CCATMPH005

1
LIGHT CURVE ANALYSIS OF CLASSICAL

CEPHEIDS
Project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the

award of the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN PHYSICS

by
ATHIRA K
Reg: No: ---CCATMPH005-------
2019-2021
Guide: Dr. K.Y. SHAJU

Post Graduate and Research Department of Physics
Christ College (Autonomous), Irinjalakuda
Post Graduate and Research Department of Physics, Christ College

(Autonomous), Irinjalakuda
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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled “LIGHT CURVE ANALYSIS OF
CLASSICAL CEPHEIDS” submitted to the Post Graduate and Research Department
of Physics by ATHIRA K (Reg: No: ---CCATMPH005------- ) is bona-fide work
done by her under my guidance at Post Graduate and Research Department of Physics,
Christ College (Autonomous), Irinjalakuda in partial fulfilment of the requirements for
MSc Degree in Physics.
Irinjalakuda DR. SHAJU K.Y
August,2021 Associate professor

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DECLARATION
I, hereby declare that this project entitled “LIGHT CURVE ANALYSIS OF

CLASSICAL CEPHEIDS” is a record of the original work done by me under the
guidance of DR. SHAJU K.Y, Associate professor, Post Graduate and Research
Department of Physics, Christ College (Autonomous), Irinjalakuda
Irinjalakuda DR. SHAJU K.Y
August,2021 Associate professor

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Contents
Acknowledgement
ABSTRACT
1.STARS
1.1 Introduction
1.2 History
1.3 Star naming
1.4 Star formation
1.5 Evolution of stars
1.6 Stellar structure
1.7 Stellar Classification-------------------------------------------------------------- 15
2. VARIABLE STARS
2.1 History of variable stars
2.2 Classification of variable stars
2.2.1 Intrinsic variable stars
2.2.2 Extrinsic variable stars
2.3 Variable stars: Future research----------------------------------------------- 20
3. PULSATING VARIABLE STARS
3.1Types of pulsating variable stars
3.1.1 Cepheids
3.1.2 RR Lyrae
3.1.3 RV Tauri
3.1.4 Long-periodic variables(LPVs)
3.2 Reason for stellar pulsation----------------------------------------------------
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4.CEPHEID VARIABLE STAR AND DISTANCE DETERMINATION
4.1 Discovery of the period-luminosity relationship
4.1.2 Apparent magnitude and absolute magnitude
4.2 Calculating distance using cepheids
4.3 Standard candles
4.4 Hubble key project--------------------------------------------------------------- 33
5. TOOLS FOR EXTRACTING THE STAR PARAMETERS

