Prva Prezentacija

INTRODUCTION

What is linguistics?
What are the branches/disciplines of linguistics?
- the scientific study of language and its structure, including the study of grammar, syntax, and
phonetics.
- Specific branches of linguistics include sociolinguistics, dialectology, psycholinguistics,
computational linguistics, comparative linguistics and structural linguistics…
- the study of human speech including the units, nature, structure, and modification of language

What is phonetics?
- The study and classification of speech sounds
The branch of linguistics that deals with the sounds of speech and their production, combination,
description, and representation by written symbols.
What is phonology?
- The study of speech sounds in language or a language with reference to their distribution and
patterning and to tacit rules governing pronunciation.
- The science of speech sounds including especially the history and theory of sound changes in
a language or in two or more related languages.
What is morphology?
The study of the structure of words and how words are formed in language
- The branch of linguistics (and one of the major components of grammar) that studies word
structures, especially in terms of morphemes
What is syntax?
- a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
- the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language
- the way in which words are put together to form phrases, clauses, or sentences
What is morphosyntax?
- the study of grammatical categories or linguistic units that have both morphological and
syntactic properties.
- the set of rules that govern linguistic units whose properties are definable by both
morphological and syntactic criteria.

Categories
- category is a set of words and/or phrases/linguistic items in a language which share a
significant number of common characteristic and which fulfill the same or similar functions
in a particular language

PARTS OF SPEECH:
OPEN AND CLOSED SYSTEM
Word-level categories
Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories,
which can generally substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality.
Word-level categories are divided into:
1. Lexical words (open class/content words)
2. Functional words (closed/grammatical class words)
Lexical words
- It is called “open” (lexical/content) because languages can freely add new words to the set.
- The Lexical words are NOUNS, VERBS, ADJECTIVES and ADVERBS
Lexical words
- Lexical words can be stressed.
- Lexical words cannot be easily figured out if they are deleted.
- Lexical words can be inflected.
- Lexical words more readily enter into compounds.
- Lexical words are an open set; new ones enter our language daily.
Functional words
It’s called “functional” words because they carry little meaning (have no synonyms) and typically
“help” another word. The Function words carry only grammatical meaning.

Determiner, Degree words, Qualifier, Auxiliary, Conjunction, Pronoun, Preposition

Example of Syntactic Categories – Open class/system

Lexical categories:
 Noun (N) moisture, policy
 Verb (V) melt, remain
 Adjective (A) good, intelligent
 Adverb (Adv) slowly, now

Closed class/system
Functional categories:
 Determiner (Det) the, this
 Degree word (Deg) very, more
 Qualifier (Qual) always, perhaps
 Auxiliary (Aux) will, can
 Conjunction (Con) and, or

Categories
Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.
a. The glass suddenly broke. Det / N / Adv / V

b. A jogger ran towards the end of the lane. Det / N / V / P / Det / N / P / Det / N

c. The peaches never appear quite ripe. Det / N / Qual / V / Deg / Adj

d. Gillian will play the trumpet and the drums in the orchestra. N / Aux / V / Det / N / Conj / Det /
N / P / Det / N

Word-level syntactic categories serve as heads of phrasal syntactic categories

CATEGORIES VS. FUNCTIONS
 “Noun” is a category. “Subject” is a function.
 A Noun or a Pronoun can function as
a Subject - S
a Direct Object - DO
an Indirect Object, - IO
a Subject Complement, - SC
an Object Complement or - OC
an Object of a Preposition - PO
Pronouns functioning as S or SC are in subject form; those functioning as DO, IO, OC, or OP are in
object form.

PHRASES: FORM AND FUNCTION

Phrase categories and their structures
 Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases, the category
of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.
Phrase structure
1) Lexical categories forms heads (“main words”) of phrases which can function as a unit
2) How phrases are formed is governed by rules (= ‘phrase structure rules’)
3) These units come together to form sentences
Putting words in order
- words combine to form phrases
- phrases combine to form sentences
- What kind of phrases are there?
Types of phrase
 Noun phrase - NP
 Verb phrase - VP
 Prepositional phrase - PP
 Adverb/ial phrase - AdvP
 Adjective/al Phrase - AdjP
Types of phrases
 Noun phrase (NP)
- John
- the boy
- a book about a boy
- a big picture of the boy in a bubble
- A friend that I’ve known for a long time
 Verb phrase (VP)
- Fall
- fell slowly
- fell (slowly) into the pond
- buy the book
- *buy slowly the book
- buy the book with a credit card
 Prepositional phrase (PP):
- In
- with a smile
- of my little teeth
- between a rock and a hard place
- at the store by my house
 Adjectival Phrase (AdjP):
- Good
- very good
- good at grammar
- very good indeed at grammar
 Adverbial Phrase (AdvP):
- Quickly
- Surprisingly enough
- In a rude manner
- On the very same day
 - PHRASES: FUNCTION
Basic terminology
 A premodifier is a word that is placed before the word it modifies
 the head of a phrase is the word that determines the syntactic type of that phrase
 Postmodifier is the part of a phrase that comes after the most important word (the head) and
adds information about it
 Complement is a word or words used to complete a predicate construction, especially the
object or indirect object of a verb, for example, the phrase to eat ice cream in We like to eat
ice cream.
 Subject complement is the adjective, noun, or pronoun that follows a linking verb - SC
 Object complement is a noun, adjective, or pronoun used in the predicate as complement to a
verb and as qualifier of its direct object (as chairman in “we elected him chairman”) .
 Prepositional Object/Object of a preposition is a noun, noun phrase, or pronoun that follows a
preposition and completes its meaning.
 Adjunct a word or phrase (such as an adverb or prepositional phrase) that provides added
information about the meaning of a verb in a sentence by expressing a relation of time, place,
manner, etc.

