lower
ηovr (%) 74.376 73.628 72.499 70.842 68.442 65.112 flow rates. For 50 L/min, the thermal efficiency enhancement is 2.25%,
p = 15 mm ηth (%) 74.410 73.660 72.529 70.873 68.478 65.155 for 150 L/min is 0.71% and for 250 L/min is 0.34%. The exergy effi-
t = 4 mm ηex (%) 20.542 26.818 31.523 34.901 37.023 37.887 ciency curves have similar trends to the thermal efficiency curves (see
ηovr (%) 74.372 73.629 72.504 70.851 68.459 65.138 Fig. 21) but they take lower values close to 36%, while the thermal
p = 15 mm ηth (%) 74.401 73.655 72.528 70.874 68.483 65.164 efficiency is about to 68%.
t = 5 mm ηex (%) 20.539 26.815 31.522 34.901 37.026 37.892 Fig. 22 shows the results of the impact of the volumetric flow rate
ηovr (%) 74.360 73.622 72.501 70.851 68.463 65.147
on the overall efficiency of the PTC. The obtained results have similar
p = 20 mm ηth (%) 74.436 73.691 72.565 70.914 68.528 65.213 trends to the results of the Figs. 20 and 21. However, the curves for the
t = 2 mm ηex (%) 20.548 26.828 31.537 34.919 37.049 37.920
smooth case and the case with the insert are very close to each other for
ηovr (%) 74.393 73.655 72.533 70.887 68.504 65.193
high flow rates. The overall efficiency enhancements for 50 L/min,
p = 20 mm ηth (%) 74.443 73.705 72.584 70.939 68.560 65.256
150 L/min and 250 L/min are found 2.21%, 0.64% and 0.10% respec-
t = 3 mm ηex (%) 20.549 26.832 31.545 34.931 37.067 37.945
ηovr (%) 74.397 73.665 72.550 70.909 68.535 65.234
tively.
The previous results show that the use of the flow insert leads al-
p = 20 mm ηth (%) 74.460 73.725 72.609 70.972 68.606 65.314
t = 4 mm ηex (%) 20.552 26.838 31.555 34.947 37.091 37.978
ways to performance enhancement but the enhancement is higher at
ηovr (%) 74.407 73.681 72.571 70.940 68.578 65.290 lower flow rates. For the exergy and the overall efficiency, the en-
hancements are lower for high flow rates (for instance 250 L/min)
p = 20 mm ηth (%) 74.469 73.736 72.624 70.994 68.634 65.350
t = 5 mm ηex (%) 20.553 26.842 31.561 34.958 37.106 37.999 compared to the thermal efficiency enhancement. This result is rea-
ηovr (%) 74.410 73.689 72.584 70.959 68.604 65.324 sonable because the exergy and the overall efficiency take into con-
p = 25 mm ηth (%) 74.453 73.718 72.603 70.961 68.587 65.290 sideration the pressure drop increase in the tube which is more intense
t = 2 mm ηex (%) 20.549 26.835 31.552 34.941 37.080 37.964 in the cases with higher flow rate. So, the present sensitivity analysis
ηovr (%) 74.397 73.669 72.561 70.925 68.556 65.263 indicates that the hydraulic enhancement is lower in high flow rates
p = 25 mm ηth (%) 74.449 73.732 72.628 70.994 68.632 65.346 due to the increased pumping work on the system.
t = 3 mm ηex (%) 20.547 26.838 31.561 34.957 37.104 37.996
ηovr (%) 74.387 73.676 72.579 70.953 68.596 65.315 3.3.3. Turbulence intensity with the flow insert
p = 25 mm ηth (%) 74.468 73.757 72.656 71.032 68.683 65.413 The last part of the results section is devoted to presents results
t = 4 mm ηex (%) 20.550 26.846 31.573 34.975 37.131 38.034 about the turbulence intensity. The use of the flow inserts leads to
ηovr (%) 74.397 73.694 72.602 70.985 68.642 65.377
higher turbulence in the flow and this is associated with the Nusselt
p = 25 mm ηth (%) 74.479 73.781 72.685 71.070 68.731 65.473 number increase and the friction factor increase. Fig. 23 depicts the
t = 5 mm ηex (%) 20.550 26.852 31.583 34.992 37.156 38.068
increase of the turbulence intensity for all the examined cases. Every
ηovr (%) 74.397 73.708 72.623 71.016 68.684 65.432
case is compared with the smooth case the turbulence intensity increase
p = 30 mm ηth (%) 74.458 73.715 72.599 70.963 68.594 65.303 is given. These results regard the operation with 150 L/min volumetric
t = 2 mm ηex (%) 20.547 26.831 31.548 34.941 37.083 37.970
ηovr (%) 74.387 73.655 72.547 70.919 68.556 65.269
flow rate and inlet temperature equal to 600 K.
Fig. 23 shows that there is turbulence intensity increase in all the
p = 30 mm ηth (%) 74.464 73.721 72.603 70.977 68.634 65.371
cases. The obtained results show that the turbulence intensity increase
t = 3 mm ηex (%) 20.545 26.831 31.548 34.946 37.104 38.009
ηovr (%) 74.379 73.650 72.543 70.926 68.589 65.331 is around 15%. The maximum value is 20.55% for the case (p = 30 mm
– t = 2 mm), while the minimum is 5.27% for the case (p = 15 mm –
p = 30 mm ηth (%) 74.476 73.736 72.621 71.012 68.689 65.446
t = 4 mm ηex (%) 20.543 26.833 31.553 34.961 37.131 38.051 t = 3 mm). Moreover, it is useful to give the turbulence intensity in-
ηovr (%) 74.372 73.651 72.549 70.949 68.633 65.397 crease for the case of (p = 15 mm – t = 3 mm) which is 16.28%.
p = 30 mm ηth (%) 74.494 73.756 72.652 71.058 68.747 65.516
Moreover, it is worthy to state that the turbulence intensity value of the
t = 5 mm ηex (%) 20.544 26.837 31.565 34.982 37.162 38.091 smooth case is found to be 5.84%.
ηovr (%) 74.370 73.657 72.570 70.986 68.683 65.459
4. Discussion