5
5.1 Period04
5.1 The Time string module
5.2 The Fit module
5.3 The Fourier module
5.2 Properties calculated------------------------------------------------------------ 36
6.DATA ANALYSIS
6.1 STAR ID: OGLE-LMC-CEP-0001 This
proj
6.2 STAR ID: OGLE-LMC-CEP-0002 ect
6.3 STAR ID: OGLE-LMC-CEP-0003 repo
rt
6.4 STAR ID: OGLE-LMC-CEP-0004 deal
s
6.5 STAR ID: OGLE-LMC-CEP-0005
with
6.6 STAR ID: OGLE-LMC-CEP-0006 the
“LIG
6.7 STAR ID: OGLE-LMC-CEP-0007 HT
6.8 STAR ID: OGLE-LMC-CEP-0008 CUR
VE
6.9 STAR ID: OGLE-LMC-CEP-0009 ANA
6.10 STAR ID: OGLE-LMC-CEP-0010----------------------------------------------- LYSI
57
S OF
7. OBSERVATIONS CLA
SSIC
7.1 STAR ID: OGLE-LMC-CEP-0001 AL
7.2 STAR ID: OGLE-LMC-CEP-0002 CEP
HEI
7.3 STAR ID: OGLE-LMC-CEP-0003 DS”.
A
vari
7.5 STAR ID: OGLE-LMC-CEP-0005 able
star
7.6 STAR ID: OGLE-LMC-CEP-0006 is
7.7 STAR ID: OGLE-LMC-CEP-0007 simp
ly
7.8 STAR ID: OGLE-LMC-CEP-0008 one
7.9 STAR ID: OGLE-LMC-CEP-0009 who
se
7.10 STAR ID: OGLE-LMC-CEP-0010 brig
htne
7.11 Distance calculated------------------------------------------------------------- 76
ss
8. CONCLUSION cha
nges
REFERENCE over
time
. It is
divi
ded
into
two,
nam
ely
6
Acknowledgments
I am indeed happy and thankful for being able to do a project in the Post Graduate
and Research Department of Physics, Christ College (Autonomous). Irinjalakuda. I
hereby express my deep and sincere gratitude to my Guide Dr. SHAJU K.Y. who has
been very inspiring and encouraging to this project work. He helped to complete my
project work by giving valuable suggestions and information. It is with the sincere
gratitude that I acknowledge the intellectual guidance, efficient supervision and
constant encouragement I received from my guide. I would also express my thanks to
all the members of all teaching and non-teaching staff of department of physics, Christ
College for their Co-operation and giving information at various stages of my work. I
also thank all my friends and others for the help and co-operation given to me.
ATHIRA K
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ABSTRACT
This project report deals with the “LIGHT CURVE ANALYSIS OF CLASSICAL CEPHEIDS”.
A variable star is simply one whose brightness changes over time. It is divided into two,
namely Extrinsic variables and Intrinsic Variables. Extrinsic variables and Intrinsic
variables are again classified into many categories, in which this study is focussed on
Classical cepheids; a Type 1 pulsating variable star.
Cepheid Variable is a type of star that pulsates radially, varying in both diameter and
temperature and producing changes in brightness with a well-defined stable period
and amplitude. Using the software “Period04”, I have analysed the time series of
classical Cepheid stars and parameters such as frequency, time period, epochs, signal
at different times and noise at fitted frequencies were found out. Then using the direct
relationship between a Cepheid variable’s luminosity and pulsation period; the
absolute magnitude of cepheids were found out. It is because of this strong established
relationship, cepheids serve as an important indicator of cosmic benchmarks for
scaling galactic and extragalactic distances. From the absolute magnitude found out,
the spectral class of each star were found out. Then using the distance-modulus
formulae; the distance to the cepheids were found in parsecs. Hence I tabulated the
distance of Cepheids in LMC in units of parsecs. If we infer the that the size of the LMC
relative to its distance from us is small, we have also found the distance to the LMC
within which the Cepheid is located. As the number of stars observed goes up, the
uncertainties involved in calculations for individual stars can be statistically reduced.
Hence the basic steps for distance calculation using pulsating variables are
straightforward. Here, I have also calculated the uncertainties involved in the
calculated parameters using the software in comparison to an ideal situation. This
distance to the classical cepheids played an important role in the determination of
Hubble constant, which gives a measure of the expansion of universe.
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In this project, ten classical cepheids have been selected from the Optical Gravitational
Lensing Experiment (OGLE) Survey. The thesis is broadly divided in to 8 chapters.
Chapter 1 deals with the Introduction, History, Nomenclature of stars, Formation and
Evolution of stars, Stellar structure and Stellar Classification. Chapter 2 deals with the
History, Classification and the scope of research of Variable Stars. Chapter 3 gives brief
description about Pulsating Variable stars and its different classes. It also gives a brief
description about the Reason for stellar pulsations. Chapter 4 include the detailed view
on Classical Cepheids and the distance determination. This chapter gives light on the
Period-Luminosity relationships of Classical Cepheids and also explain in detail the
steps involved in calculating the distance to the star with an example. It also gives a
hint on how this distance calculation helped the Hubble Key project in distance
calculation and establishment of Hubble’s Law. Chapter 5 describes about the tools
used for extracting star parameters. Chapter 6 include the result of data analysis.
Chapter 7 includes the tabulated result obtained from the software alongside with the
distance calculated to the stars manually. Chapter 8 concludes this project.
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Chapter 1
STARS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Stars are the most widely recognized astronomical object and can be called as the
fundamental building blocks of galaxies. From the age, distribution and composition of
the stars, we can trace back the history, dynamics and the evolution of galaxy. Stars
are also responsible for the manufacture and distribution of heavy elements such as
carbon, oxygen and nitrogen. Their characteristics is also tied to the characteristics of
planetary system that may coalesce about them. This makes the study of birth, life and
death of a star; central to the field of astronomy.
1.2 HISTORY
Since the dawn of recorded civilization, stars played a pivotal role in navigation.
Astronomy, the study of heavens may be the most ancient of the sciences. The
discovery of law of motion and gravity together with the invention of telescope in the
17th century made us realise that stars too were just like sun, all obeying the same law
of physics. In the 19th century photography and spectroscopy- the study of wavelength
of light that objects emit; made it possible to investigate the compositions and motion
of star from afar, leading to the development of astrophysics.
The first radio telescope was built in 1973, enabling the astronomers to detect the
otherwise invisible radiation from stars. The first gamma-ray telescope launched in
1961, pioneered the study of star explosions(supernovae ).
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Also in the 1960s, astronomers commenced the infrared observations using the
balloon-borne telescopes, gathering information about stars and other objects based
on their heat emissions. The first infrared telescope (the Infrared Astronomical
Satellite) was launched in 1983.
Microwave emissions were first studied from space in 1992, with NASA’s Cosmic
Microwave Background Explorer (COBE) satellite. (Even though they are used to probe
the young universe’s origin, they are occasionally used to study stars.) In 1990, the first
space-based optical telescope, the Hubble Space Telescope, was launched, providing
the deepest and detailed view of the universe.
Currently, more advanced observatories are there and even more powerful ones are
planned like the European Extremely Large Telescope (E-ELT), which is planned to start
observation in 2024. Also, there is James Webb Space Telescope-which is built as a
successor to Hubble Space Telescope as NASA’s flagship astrophysics mission.
Scheduled to launch on 2021, it will provide improved infrared resolution and
sensitivity over Hubble. The key goal of JWST is to search for light from the first stars
and galaxies that formed in the Universe after the Bib Bang and also to study the
formation of stars and planetary systems.
1.3 STAR NAMING