Functions of NP
 subject (S)
Small children often insist that they can do it by themselves.
 object of a verb (O)
To read quickly and accurately is Eugene's goal.
 object of a preposition (PO)
The arctic explorers were caught unawares by the spring breakup.
 subject complement (SC)
Frankenstein is the name of the scientist not the monster.
 object complement (OC)
I consider Loki my favorite cat.

Functions of VP
The six major functions are:
 Verb phrase head
read, eat the cookies, to study, listen to the music
 Predicate
The librarian is writing an article
 Noun phrase modifier
l My daughter is the little girl wearing the pink hat.
 Adjective phrase complement
His wife is afraid to fly
 Verb phrase complement
She always strives to succeed
 Adverbial/Adjuncts
Running on the ice, the man slipped and fell

Functions of PP
Prepositional phrases function as either adjectives or adverbs:
The woman in the trench coat pulled out her cell phone. (adjective)
Most of the audience dozed during the tedious performance. (adverb)

Funcations of AdjP
 Adjective phrase head
blue, very bored
 Noun phrase modifier
The black cat drank the fresh cream
 Subject complement
The apple pie tastes sour.
 Object complement
Studying grammar makes me happy.

Funcations of AdvP
 Adverb phrase head
very, increasingly
 Adjective phrase modifier
incredibly tired
 Adverb phrase modifier
You behaved very well today.
 Verb phrase modifier
She sings well.
 Adverbial
We have not been sleeping well lately.
 Adjunct
The baby likes milk as well.
Druga prezentacija
ADJECTIVE AND ADJECTIVE PHRASE
What are adjectives?
Adjectives are open-class words.
An adjective is a part of speech which describes, identifies, or quantifies a noun or a pronoun.
the main function of an adjective is to modify a noun or a pronoun so that it will become more specific

Classification of adjectives
Adjectives can be classified into:
- one-word and compound adjectives,
- central and peripheral adjectives,
- dynamic and stative adjectives,
- gradable and non-gradable adjectives

1) One-word and compound adjectives

In terms of word formation, adjectives can be classified into: one-word and compound adjectives.

The one-word adjectives may consist of only one free morpheme, such as big, small, bad;
it may also consist of a free morpheme as root plus a prefix or a suffix or both, such as unkind,
impossible.
Compound adjectives two or more bases heartbreaking, homesick

2) Central and peripheral adj.

- In terms of syntactic functions, adj. can be divided into two groups: central and peripheral adj.
Most adj. can be used both as modifier in a noun phrase and as subject/object complement. These adj.
are called central adj. In the following three examples green is a central adjective, functioning as
modifier of nouns, subject complement and object complement receptively:
Green apples are sour. (modifier in a noun phrase)
Those apples are green. (subject complement)
They have painted the door green. (object complement)
“peripheral adjectives” refer to the few which cannot satisfy both of these requirements.
Some peripheral adjectives can only act as pre-modifier, e.g. chief, main, principal, utter, sheer, etc.
e.g. This is utter nonsense. *The nonsense is utter.
- other peripheral adjectives can only act as complement, e.g. afloat, afraid, asleep, alone, alive, etc.

3) Dynamic and stative adjectives

Semantically, adjectives can be: dynamic or stative.
- Stative adjectives, such as tall, short, describe the static features of aninmate or inanimate
objects, and
- dynamic adjectives describe the dynamic properties of people or things.
They are different in the following uses:
a) Dynamic can go with the progressive aspect of the verb be, while stative cannot.
e.g. She is being witty/*beautiful.
b) Dynamic ones can co-occur with imperative be, while stative ones cannot.
e.g. Be patient/*tall.
c) Dynamic ones can occur in causative constructions, while stative ones cannot.
e.g. I persuade her to be generous/*pretty.