– t = 5 mm). It can be said that the use of higher fin length and
thickness leads to lower values for the receiver temperature and to a
more uniform temperature distribution in the periphery.
3.3.2. The impact of the volumetric flow rate on the collector performance
The impact of the volumetric flow rate of the results is depicted in
Figs. 20–22. The investigated flow rates are ranged from 50 L/min up to
250 L/min while the inlet temperature is equal to 600 K. It is important
to state that in all the cases the flow is turbulent. Figs. 20–22 illustrate
the thermal efficiency, the exergy efficiency and the overall efficiency
In this work, the use of an innovative star shape flow insert is ex-
amined. It is important to discuss further the obtained results and to
compare them with other literature results. The maximum thermal ef-
ficiency enhancement has been found to be up to 1%, while the pressure
drop increase is up to 900%. This result indicates that a small increase
in the thermal performance is associated with a huge penalty in the
pressure drop (or in the pumping work). The exergy and overall effi-
ciency criteria proved enhancement for all the temperature levels. So, it
is found that the increased pumping work is not adequate to eliminate
the thermal efficiency enhancement.

98
E. Bellos, C. Tzivanidis Applied Energy 224 (2018) 86–102

Tin = 400 K
74.55% 20.56%
Thermal Overall Exergy

74.50%

Thermal and Overall efficiency

20.55%

74.45%

Exergy efficiency
20.54%

74.40%

20.53%
74.35%

20.52%
74.30%

74.25% 20.51%

Examined cases (p-t)

Fig. 15. Comparison of the examined cases with the efficiency criteria for inlet temperature equal to 400 K.

Tin = 500 K
72.75% 31.60%
Thermal Overall Exergy
72.70% 31.58%
Thermal and Overall efficiency

72.65% 31.56%
72.60%
31.54%

Exergy efficiency
72.55%
31.52%
72.50%
31.50%
72.45%
31.48%
72.40%
31.46%
72.35%
72.30% 31.44%

72.25% 31.42%

72.20% 31.40%

Examined cases (p-t)

Fig. 16. Comparison of the examined cases with the efficiency criteria for inlet temperature equal to 500 K.