Ancient men saw patterns in the heavens that resembled people, animals or common
objects — constellations that came to represent figures from myth, such as Orion the
Hunter, a hero in Greek mythology. Astronomers now often use constellations in the
naming of stars. The International Astronomical Union, the world authority for
assigning names to celestial objects, officially recognizes 88 constellations. Usually, the
brightest star in a constellation has "alpha," the first letter of the Greek alphabet, as
part of its scientific name. The second brightest star in a constellation is typically
designated "beta," the third brightest "gamma," and so on until all the Greek letters
are used, after which numerical designations follow.
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A number of stars have possessed names since antiquity — Betelgeuse, for instance,
means "the hand (or the armpit) of the giant" in Arabic. It is the brightest star in Orion,
and its scientific name is Alpha Orionis. Also, different astronomers over the year have
compiled star catalogues that use unique numbering systems. The Henry Draper
Catalogue, named after a pioneer in astrophotography, provides spectral classification
and rough positions for 272,150 stars and has been widely used of by the astronomical
community for over half a century. The catalogue designates Betelgeuse as HD 39801.
Since there are so many stars in the universe, the IAU uses a different system for
newfound stars. Most consist of an abbreviation that stands for either the type of star
or a catalogue that lists information about the star, followed by a group of symbols.
For instance, PSR J1302-6350 is a pulsar, thus the PSR. The J reveals that a coordinate
system known as J2000 is being used, while the 1302 and 6350 are coordinates similar
to the latitude and longitude codes used on Earth.
In recent years, the IAU formalized several names for stars amid calls from the
astronomical community to include the public in their naming process. The IAU
formalized 14 star names in the 2015 "Name ExoWorlds" contest, taking suggestions
from science and astronomy clubs around the world.
Then in 2016, the IAU approved 227 star names, mostly taking cues from antiquity in
making its decision. The goal was to reduce variations in star names and also spelling
("Formalhaut", for example, had 30 recorded variations.) However, the long-standing
name "Alpha Centauri" – referring to a famous star system with planets just four light
years from Earth – was replaced with Rigel Kentaurus.
1.4 STAR FORMATION
A star develops from a giant, slowly rotating cloud that is made up entirely or almost
entirely of hydrogen and helium. Due to its own gravitational pull, the cloud behind to
collapse inward, and as it shrinks, it spins more and more quickly, with the outer parts
becoming a disk while the innermost parts become a roughly spherical clump.
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According to NASA, this collapsing material grows hotter and denser, forming a ball-
shaped protostar. When the heat and pressure in the protostar reaches about 1.8
million degrees Fahrenheit (1 million degrees Celsius), atomic nuclei that normally
repel each other start fusing together, and the star ignites. Nuclear fusion converts a
small amount of the mass of these atoms into extraordinary amounts of energy — for
instance, 1 gram of mass converted entirely to energy would be equal to an explosion
of roughly 22,000 tons of TNT.
1.5 EVOLUTION OF STARS
The life cycles of stars follow patterns based mostly on their initial mass. These include
intermediate-mass stars such as the sun, with half to eight times the mass of the sun,
high-mass stars that are more than eight solar masses, and low-mass stars a tenth to
half a solar mass in size. The greater a star's mass, the shorter its lifespan generally is.
Objects smaller than a tenth of a solar mass do not have enough gravitational pull to
ignite nuclear fusion — some might become failed stars known as brown dwarfs.
An intermediate-mass star begins with a cloud that takes about 100,000 years to
collapse into a protostar with a surface temperature of about 6,750 F (3,725 C). After
hydrogen fusion starts, the result is a T-Tauri star, a variable star that fluctuates in
brightness. This star continues to collapse for roughly 10 million years until its
expansion due to energy generated by nuclear fusion is balanced by its contraction
from gravity, after which point it becomes a main-sequence star that gets all its energy
from hydrogen fusion in its core.
The greater the mass of such a star, the more quickly it will use its hydrogen fuel and
the shorter it stays on the main sequence. After all the hydrogen in the core is fused
into helium, the star changes rapidly — without nuclear radiation to resist it, gravity
immediately crushes matter down into the star's core, quickly heating the star. This
causes the star's outer layers to expand enormously and to cool and glow red as they
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do so, rendering the star a red giant. Helium starts fusing together in the core, and
once the helium is gone, the core contracts and becomes hotter, once more expanding
the star but making it bluer and brighter than before, blowing away its outermost
layers. After the expanding shells of gas fade, the remaining core is left, a white dwarf
that consists mostly of carbon and oxygen with an initial temperature of roughly
180,000 degrees F (100,000 degrees C). Since white dwarves have no fuel left for
fusion, they grow cooler and cooler over billions of years to become black dwarves too
faint to detect. (Our sun should leave the main sequence in about 5 billion years.)
A high-mass star forms and dies quickly. These stars form from protostars in just 10,000
to 100,000 years. While on the main sequence, they are hot and blue, some 1,000 to 1
million times as luminous as the sun and are roughly 10 times wider. When they leave
the main sequence, they become a bright red supergiant, and eventually become hot
enough to fuse carbon into heavier elements. After some 10,000 years of such fusion,
the result is an iron core roughly 3,800 miles wide (6,000 km), and since any more
fusion would consume energy instead of liberating it, the star is doomed, as its nuclear
radiation can no longer resist the force of gravity.
When a star reaches a mass of more than 1.4 solar masses, electron pressure cannot
support the core against further collapse, according to NASA. The result is a supernova.
Gravity causes the core to collapse, making the core temperature rise to nearly 18
billion degrees F (10 billion degrees C), breaking the iron down into neutrons and
neutrinos. In about one second, the core shrinks to about six miles (10 km) wide and
rebounds just like a rubber ball that has been squeezed, sending a shock wave through
the star that causes fusion to occur in the outlying layers. The star then explodes in a
so-called Type II supernova. If the remaining stellar core was less than roughly three
solar masses large, it becomes a neutron star made up nearly entirely of neutrons, and
rotating neutron stars that beam out detectable radio pulses are known as pulsars. If
the stellar core was larger than about three solar masses, no known force can support
it against its own gravitational pull, and it collapses to form a black hole.
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A low-mass star uses hydrogen fuel so sluggishly that they can shine as main-sequence
stars for 100 billion to 1 trillion years — since the universe is only about 13.7 billion
years old, according to NASA, this means no low-mass star has ever died. Still,
astronomers calculate these stars, known as red dwarfs, will never fuse anything but
hydrogen, which means they will never become red giants. Instead, they should
eventually just cool to become white dwarfs and then black dwarves.
1.6 STELLAR STRUCTURE
The structure of a star can often be thought of as a series of thin nested shells,
somewhat like an onion. A star during most of its life is a main-sequence star, which
consists of a core, radiative and convective zones, a photosphere, a chromosphere and
a corona. The core is where all the nuclear fusion takes places to power a star. In the
radiative zone, energy from these reactions is transported outward by radiation, like
heat from a light bulb, while in the convective zone, energy is transported by the roiling
hot gases, like hot air from a hairdryer. Massive stars that are more than several times
the mass of the sun are convective in their cores and radiative in their outer layers,
while stars comparable to the sun or less in mass are radiative in their cores and
convective in their outer layers. Intermediate-mass stars of spectral type A may be
radiative throughout.
After those zones comes the part of the star that radiates visible light, the
photosphere, which is often referred to as the surface of the star. After that is the
chromosphere, a layer that looks reddish because of all the hydrogen found there.
Finally, the outermost part of a star's atmosphere is the corona, which if super-hot
might be linked with convection in the outer layers.
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1.7 STELLAR CLASSIFICATION
The generally accepted system of stellar classification is a combination of two