4) Gradable and non-gradable adjectives

- Most adjectives are gradable.
- Gradability is manifested through the forms of comparison
e.g. short shorter shortest
　 beautiful more beautiful so beautiful
- gradability can also be manifested through modification by intensifiers,
e.g. very short, so beautiful, extremely kind
All dynamic and most stative adjectives are gradable adjectives.
Non-gradable adjectives
　The few non-gradable adjectives include some denominal adjective that denote classification or
provenance,
- e.g. atomic scientist
Chinese food
Some other adjectives, such as perfect, excellent, extreme, married, dead, etc. are also non-gradable
because their lexical meaning have already denoted a high or extreme degree
Adjectives and participles
Participles can sometimes be used as modifiers in the noun phrase. Some have all the features of the
adjective.
- they admit modification of very;
- they have forms of comparative and superlative degrees and
- they may be used as complement in the sentence.
1) Adjectives derived from –ing participles
- Adjectives like alarming, boring, disappointing, interesting are derived from –ing participle. These
forms can be made negative by adding the prefix –un, such as unchanging, unencouraging.
2) Adjectives derived from –ed participles
- Adjectives like alarmed, bored, conceited, distinguished are derived from –ed participles.
- Some cannot themselves be used as adjectives, such as behaved, built, dressed, but they reach full
adjective status when they are compounded with an adverb, such as badly-behaved, well-built.
3) Active vs. passive meanings
- The meanings of participial adjectives may be active or passive.
- –Ing participial adjectives usually have active meanings, and
- –ed forms passive meanings.
e.g. boiling water, boiled water; a charming girl a charmed girl

ADJECTIVE PHRASES
Structre of Adjective phrases
- AdjP consists minimally of an adjective acting as head. The smallest AdjP therefore consists
of just an adj. e.g. big (brother)
- The head may be accompanied by modifiers (pre- and post – modifiers) and complements
Modifier Adjhead Complement
AdvP PP
Finite cl (that, wh-
clauses) `
non-finite (-inf clauses, to inf.)
Notice that in the sentence like
Olive wants a really big car.
there is an AdjP really big. The head of really big is big and its modifier is really.
The premodifier in an adjective phrase is most commonly an adverb (intensifier), or another adjective:
It is extremely/very/ fairly/quite cold.
Or, a noun phrase (in measurements and age):
 three months old; a metre long
Examples
She has a lovely apartment.
head only
It’s a rather unfortunate name.
premodifier + head
Shall we see if that’s big enough?
head + postmodifier
She’s advanced for her age.
head + postmodifier (PP)
Are you willing to volunteer?
head + complement (non-finite inf cl)
He was very keen on sport and nature.
Premod + head + complement (PP)
I’m not really sure that I can advice you.
Premod + head + complement (finite cls)

Funcations of AdjP
- Adjective phrase head
blue, very bored
- Noun phrase modifier
The black cat drank the fresh cream
- Subject complement
The apple pie tastes sour.
- Object complement
Studying grammar makes me happy.

Adjective (phrase) as modifier in noun phrases

1) Premodifying and postmodifying adjectives
- Adjectives usually appear after the determiner and before the headword, but sometimes they
may also take a post-head position.
a) When two or more premodifying adjectives appear on different levels, their normal order is like the
following:
Determiner—adjective denoting the speaker’s evaluation – adjective denoting size, shape, age, colour
– adjective denoting nationality, origin, material – adjective denoting use or purpose (classifier) –
noun head
e.g. a well-known German medical school
b) Adjectives can also be used as postmodifiers. This use occurs when the headword is a
some-/any/no- compound, e.g. something cheaper.
c) Adjectives with a prepositional phrase or an infinitive as complementation also occur after the
headword they modify
e.g. It was a conference fruitful of results.
d) Some adjectives can appear either before or after a noun phrase, but have different meanings.
e.g. the members present, the present members
2) Predicative adjectives
 There are two groups of predicative adjectives: adjectives denoting health conditions, such as
well, ill and
adjectives with a- as prefix, such as alike, alone.
Predicative adjectives cannot be placed before a noun, but they can be so used when they are
modified by an adverb. E.g. *an asleep child, a fast asleep child.
3) Adjective phrase vs. relative clause
- A postmodifying adjective phrase can be treated as a reduced relative clause. This is also
true of predicative adjectives
e.g. the members present = the members who were present

Adjective phrases as complement

1) Adjective + prepositional phrase
- Adjective phrases composed of “adjective + prepositional phrase” are frequently found in the
position of subject complement. Different adjectives go with specific prepositions to express different
meanings.
e.g. He was absent from the meeting.
2) Adjective + to-infinitive
- There are different SVC patterns in which the complement is realized by ‘adjective + to-infinitive”.
These patterns vary in meaning with the different adjectives that are used and each pattern represents a
different group of adjectives
e.g. She is stupid not to follow your advice.
3) Adjective + that-claus
- The adjective that can take a that-clause as complementation. In spoken English, the conjunction
that is usually omitted.
e.g. I’m glad (that) you like it.
- This kind of that-clause can sometimes be replaced by a corresponding prepositional phrase or a to-
infinitive.
e.g. I’m sure that you will get success.
= You are sure of success.
= You are sure to get success.
Can you spot the adjectival phrases in these sentences?
a) He realised she was very cruel.

b) The boy with the blue sweater walked out.

c) The man from Sheffield was innocent.

d) The tight-lipped teacher ordered him out.

a) He realised she was very cruel.

b) The boy with the blue sweater walked out.

c) The man from Sheffield was innocent.

d) The tight-lipped teacher ordered him out.