In the literature, there are also other methods for the enhancement
of the flow in the PTC. In our previous literature studies [32,33], the
use of rectangular longitudinal internal fins in the absorber has been
investigated. This technique was found to lead to a thermal efficiency
enhancement up to 1.3% with an increase in the pressure drop up to
750%. These results indicate that the use of internally finned absorber
has a small advantage compared to the use of the star insert. However,
the use of an internally finned absorber is associated with higher
manufacturing cost for the absorber and this technique cannot be ap-
plied in the existing installations. On the other hand, the use of a flow
insert can be applied in the existing PTC with very small modifications.
The next part of the literature studies examines the use of nanofluids
in PTC. Our previous study [41] proved that the use of Syltherm 800/
CuO nanofluid is able to enhance the performance of the collector up to
0.75% with a small penalty in the pressure drop close to 50%. These
results indicate that there is lower thermal efficiency enhancement but
it is close to the previous enhancements. The advantage of the nano-
fluids is the relatively small penalty in the pressure drop. However, the
use of nanofluids in real systems is associated with increased operating
cost, preparation and agglomeration problems.
Finally, it is important to state that these specific studies have been
selected to be discussed because all these works [32,33,41] and the
present one have been performed with the same methodology, the same
CFD tool, the same working fluid and the same operating conditions.
So, the comparative analysis can be performed without noticeable as-
sumptions.
The obtained results of this work indicate that the incorporation of
the star insert in the PTC leads to thermal efficiency enhancement up to
1%. This fact means the use of this modified PTC in a solar field is able
to increase the total system energy production about 1% which is an

99
E. Bellos, C. Tzivanidis Applied Energy 224 (2018) 86–102

Tin = 600 K
68.80% 37.20%
Thermal Overall Exergy
68.70% 37.15%

Thermal and Overall efficiency

68.60% 37.10%

68.50% 37.05%

Exergy efficiency
68.40% 37.00%

68.30% 36.95%

68.20% 36.90%

68.10% 36.85%

68.00% 36.80%

67.90% 36.75%

Examined cases (p-t)

Fig. 17. Comparison of the examined cases with the efficiency criteria for inlet temperature equal to 600 K.

Table 6 p = 30 mm - t = 2 mm p = 30 mm - t = 3 mm
650
Optimum cases with the examined criteria for three temperature levels. p = 30 mm - t = 4 mm p = 30 mm - t = 5 mm
645 Smooth absorber
(p – t) Tin = 400 K Tin = 500 K Tin = 600 K
640
Receiver temperature (K)

ηth (30–5) (25–5) (30–5)

635
ηex (20–5) (25–5) (30–5)
ηovr (20–5) (25–5) (25–5) 630
Final selection (20–5) (25–5) (30–5)
625

p = 15 mm - t = 5 mm p = 20 mm - t = 5 mm 620
650
p = 25 mm - t = 5 mm p = 30 mm - t = 5 mm 615
645 Smooth absorber
610
Receiver temperature (K)

640
605
635 0 60 120 180 240 300 360

630 Peripheral absorber angle - φ (o)

625 Fig. 19. Temperature distribution in the absorber periphery for fin length equal
to 30 mm and inlet temperature equal to 600 K.
620

615

610
605
0 60 120
Peripheral absorber angle - φ (o)
Fig. 18. Temperature distribution in the absorber periphery for fin thickness
equal to 5 mm and inlet temperature equal to 600 K.
important result. Moreover, it proved that the temperature variation in
the absorber periphery is reduced with the use of the star insert. This
result indicates the reduction of the thermal stresses and the lower
possibility for failure. So, this fact reduces the operation cost in a great
solar field due to the reduction of the replacement rate of the absorber
tubes [35]. The previous analysis clearly indicates that the incorpora-
tion of an insert in the PTC, as the examined, is able to increase the
performance the financial viability of the concentrating solar fields.
5. Conclusions
The objective of this paper is to investigate a flow insert with a star
shape in parabolic trough collector. The module of LS-2 PTC is
examined for inlet temperature from 400 K up to 650 K for flow rate
equal to 150 L/min. Totally sixteen different flow inserts are examined
180 240 300 360 and the reference case with the empty tube. The analysis is performed
using the thermal, exergy and overall efficiency criteria. The most im-
portant conclusions of this work are listed below:
– It is found that the enhancement in the Nusselt number and in the
heat transfer coefficient is up to 60%. These enhancements lead to
decrease in the thermal losses up to 14%.
– There is a significant increase in pressure drop and consequently in
the pumping work demand. This increase reaches up to 900%.
However, the obtained values of the pumping work are extremely
low (up to 16 W) compared to the useful heat production which is
over 25 kW in all the cases.
– All the examined flow inserts lead to performance enhancement
according to the thermal, exergy and overall efficiency criteria.
These enhancements are up to 1% and they are greater for higher
inlet temperatures.
– It is found that the optimum star inserts have fins with 5 mm
thickness. The optimum fin length of the star insert is ranged from
20 mm to 30 mm. Moreover, it can be said that the optimum fin