classification schemes: The Harvard system, which is based on the star’s surface
temperature and the MK system, which is based on the star’s luminosity. Classification
of stars is based primarily on their temperatures. The Harvard spectral classification
scheme assigns each star a spectral type which is further divided into 10 sub-classes
depending on the absorption features present in the spectrum. For example, our Sun
has a temperature of about 5,700 Kelvin and is classified as a G2 star. However, this
classification scheme does not completely describe the star as it cannot distinguish
between stars with the same temperature but different luminosities. In other words,
it cannot distinguish between main sequence (dwarf) stars, giant stars and supergiant
stars.
For this reason, the Morgan-Keenan luminosity class (MK or MKK) was established.
Originally containing roman numerals between I (supergiant star) and V (main
sequence), these days, class I stars have been subdivided into Ia-O, Ia and Ib, and
classes VI (sub-dwarf) and D (white dwarf) have been added.
To completely describe the star, the MK luminosity class is appended to the original
Harvard classification for the star. For example, our Sun is a main sequence G2 star,
therefore its full classification is G2V.
The following table summarises the MK Luminosity Classes:
CLASS STAR
Ia-O extremely luminous supergiant
Ia luminous supergiant
Ib less luminous supergiant
II bright giants
III normal giants
IV subgiant
V main sequence dwarf stars
VI, or sd sub dwarfs
D White dwarfs
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Chapter 2
VARIABLE STARS
A variable star is, quite simply, a star that changes brightness. A star is considered
variable if its apparent magnitude (brightness) is altered in any way from our
perspective on Earth. These changes can occur over years or just fractions of a second,
and can range from one-thousandth of a magnitude to 20 magnitudes. More than
100,000 variable stars are known and have been catalogued, and thousands more are
suspected variables. Our own sun is a variable star; its energy output varies by
approximately 0.1 percent, or one-thousandth of its magnitude, over an 11-year solar
cycle.
2.1 HISTORY OF VARIABLE STARS
The first modern identified variable star was Omicron Ceti, later renamed Mira. It had
been described as a nova in 1596 by David Fabricius. In 1638, Johannes Holwards
observed Omicron Cetipulsating in a regular 11-month cycle. This was an important
discovery, as it helped verify that the stars were not eternal and invariable as ancient
philosophers such as Aristotle had believed. The discovery of variable stars, along with
reports of supernovae, paved the way for development of the science of astronomy.
In the abstract of a talk given to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Mira’s discovery,
Dorrit Hoffleit, of Yale University, said, “Within the first century following Fabricius,
four Mira-type variables were discovered, and in all cases it has been found that the
stars were suspected of being novae long before their "official" discovery in the
Western World. Three of the four had been recorded as novae in early Chinese or
Korean records.”
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In 1669, a second variable star was identified by Geminiano Monanari. It was an