Now write some of your own

a) He threw the ball.

b) The girl walked right up to him.

c) His mother had always disliked his writing.

d) She hated this food.

Treca prezentacija
ADVERB AND ADVERB PHRASES
What is an adverb?
- a word or phrase that modifies the meaning of an adjective, verb, or other adverb, expressing
manner, place, time, or degree
- adverbs often tell WHEN, WHERE, WHY, or UNDER WHAT CONDITIONS something
happens or happened
How many adverbs can you spot?

He stretched sleepily and then suddenly realised it was Monday. Immediately he jumped out of bed
and quickly threw his clothes on. Falling clumsily down the stairs, he cracked his knee loudly against
the banister.
Hurriedly he tipped cereal into a his bowl, slopped some milk in and hungrily wolfed down the
mixture. He glanced quickly in the mirror and realised his jumper was on back to front – a silly
mistake.
How many adverbs can you spot?

He stretched sleepily and then suddenly realised it was Monday. Immediately he jumped out of bed
and quickly threw his clothes on. Falling clumsily down the stairs, he cracked his knee loudly against
the banister.
Hurriedly he tipped cereal into a his bowl, slopped some milk in and hungrily wolfed down the
mixture. He glanced quickly in the mirror and realised that unfortunately his jumper was on back to
front – a silly mistake.

What is an adverb?
An adverb is the part of speech (or word class) that's primarily used to modify a verb, adjective, or
other adverb. Adverbs can also modify prepositional phrases, subordinate clauses, and complete
sentences.

Classes of Adverbs
• “Adverb” applies to sets of words which are very different:
• Descriptive Adverb: quickly, narrowly, madly, probably, etc.
• Adverbs of place and time: here, there, now, today, below, above, east
• Wh words: why, when, where, how, what
• Intensifiers, etc. : more-less, most-least, very, particularly, slightly, totally
Postmodifying adverbs: years ago, quick enough

Forms of Descriptive Adverbs

• Most descriptive adverbs are formed by adding –ly to an adjective:
• bad -> badly, quick -> quickly, probable -> probably
 • Some have no suffix, but correspond to adjectives:
• She runs well, She hits hard, She arrived late.
• N + -wise/-ways/-wards:
sidewise, sideways, forwards

Meaning of Descriptive Adverbs

- Manner (hesitantly, suspiciously)
- Respect (artistically, financially)
- Temporal: (daily, briefly, firstly)
- Modal: possibility (certainly), restriction (hardly), necessity (necessarily), volition
(unwillingly), viewpoint (healthwise), emphasis (plainly, obviously), judgement (wisely,
rightly), attitude (hopefully, thankfully)
- Degree: comparison (more, less, most), intensification (all alone, quite happy), attenuation
(slightly, somewhat), approximation (about / roughly 20 people)
- Focusing: restriction (merely, solely), reinforcement (even, as well).

Forms of Space and Time adverbs Adverbs

- These adverbs not formed by addition of –ly suffix:
- Most act as reference to some point of time or place:
• now, then, today, yesterday, tomorrow, here, there, down, up, always, never
- Some are relative to another position, formed by adding a- in front:
• above, across, ahead, along, aside, etc.
- Adv. beginning with be- indicating position or direction: before, behind, below, beneath,
besides, between, beyond
- Compound: downhill, elsewhere

Positions of Adverbs
- One of the hallmarks of adverbs is their ability to
move around in a sentence. Adverbs of manner are particularly flexible in this regard.
- Solemnly the minister addressed her congregation.
- The minister solemnly addressed her congregation.
- The minister addressed her congregation solemnly.
- The following adverbs of frequency appear in various points in these sentences:
- Before the main verb:
- I never get up before nine o'clock.
- Between the auxiliary verb and the main verb:
- I have rarely written to my brother without a good reason.
- Before the verb used to:
- I always used to see him at his summer home.
 - Indefinite adverbs of time can appear either before the verb or between the auxiliary and the
main verb:
- He finally showed up for batting practice.
- She has recently retired.

The order of adverbs

Verb Manner Place Frequency Time Purpose
• Beth swims enthusiastically in the pool every morning before dawn to keep in shape.
• Dad walks impatiently into town every afternoon before supper to get a newspaper.
Tashonda naps in her room every morning before lunch. 
Verb Manner Place Frequency Time Purpose
 In actual practice, of course, it would be highly unusual to have a string of adverbial modifiers
beyond two or three (at the most). Because the placement of adverbs is so flexible, one or two of
the modifiers would probably move to the beginning of the sentence:
Every afternoon before supper, Dad impatiently walks into town to get a newspaper."
When that happens, the introductory adverbial modifiers are usually set off with a comma.