100
E. Bellos, C. Tzivanidis Applied Energy 224 (2018) 86–102

Table 7 Smooth absorber p = 30 mm - t = 5 mm Enhancement

Analysis of the peripheral receiver temperature in the middle of the absorber of 37.4% 2.5%
inlet temperature equal to 600 K. 37.2%

Exergy efficiency enhancement

Cases Absorber temperature distribution characteristics (K) 37.0% 2.0%

Exergy efficiency
36.8%
Mean Maximum Minimum Range Standard deviation
1.5%
36.6%
Smooth absorber 628.31 645.49 612.66 32.83 12.29
36.4%
p = 15 mm 625.18 641.89 609.86 32.03 11.97 1.0%
t = 2 mm 36.2%
p = 15 mm 624.82 641.34 609.66 31.68 11.84
36.0% 0.5%
t = 3 mm
p = 15 mm 624.52 640.87 609.41 31.46 11.79 35.8%
t = 4 mm
35.6% 0.0%
p = 15 mm 624.43 640.72 609.33 31.39 11.77
50 100 150 200 250
t = 5 mm
p = 20 mm 623.61 640.03 608.65 31.38 11.75 Volumetric flow rate (L/min)
t = 2 mm
Fig. 21. The impact of the volumetric flow rate on the exergy efficiency of the
p = 20 mm 623.07 639.15 608.31 30.84 11.55
smooth absorber and the case (p = 30 mm – t = 5 mm) for inlet temperature
t = 3 mm
p = 20 mm 622.30 638.09 607.91 30.18 11.30 equal to 600 K.
t = 4 mm
p = 20 mm 621.77 637.49 607.51 29.98 11.26 Smooth absorber p = 30 mm - t = 5 mm Enhancement
t = 5 mm
69.5% 2.5%
p = 25 mm 622.54 638.61 607.83 30.78 11.57
t = 2 mm 69.0%

Overall efficiency enhancement

p = 25 mm 621.77 637.44 607.35 30.09 11.33
68.5% 2.0%
t = 3 mm

Oveverall efficiency
p = 25 mm 620.88 636.21 606.80 29.40 11.07 68.0%
t = 4 mm 1.5%
p = 25 mm 619.93 634.71 606.45 28.26 10.66 67.5%
t = 5 mm
67.0%
p = 30 mm 622.43 638.57 607.74 30.83 11.58 1.0%
t = 2 mm 66.5%
p = 30 mm 621.74 637.42 607.29 30.13 11.35
66.0% 0.5%
t = 3 mm
p = 30 mm 620.78 635.95 606.81 29.14 10.97 65.5%
t = 4 mm
p = 30 mm 619.63 634.39 606.20 28.19 10.62 65.0% 0.0%
50 100 150 200 250
t = 5 mm
Volumetric flow rate (L/min)

Fig. 22. The impact of the volumetric flow rate on the overall efficiency of the
Smooth absorber p = 30 mm - t = 5 mm Enhancement
smooth absorber and the case (p = 30 mm – t = 5 mm) for inlet temperature
69.5% 2.5% equal to 600 K.
69.0%
Thermal efficiency enhancement

68.5% 2.0% 22.5%

Thermal efficiency

68.0% 20.0%
1.5%
Turbulence intensity increase

67.5% 17.5%
67.0%
1.0% 15.0%
66.5%
12.5%
66.0% 0.5%
10.0%
65.5%
7.5%
65.0% 0.0%
50 100 150 200 250
5.0%
Volumetric flow rate (L/min)
2.5%
Fig. 20. The impact of the volumetric flow rate on the thermal efficiency of the
smooth absorber and the case (p = 30 mm – t = 5 mm) for inlet temperature 0.0%
equal to 600 K.
Examined cases (p-t)

length is higher when the system operates at higher temperatures. Fig. 23. Turbulence intensity increase with the use of flow inserts compared to
– The use of the flow inserts leads to lower temperature range in the the smooth case for flow rate equal to 150 L/min and inlet temperature equal to
600 K.
absorber periphery and this fact reduces the danger for failure due
to the thermal stresses. It is found that the maximum reduction in
the temperature range is about 15% compared to the reference collector. However, this technique presents advantages compared to
smooth absorber tube. the use of internal fins or nanofluids because it can be applied in the
– According to the discussion of this work, the use of inserts gives existing PTC without modifications in the absorber tube or the use of
similar results in the thermal efficiency enhancement of the nanofluids which are associated with many operating challenges.

101
E. Bellos, C. Tzivanidis
Acknowledgments
Dr. Evangelos Bellos would like to thank “Bodossaki Foundation”
for its financial support.
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