eclipsing variable called Algol, although its variability was not explained until more than
a hundred years later by John Goodricke in 1784. The third variable star, Chi Cygni, was
observed in 1686 and in 1704. Over the next 80 years seven more variable stars were
identified. Since 1850 numerous variable stars have been observed, a process aided by
the development of photography. As of 2008, more than 46,000 variable stars in the
Milky Way Galaxy were listed in the General Catalogue of Variable Stars.
2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLE STARS
There are a number of reasons for variability. These include changes in star luminosity
or in star mass, and obstructions in the amount of light that reaches Earth. Pulsating
variables swell and shrink. Eclipsing binaries get dimmer when a companion star moves
in front, then brighten as the occulting star moves away. Some of the identified
variable stars are actually two very close stars that exchange mass when one takes
atmosphere from the other.
There are two different categories of variable stars. Intrinsic variables are stars whose
luminosity physically changes due to pulsations, eruptions or through swelling and
shrinking. Extrinsic variables are stars that change in brightness because of being
eclipsed by stellar rotation or by another star or planet.
2.2.1 INTRENSIC VARIABLES
a) Pulsating variable stars

Stars whose radius alternately expands and contracts as a part of their natural
evolutionary aging process. Pulsating variables undergo periodic expansion and
contraction of their surface layers called pulsation. A radially pulsating star remains
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spherical in shape, while in the case of non-radial pulsations, the star’s shape
periodically deviates from a sphere, and even neighbouring zones of its surface may
have opposite pulsation phase.
b) Eruptive variable stars

Stars who experience eruptions on their surfaces like flares or mass ejections. These
stars show brightness variation because of violent processes and flares occurring in
their chromosphere and coronae. Common type of eruptive variables are: protostars,
Orion variables, Giants and supergiant, Luminous blue variables etc. Protostars are
young objects that have not yet completed the process of contraction from a gas
nebula to a veritable star. Most protostars exhibit irregular brightness variations. Orion
variables are young, hot pre–main-sequence stars usually embedded in nebulosity.
They have irregular periods with amplitudes of several magnitudes. A well-known
subtype of Orion variables are the T Tauri variables. Variability of T Tauri stars is due
to spots on the stellar surface and gas-dust clumps, orbiting in the circumstellar disks.
c) Cataclysmic or Explosive variable stars

Explosive variables brighten because of sharp or violent outbursts caused by
thermonuclear processes either on the surface or deep inside. These include binary
type stars, with two close stars having a mutual effect on mass. Supernovae, Novae,
Recurrent Novae and Dwarf Novae are a group of stars that have dramatic or sudden
magnitude increases, usually because of a stellar explosion. Supernovae are the most
dramatic, at times emitting as much energy as a whole galaxy. They can increase more
than 20 magnitudes, becoming approximately one hundred million times brighter.
Supernovae usually represent the death of a massive star, although the core can
remain as a neutron star or remnants can form nebulae. Novae and Recurrent Novae
are close binary systems that are variable due to explosions on the surface, but the
star is not destroyed. Nova Scorpii, which obtained peak brightness in 2007, is the
brightest seen in recent years; Nova Cygni is the brightest seen in the last 70 years.
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The brightest measured nova since 1901 was Nova Aquilae, which in 1918 shone
almost as brightly as Sirius, the brightest star in the sky. Dwarf Novae are double white
stars that transfer mass and cause outbursts of regular variations. Another form of
explosive variable are Symbiotic stars, close binary systems with a red giant and a hot
blue star enmeshed in a cloud of dust or gas.
2.2.2 EXTRENSIC VARIABLES
a) Eclipsing binaries
Eclipsing Binary Stars are stars that pass in front of each other, causing fluctuation and
obscuring of the light seen on Earth. Eclipsing binary stars may have their own planets,
which eclipse their light similar to a lunar eclipse on Earth. One of the best-known
eclipsing binary stars is Algol. Algol variables undergo eclipses with one or two minima
separated by periods of nearly constant light. The prototype of this class is Algol in the
constellation Perseus. Beta Lyrae (β Lyr) variables are extremely close binaries, named
after the star Sheliak. The light curves of this class of eclipsing variables are constantly
changing, making it almost impossible to determine the exact onset and end of each
eclipse.
b) Rotating variable stars

Rotating Stars are variable stars that show small light changes caused by patches of
light spots on their surfaces. They may have bright spots at the magnetic poles.
Rotating stars are often binary systems and can be non-spherical or ellipsoidal in
shape, which causes brightness changes as they move. Pulsars are rotating neutron
stars — the core of long-exploded supernovae — that emit electromagnetic radiation
that is only seen when the beam is pointing at Earth. Pulsars produce precise,
measurable intervals of light, and are often compared to lighthouses as they
periodically sweep beams of energy while they orbit.
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2.3 VARIABLE STARS: FUTURE RESEARCH
Research on variable stars is extremely important as it gives scientists information on

star properties of mass, radius, temperature and luminosity, as well as information on
the structure and composition of the star and how it has evolved. Understanding the
nature of variable stars requires systematic observation of behaviour over many
decades. Variable stars are analysed visually and with photographic, photoelectric and
calibrated charge-coupled device (CCD) techniques. Amateur astronomers play an
important role in collecting data and submitting observations to the AAVSO
International Database.
Within the different categories of variables, some are particularly valuable to

astronomy, since their variability can be measured. Research into the Cepheid
variables helps determine the age of the universe and has provided information on the
distant galaxies. Studies of Mira variables are important to our understanding of our
Sun. Supernovae give us insight into how the universe is expanding, while
Cataclysmic variables help in understanding active galaxies and supermassive black