Adjuncts, Disjuncts and Conjuncts

• Regardless of its position, an adverb is often neatly integrated into the flow of a sentence.
When this is true, as it almost always is, the adverb is called an adjunct.
He studies hard. I completely forgot it.
• When the adverb does not fit into the flow of the clause, it is called a disjunct. A disjunct
frequently acts as a kind of evaluation of the rest of the sentence. Although it usually modifies
the verb, we could say that it modifies the entire clause, too.
Frankly, Martha, I don't give a hoot.
Fortunately, no one was hurt.
• We have the purely conjunctive device known as the conjunctive adverb (often called the
adverbial conjunction):
Jose has spent years preparing for this event; nevertheless, he's the most nervous person here.

ADVERB PHRASE
What is an AdvP?
A word group with an adverb as its head. This adverb may be accompanied by modifiers or
qualifiers.
An adverb phrase can modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, and it can appear in a
number of different positions in a sentence.
Structure of Adverbial Phrases
• Structure of the AdvP:
(Premod) ^ Head ^ (PostMod)
• Most typical is the head by itself: He runs quickly
• Premodifier:
• Grade: very, unusually, quite, etc.
• Comparison: more in he runs more slowly
• Postmodifiers:
• He swam quickly enough (sufficiency)
• He swam so fast that I couldn’t catch him.
• He runs more slowly than me (comparison)
• Syntactic functions of AdvPs

• In phrases:
Modifier in
• AdjPs, nearly there
• AdvPs, quite slowly
• NPs and, the then President
• PPs right through the wall.
• Qualifier in AdjPs, AdvPs, NPs: quick enough; quickly enough; the journey back.
• Complement of preposition (completive): over here.
• In phrases:
Postmodifier in
AdjPs, quick enough
AdvPs, quickly enough
NPs, the journey back.
Complement of preposition (completive):
• over here.
An adverbial phrase answers one of these questions: when, how, where, to what degree…

Yesterday he looked more carefully in the box, and there he found a very small key with a hole
right through it.
Can you spot the adverbial phrases in these sentences?
 1. On Tuesday I will go to the cinema.

2. She fell like a log.

3. She played quite brilliantly.

4. He read in his bedroom.

5. She always won.

Can you spot the adverbial phrases in these sentences?

1. On Tuesday I will go to the cinema.

2. She fell like a log.

3. She played her flute quite brilliantly.

4. He read in his bedroom.

Now write some of your own.
1. He threw the ball.

2. She dressed.

3. Her father fell.

4. His sister tried again.

5. He ate his vegetables.

Practice …
Identify the adverb phrase and the verb, adjective, or adverb it modifies
• My hamster disappeared for three days.
For three days -disappeared
• The cat is afraid of thunderstorms.
Of thunderstorms -afraid
• Mom discovered several field mice in the cellar.
In the cellar -discovered
• Jimmy Smits will speak at our school.
At our school -will speak
• In the evenings, they played word games.
In the evenings -played
Practice …
Identify the Prepositional phrase. Tell whether it is an Adj. or Adv. Phrase
• In China, farmers are considered the backbone of the country.
• Adv. Phrase - In China
• Adj. Phrase - Of the country
• With over one billion people to feed, China asks much from its farmers.
• Adj. Phrase – With over one billion people to feed
• Adv. Phrase – from its farmers
• As you can see, water from high terraces can flow to lower terraces.
• Adj. Phrase – from high terraces
• Adv. Phrase – to lower terraces
Cetvrta prezentacija
NOUN PHRASES
Definition
- A phrase whose head is a noun or pronoun optionally accompanied by a set of modifiers.
- The term noun phrase refers to a group of words which act like a noun.
The structure of noun phrases
- The structure of this noun phrase contains three sections:
- Pre-modifier head post-modifier
 Pre-modification

 The =determiner

Determiners:
articles (the, a),
demonstratives (this, that)
numerals (two, five, etc.)
possessives (my, their, etc.)
quantifiers (some, many, etc. (the, a), 
 Adverb (intensifying): very

 Adjectives: the red ball

 pre-modifying noun: car (car park)

 Head noun

 consultant

 Post-modification

 preposition phrase: with the roving eye

 Relative clauses: the books that I bought yesterday

 Noun:

people; money
 Determiner + noun:

the village, a house, our friends

 Quantifier + noun:

some people; a lot of money

 Determiner + adjective + noun:

our closest friends; a new house.

  Quantifier + determiner + noun:

all those children;

 Quantifier + determiner + adjective + noun:

both of my younger brothers

• The basic noun phrase can be expressed with noun modifiers.
• Premodifiers, like attributive adjectives, occur before the head noun.
• Postmodifiers, like relative clauses, occur following the head noun.
• Heads, All noun phrases include a head, while determiners, premodifiers, and postmodifiers
are optional.
– He’s looking for a small wooden box that he owned.
• Noun phrases can have a pronoun instead of a noun as the head. Pronoun-headed phrases
usually do not include a determiner or premodifiers, but they may have postmodifiers (look at
exception below) .
I’d rather stay at the big one in town.

Premodification
• A noun group can also contain one or more modifiers; a modifier is an adjective, an
adjectival phrase, a secondary noun, a prepositional phrase or a relative clause.

- Adjectives are placed before the head noun:

as in the Great Gatsby
- Adjective phrases usually come before the head noun:
    a black-and-white striped vest
    a rather tight-fitting dress
 Secondary nouns behave exactly like adjectives, and  come before the head noun:

 a beer glass,  the police inspector,  a London bus

• When noun phrases have multiple premodifiers, they tend to occur in a predictable order
depending on their grammatical category:
adverb + adjective + head (a really hot day);
adjective + noun + head (black leather jacket);

• Coordinated premodifiers (e.g. male and female workers, racial or religious cohesion) are
found primarily in academic prose.
– Coordinated premodifiers are surprisingly complex because their meaning is not
explicit.
Premodifiers: condensed postmodifiers
 Premodifiers are condensed structures. They use fewer words than postmodifiers to convey
roughly the same information. Most adjectival and participial premodifiers can be re-phrased
as a longer, postmodifying relative clause.

THE EXTREMELY PRODUCTIVE USE OF NOUN + NOUN SEQUENCES IN NEWSPAPER

LANGUAGE RESULTS IN A VERY DENSE PRESENTATION OF INFORMATION!

Postmodifiers
 Some words and phrases come after the noun. These are called postmodifiers. A noun phrase
can be postmodified in several ways.
• with a prepositional phrase:
a man with a gun
the boy in the blue shirt
the house on the corner
 with a relative clause:

the man we met yesterday

the house that Jack built
the woman who discovered radium
an eight-year-old boy who attempted to rob a sweet shop
 with a that clause.
This is very common with reporting or summarising nouns like idea, fact, belief, suggestion:
She got the idea that people didn’t like her.
There was a suggestion that the children should be sent home.
 with a to-infinitive
This is very common after indefinite pronouns and adverbs:
You should take something to read.
I need somewhere to sleep.
I’ve got no decent shoes to wear.
  
There may be more than one postmodifier:
 an eight-year old boy with a gun who tried to rob a sweet shop
that girl over there in a green dress drinking a coke
Functions of a noun phrase
- Subject
That sophisticated woman is beautiful. (That sophisticated woman is a noun phrase that functions as a
subject.)
- Object (DO/IO)
I like the book that you bought. (the book that you bought is a noun phrase that functions as an object.)
- Subject complement
Brandon is a gifted athlete.
- Object complement
Have you named Mr. Jones temporary chairman?
 Prepositional complement

 pM (premodifier in a noun phrase)

 A (adverbial)

Identify the Head in each of the following bracketed noun phrases:

 1. [ Cats] make very affectionate pets

 2. [ The editor] rejected the manuscript

 3. We drove through [an enormous forest] in Germany

 4. [People who cycle] get very wet

 5. We really enjoy [the funny stories he tells]

 In (1), the noun phrase consists of only one word, cats, so this must be the Head of the phrase.

 The phrase in (2) is just a little more complicated. It consists of a Head editor, and a pre-Head
string the.
 In (3), the Head is forest. It is preceded by the pre-Head string an enormous.

 In (4), the Head is people. There is no pre-Head string. The Head is followed by the post-Head
string who cycle.
 In (5), the Head is the plural noun stories. It is preceded by the pre-Head string the funny, and
it is followed by the post-Head string he tells.
Identify the noun phrases in the following sentences
1. I hope to win the first prize.
2. I tried to solve the puzzle.
3. Did you enjoy reading this book?
4. The boy wants to go home.
5. Horses prefer living in dark stables.
6. The accused refused to answer the question.
7. The boy denied stealing the money.
8. To write such rubbish is disgraceful.
9. I dislike having to punish my kids.
10. I will hate to do such a thing.
Identify the noun phrases in the following sentences
(a) Every evening this week, there will be a different movie.
(b) Running the race exhausted him.
(c) The boxes in the back room are to remain.
(d) That I am not pleased with the findings must be obvious.
(e) Last winter in Vancouver, it didn't snow.
(f) Ketchup on French fries I find disgusting.
Exercises:
 We are studying ________________________________________ .
difficult / a few / noun phrases / long
 Martin Luther King was ______________________________________ in the Civil Rights
movement.
leader / black / important / the most
______________________________________ live in Hollywood, California.
beautiful / actress / a lot of / young
 Rome has ______________________________________ for tourists to visit.
ancient / many / attractive / huge / building
 I bought __________________________________________ .
tiny / adorable / an / Chihuahua / baby
 I wore __________________________________________ to the New Year’s party.
new / dress / red / my / pretty
Tongue Twisters
 Hungry hippos hate horribly hot hamburgers.