holes. Variable stars are a specific field of study in astronomy, providing important
information on how and why things change over time. They play a significant role in
our understanding of the universe.
21
Chapter 3
Pulsating variable stars
Pulsating variable stars are intrinsic variables as their variation in brightness is due to
a physical change within the star. In the case of pulsating variables this is due to the
periodic expansion and contraction of the surface layers of the stars. This means the
star actually increases and decreases in size periodically. The different types of
pulsating variable are distinguished by their periods of pulsation and the shapes of
their light curves. These in turn are a function of the mass and evolutionary stage of a
given star.
The study of pulsating variables is of great importance to astronomers. Analysis of light

curves provides vital information about the interior processes in stars. Perhaps their
most valuable property of many types of pulsating variables is a direct relationship
between the period of pulsation and their luminosity. This in turn allows us to
determine the distance to such stars.
3.1 TYPES OF PULSATING VARIABLES
In October 1595 the Dutchman David Fabricus observed the star ο Ceti to disappear.
The same star was noted to vary in brightness during 1638-39 by another Dutch
observer and became known as Mira (the "Wonderful") due to its behaviour. It was
eventually found to have a period of about 334 days and was the first pulsating variable
discovered. Its light curve was different to that of Algol which was correctly inferred to
be an eclipsing binary by the brilliant young English astronomer John Goodricke in
1782.
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3.1.1 CEPHEIDS
Cepheid are very luminous, massive variables with periods of 1 -70 days. They are
named after the first-such pulsating variable, δ Cephei discovered by John Goodricke
in 1784. Cepheid light curves are distinctive and show a rapid rise in brightness
followed by a more gradual decline, shaped like a shark fin. Their amplitude range is
typically 0.5 to 2 magnitudes. The spectral class of a Cepheid actually changes as it
pulsates, being about an F at maximum luminosity and down to a G or K at minimum.
There are in fact two types of Cepheids, the original Type I or Classical Cepheids of
which δ Cephei is an example and the slightly dimmer Type II or W Virginis Cepheids.
Both types are located in a region of the HR Diagram called the Instability Strip.
➢ Type I Classical Cepheids
These stars take their name from δ Cephei. Most have a period of between 5 -10 days
and an amplitude range of 0.5 - 2.0 magnitudes in visible light. The variations are less
pronounced at infrared wavebands. They are 1.5 - 2 magnitudes more luminous than
Type II Cepheids. The distinctive light curve for δ Cephei is shown below.
23
The light curve for δ Cephei shows a distinctive rapid rise in brightness followed by a
more gradual decrease. δ Cephei has a period of 5.366 days and a magnitude range of
just under 1. This means that it is about twice as bright at its maximum than at its
minimum.
Classical Cepheids follow a well-defined period-luminosity relationship. This means

that the longer the period of the Cepheid, the more intrinsically luminous it is. This has
important implications as it allows Cepheids to be used as standard candles for
distance determination. Type I Cepheids show are located on the Instability Strip of an
HR diagram and are massive supergiant stars.
➢ Type II W Virginis
Type II Cepheids are named after the first star identified in this group, W Virginis. It has
a period of 17.2736 days, magnitude range of 9.46 - 10.75 and a spectral class range of
F0Ib-G0Ib.W Virginis -type Cepheids are intrinsically less luminous by 1.5 - 2
magnitudes than the Type I Classical Cepheids and have typical periods of 12 - 30 days.
As they are older stars than Type Is their spectra are characterised by having lower
metallicities. Type II light curves show a characteristic bump on the decline side and
they have an amplitude range of 0.3 - 1.2 magnitudes. As with the Type I Cepheids they
also display a similar well-defined period-luminosity relationship and can be used for
distance determination.
3.1.2 RR Lyrae
These old population II giant stars are mostly found in globular clusters. They are
characterised by their short periods, usually about 1.5 hours to a day and have a
brightness range of 0.3 to 2 magnitudes. Spectral classes range from A7 to F5. RR Lyrae
stars are less massive than Cepheids but they also follow their own period - luminosity
relationship, with a mean absolute magnitude of +0.6. They are thus useful in
determining distances to the globular clusters within which they are commonly found
to a distance of about 200 kilo parsecs. Sub-types are classified according to the shape
of their light curves. RR Lyraes fit on the Instability Strip on an HR diagram.
24
3.1.3 RV Tauri
RV Tauri variables are yellow supergiant, mostly G and K-class stars. Their distinctive
light curves show alternating deep and shallow minima with the period equal to the
time between two successive deep minima. Typical values are 20 - 100 days.
3.1.4Long-Period Variables (LPVs)

The first pulsating variable discovered was the long-period variable Mira. They are cool
red giants or supergiants and have periods of months to years. Their luminosities can
range from 10 to 10,000 × L(Sun). Long-period variables are further classified according
to whether they exhibit regular periodicity, such as the Miras or more irregular
behaviour.
➢ Mira -Type
Mira or ο Ceti, established as a variable in 1638 gives its name to stars of this type.
Mira itself has a period of 331 days and varies its brightness by almost 6 magnitudes in
the visible waveband during a cycle. A red giant, its radius varies by 20 percent, peaking
at 330 times that of our Sun. Its effective temperature ranges from 1,900 K to 2,600 K.
It is also a visual binary and its companion is also a variable star. he Mira-type stars
have long periods, ranging from about 80 to 1,000 days, varying by 2.5 to 10
magnitudes visually. Their high luminosities mean they can, at maximum brightness,
be detected at large distances. They have tenuous outer layers in their atmospheres
which get shocked and heated from the regular pulsations. This can give rise to
emission lines in their spectra. Dust grains in their outer atmosphere get heated so
they are strong emitters in infrared wavebands. They also show evidence of molecules
in these regions
➢ Semiregular Variables (SR)
As their name implies, these stars whilst showing some periodicity and variations in
brightness also exhibit irregularities where they appear to be stable. They are giant and
supergiant stars with periods ranging from a few days to several years and the change
in brightness is typically less than two magnitudes. The light curves of semiregular have
25
a variety of shapes. Prominent examples of this type include Antares, α Scorpius, and
Betelgeuse, α Orionis.
3.2 REASON FOR STELLAR PULSATION
We tend to think of stars as stable and unchanging. But in reality, stars undergo several
stages in their existence. Main sequence stars such as our Sun nonetheless are basically
stable, exhibiting no dramatic changes in size or brightness. They are in what is called
hydrostatic equilibrium, that is the gravitational force pulling the star's material
inwards is balanced by the radiation pressure and the gas pressure. The radiation
pressure acts outwards and arises from the production of photons in the core by fusion
processes. Gas pressure is much the same as any gas on Earth resisting attempts to
compress it. But still some stars pulsate.
This pulsation is not due to increased radiation pressure from higher rates of fusion in
the core. In fact, pulsations arise not from the rate of fusion which remains constant
in the core but instead from variations in the rate at which the radiation can escape
from the star.
Steps involved in a pulsating stars:
➢ If the pressure outwards exceed the gravitational force inwards, the outer layers of
a star will expand outwards.
➢ As the star expands, its gravitational force inwards diminishes but its outwards
pressure also drops at an even greater rate (think of what happens to a gas as it
expands).
26
➢ Eventually the star would reach a position at which hydrostatic equilibrium occurs,
that is gravity = pressure. However, the outward moving layers still have
momentum so resist a change in motion. This momentum carries the layer past
the equilibrium position.
➢ As the gravitational force acts on the layer it slows down. A point is reached where
it stops but now the outward gas and radiation pressure is weaker than the inward-
acting gravitational force.
➢ The imbalance of forces now causes the star's outer layers to collapse inwards.
➢ As the layers collapse gravity increases but the pressure increases at a greater
rate.
➢ With the pressure outwards exceeding the inwards gravitational force the
collapsing layer slows down and eventually stops.
➢ Thus we came back at the start where the outwards pressure is greater than the
gravitational force so the pulsation cycle starts again.
A pulsating star is thus not in equilibrium but is always trying to regain it but shooting
past the point. It is a harmonic oscillator. Indeed, analysis of light curves comprising
many periods can often reveal more than one harmonic mode of oscillation for some
types of pulsating variable. This information in turn allows astronomers to learn more
about the interiors of those stars in much the same way as analysis of seismic waves
helps geologists probe the Earth's interior.
27
Chapter 4
CEPHEID VARIABLE STARS (Type l) AND DISTANCE
DETERMINATION
Some types of pulsating variable stars such as Cepheids exhibit a definite relationship
between their period and their intrinsic luminosity. Such period-luminosity
relationships are invaluable to astronomers as they are a vital method in calculating
distances within and beyond our galaxy.
4.1 DISCOVERY OF THE PERIOD - LUMINOSITY RELEATIONSHIP
During the first decade of the 1900s Henrietta Leavitt (1868 - 1921), working at the
Harvard College Observatory, studying photographic plates of the Large (LMC) and
Small (SMC) Magellanic Clouds, compiled a list of 1,777 periodic variables. Eventually
she classified 47 of these in the two clouds as Cepheid variables and noticed that those
with longer periods were brighter than the shorter-period ones. She correctly inferred
that as the stars were in the same distant clouds they were all at much the same
relative distance from us. Any difference in apparent magnitude was therefore related
to a difference in absolute magnitude. When she plotted her results for the two clouds
she noted that they formed distinct relationships between brightness and period. Her
plot showed what is now known as the period-luminosity relationship; Cepheids with
longer periods are intrinsically more luminous than those with shorter periods.
The Danish astronomer, Ejnar Hertzsprung (1873-1967) quickly realised the

significance of this discovery. By measuring the period of a Cepheid from its light curve,
the distance to that Cepheid could be determined. He used his data on nearby
Cepheids to calculate the distance to the Cepheids in the SMC as 37,000 light years
away.
28
Harlow Shapley, an American astronomer using a larger number of Cepheids,

recalibrated the absolute magnitude scale for Cepheids and revised the value of the
distance to the SMC to 95,000 light years. He also studied Cepheids in 86 globular
clusters and found that the few dozen brightest non-variable stars in each cluster was
about 10 × brighter than the average Cepheid. From this he could infer the distance to
globular cluster too distant to have visible Cepheids and realised that these clusters
were all essentially the same size and luminosity. By mapping the distribution and
distance of globular clusters he was able to deduce the size of our galaxy, the Milky
Way.
In 1924 Edwin Hubble detected Cepheids in the Andromeda nebula, M31 and the
Triangulum nebula M33. Using these he determined that their distances were 900,000
and 850,000 light years respectively. He thus established conclusively that these "spiral
nebulae" were in fact other galaxies and not part of our Milky Way. This was a
momentous discovery and dramatically expanded the scale of the known Universe.
Hubble later went on to observe the redshift of galaxies and propose that this was due
to their recession velocity, with more distant galaxies moving away at a higher speed
than nearby ones. This relationship is now called Hubble's Law and is interpreted to
mean that the Universe is expanding.
4.1.2 APPARENT MAGNITUDE AND ABSOLUTE MAGNITUDE