 Big bad baboons blow up beautiful blue baloons.

 Vain vultures in vivid velvet vests.

 My mean monster munches marmalade muffins.

 Five friendly frogs feast on fat figs.

 Rude rats run round ruffled rabbits.

 Peta prezentacija
VERB AND VERB PHRASES
• What is a Verb?
• A verb is a part of speech that expresses existence, action, or occurrence.
There is a book on the table.
He is studying Japanese now.
Father bought me a new cap.
• This is the most important part of a sentence. A sentence can have only one word as long as
that word is a verb.
Verb Phrases
• When a verb includes two or more words, it is called a verb phrase.
• You know that a verb is a word or words that express action or being. A verb phrase is a verb
in which two or more words work together.
Examples of verb phrases:
Citizens are voting for the next President.
They will cast their votes for President on Tuesday.
Voters must go to their assigned voting location.
Classification of verbs
Simple verb phrase vs. complex verb phrase
2. Main verb (notional verb, the head and indicating the basic meaning of a verb phrase) and auxiliary
(to help main verbs )
Classification of main verb
1. Transitive verbs vs. intransitive verbs vs. linking verbs (copula)
2. Finite verbs vs. non-finite verbs
3. Regular verbs vs. irregular verbs
4. Single-word verbs vs. phrasal verbs

Linking(copular) verbs
• Linking verbs connect the subject of the sentence with a complement (predicate noun,
predicate pronoun) or with a predicate adjective.
Do not show action but express a state of being.
Mrs. Hernandez is
 the presiding officer.

Examples:
They remained calm during the crisis.
He seemed eager to find a solution.
The solution appeared easy to implement.
We looked to our supervisor for guidance.
Auxiliary/Helping Verbs
• Helping (auxiliary) verbs with a main verb form a verb phrase. The main verb in a verb
phrase is always the last word in the phrase.
I may decide to apply for that position.
We must make the decision this week.
• Some helping verbs can function as main verbs and are used alone in such cases.
I have many friends.

Classification of auxiliary
• Primary Auxiliaries: be, do, have
We are learning English.
(help to form the progressive aspect or the passive voice )
She didn’t come back last night.
(help to form negative and interrogative sentences )
I have finished my homework.
(help to form the perfective or the perfective progressive aspect.)
• Modal Auxiliaries:13
Phrasal verbs
A phrasal verb is a verb that is composed of two or more words. Some can be used as transitive
verbs, while some intransitive
Three categories:
• 1. Verb + preposition (transitive)
We must look into the matter immediately.
more: apply for, break into, come across, insist on, consist of, do without, complain of, look after,
adjust to, allow for, ask for, call on, long for, listen to, care for, resort to, speak of, etc.
• 2. Verb + adverb particle
A particle, in grammar, is a function word, but does not fit into the main parts of speech (i.e. noun,
verb, adverb). Particles do not change. It is mostly used for words that help to encode grammatical
categories (such as negation, mood or case).
The infinitive 'to' in 'to fly' is an example of a particle, although it can also act as a preposition.
I'm going to Spain next week.
• 3. Verb + adverb particle + preposition
Will this enthusiasm carry over to the next week?
I don’t want to come down with the flu again.
I will have to fill in for Wally until he gets back.
• Attention: Phrasal verbs are verbal idioms, different form simple verbal combinations.
• More: catch up with, go in for, look up to, run out of, live up to, look out for, etc.

Tense, aspect, voice and mood

Tense
 • Tense is a grammatical form associated with verbs that tells of the distinctions of time. It
shows the relationship between the form of the verb and the time of the action or state it
describes.
Differences between tenses and time
• Time is a concept universally
existent with three divisions:
past time, present time and future time.
• Tense may be a grammatical device or vocabulary device specific to a language.
English verbs have two tenses: the present tense and the past tense.

Aspect
• Aspect is a grammatical term indicating whether an action or state at a given time is viewed as
complete or incomplete.
• English verbs have two aspects: the progressive aspect and the perfective aspect.
• A combination of the two tense and the two aspects makes it possible for a finite verb phrase
to take the following eight forms (with the main verb play as an example):
TENSE-ASPECT
• Simple Present plays
Simple Past played
Present Progressive is playing
Past Progressive was playing
Present Perfective has played
Past Perfective had played
Present Perfective Progressive has been playing
Past Perfective Progressive had been playing
. Voice
• Voice is a grammatical category, a form of the verb which shows whether the subject of a
sentence acts or is acted on.
• the active voice
He published his second novel in 1998.
• the passive voice
This book was published in 1998.

Mood
• whether an utterance expresses a fact, a command or request, or a non-fact and hypothesis.
• the indicative mood-the mood of the verb used in ordinary statements: stating a fact,
expressing an opinion, asking a question..

• the imperative mood-expresses a request, an order, instruction or command

• the subjunctive mood-is a category of verb forms that we use to express things that are not
facts: wishes, possibilities, doubts, suggestions, conditions, etc.
Identify the verb phrase in the sentence
1. We have been learning about the election process.
2. Each citizen over the age of eighteen can vote.
3. The candidates must explain their ideas to the voters.
4. Each person will vote for his or her preferred candidate.
5. Our teacher has assigned homework about past Presidents.
6. Students are researching on the Internet.
Identify the verb phrases in the following sentences. State whether they are main verb phrases, present
participle phrases, past participle phrases or gerunds

Example:
1. Encouraged by her coach’s praise, Melody repeated her routine on the balance beam.
• encouraged by her coach’s praise: past participle phrase, modifies Melody
• repeated her routine on the balance beam: Main verb phrase, past tense verb form.
• Barbara has persuaded the ticket agent to let her on the plane scheduled to depart immediately.
• has persuaded the ticket agent to let her on the plane (main verb phrase, past tense verb form)
• Note: the ticket agent is a noun phrase, the direct object of persuaded, and it is followed by a
string of modifiers. In the sentences below, I will point out direct objects and treat them as
parts of the verb phrase. However, if you don’t include them in the verb phrase at this stage,
it’s OK.
• Though bitten by mosquitoes, the hikers smiled as they neared the peak.
 • bitten by mosquitoes: Past participle phrase modifying the hikers.
• smiled as they neared the peak: Main verb phrase, past tense verb form. As they neared the
peak is an adverb clause which modifies smiled, but we haven’t studied clauses yet, so you
don’t need to worry about this too much at this stage.
• neared the peak: Main verb phrase, past tense verb form. The peak is the direct object of
neared.
• Described as almost a saint by his mother, Ernesto tried to live up to her expectations.
• described as almost a saint by his mother: Past participle phrase modifying Ernesto.
• tried to live up to her expectations: Main verb phrase, past tense verb form.
• To live up to her expectations is an infinitive phrase modifying live up; technically it is a verb
phrase, but I did not ask you to identify infinitive phrases for this exercise.
Decide how the underlined word groups are used in each of the following sentences. Options for
each sentence are given in parentheses. Circle the correct option.
• Example
1. The easiest part of the project is cutting out the pattern. (direct object or subject complement)
2. The tools used by some ancient cultures are impressive. (adverb or adjective)
3. Running five miles per week is Joanna’s goal.
(subject or direct object)
4. They went to the park to have a picnic.
(adverb or adjective)
Šesta prezentacija
PREPOSITIONS AND PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

A preposition
• A preposition is a part of speech that shows a relationship between a noun or pronoun and
some other word in the sentence.
The baseball player in the white shirt
hit a homerun.
A preposition …
• Indicates:
• Location (on, under, in)
• Time (before, after, during)
• Direction (from, toward, to)
Preposition Examples
• The cat is in the bed
• The book is on the shelf
• My sweater is under my coat
• The telephone is above the table
• The door is near the office
• I am in English class
Prepositional phrases
• A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition, and it ends with a noun.
• Nouns are also known as the “object” of the preposition.
• The combination of a preposition and a noun phrase is called a prepositional phrase.
• Like adjectives and adverbs, prepositional phrases add meaning to the nouns and verbs.
• The steamy air in the kitchen reeked of stale food.
Prepositional phrase – function

• Modifies a noun or pronoun

• It answers the same questions an adjective would:
• Which one? What kind? How many?
The puppy in the shop window jumped up.
Prepositional Phrases function as adjectives or adverbs in a sentence.
• P
They are formed like this:
preposition + optional modifiers +
noun, pronoun, or gerund (running)
Example: over the rainbow
(over = preposition) + (the = article)+ (rainbow = noun)
• If there is no object of the preposition (if the preposition is not part of a phrase), then it is not
a preposition—it is an adverb
Prepositional Phrase Examples
• He was running away from bugs
• He was talking with his mouth full
• They were walking like zombies
• She was working like a machine
Representing the structure of prepositional phrases

Exercises
Find the prepositional phrases in the following extract.
 At first it seemed there was no one about. Then he saw a single figure, a girl, far down the
beach, close to where the surf was breaking, sitting under a beach umbrella. He went towards her.
When he was close enough to see her clearly he sat down on the white sand.
From Smith's Dream
by C.K. Stead
Identify the prepositional phrases and the objects of the preposition:
1. The paper with the blue border is floating through the air.
2. Jordan’s eyes sparkle like a sunny day.
3. With great ease, Michael jumped up on the table.

Elaborated Sentence
“The boy saw a bug.”
• Last night waking from a bad dream, the boy, hearing a skittering sound, saw a bug crawling
out from under his bed to eat the cookie crumbs on the floor.
Think of answering the following questions where, when, how, and why