The apparent magnitude, m, of a star is the magnitude it has as seen by an observer
on Earth. This depends upon the location of the observer. Different observers will
come up with a different measurement, depending upon their location and distance
from the star. Stars that are closer to Earth, but fainter, could appear brighter than far
more luminous ones that are far away. Therefore, it is useful to establish a convention
whereby we can compare two stars on the same footing, without variation in
brightness due to differing distance complicating the issue.
The solution of this resulted in the implementation of an absolute magnitude scale to

provide a reference between stars. To do so, astronomers calculate the brightness of
stars as they would appear it were 32.6 light-years or 10 parsecs from Earth. Thus we
29
can say that absolute magnitude, M, of a star is the magnitude that star would have if
it were at a distance of 10 parsecs from us.
The scale of absolute magnitude is same as that for apparent magnitude, that is a
difference of 1 magnitude=2.512 times difference in the brightness. This logarithmic
scale is also open ended and unit less. Again, the lower or more negative the value of
M, brighter the star is.
From the period of a star, we can calculate the absolute magnitude, M, using the
formulae given below:
M= - [2.76(log 10 𝑃-1)] -4.16
This formula is for Type l Cepheids and is established from Hubble space Telescope Trigonometric parallax for 10 nearly
Cepheids.
4.2 CALCULATING DISTANCES USING CEPHEIDS

Both types of Cepheids and RR Lyrae stars all exhibit distinct period-luminosity
relationships as shown below.
30
In order to use this relationship to determine the distance to a Cepheid, we will assume
that we are dealing with a Type I, Classical Cepheid but the same method applies for
W Virginis and RR Lyrae-type stars.
Steps:
1. Photometric observations, be they naked-eye estimates, photographic plates, or

photoelectric CCD images provide the apparent magnitude values for the Cepheid.
2. Plotting apparent magnitude values from observations at different times results in
a light curve such as that below for a Cepheid in the LMC
3. From the light curve and the photometric data, two values can be determined; the
average apparent magnitude, m, of the star and its period in days. In the example
above the Cepheid has a mean apparent magnitude of 15.56 and a period of 4.76
days.
4. Knowing the period of the Cepheid we can now determine its mean absolute
magnitude, M, by interpolating on the period-luminosity plot. The one shown
below is based on Cepheids within the Milky Way. The vertical axis shows absolute
magnitude whilst period is displayed as a log value on the horizontal axes.
31
The log of 4.76 days = 0.68. When this is plotted a value of about -3.6 results for absolute magnitude.
5. Once both apparent magnitude, m, and absolute magnitude, M are known we can
simply substitute in to the distance-modulus formula and rework it to give a value
for d, the distance to the Cepheid in parsecs.
m - M = 5 log(d/10)
This can also be written as:
d = 10(𝑚−𝑀+5)/5
now substituting in:
d = 10(15.57−(−3.6)+5)/5
d =1024.7/5
d =104.8341
d = 68,230 parsecs
This means that the Cepheid in the LMC is about 68.2 kpc (or about 222,000 light years
away). More importantly, if we infer that the size of the LMC relative to its distance
from us is small we have also found the distance to the LMC within which the Cepheid
is located.
32
4.3 STANDARD CANDLES
The term standard candle applies to celestial objects with well-defined absolute
magnitudes which are assumed to not vary with age or distance. Type I and II Cepheids
and RR Lyraes are all examples. All Cepheids with a certain period are assumed to have
the same absolute magnitude. Measuring the apparent magnitude of a Cepheid then
allows us to determine its distance using the period-luminosity relationship. If two
Cepheids have the same period but is fainter than the other it must be further away.
RR Lyraes similarly can be used as standard candles although as their intrinsic
luminosity is lower than Classical Cepheids they cannot be detected at the great
distances of Cepheids.
Type Ia supernovae may be approximated to standard candles as their absolute

magnitude reaches about -19 at maximum brightness. Given their extreme luminosity
they can be used to probe much further out into the Universe than Cepheids. Two
recent projects, the Supernova Cosmology Project and the High-Z SN Search have both
observed dozens of supernovae in distant galaxies to try and determine H and the
geometry of the Universe. Both teams independently arrived at the the conclusion that
not only is our Universe expanding but it is actually accelerating, a result that the
prestigious American Magazine Science announced was the research advance of 1998.
4.4 HUBBLE KEY PROJECT

The US$2 billion Hubble Space telescope was built and launched in 1990 to conduct
observations not then achievable using ground-based telescopes. One of its major
initial observational programs, dubbed the Hubble Key Project, was aimed at refining
and calibrating the extragalactic distance scale by observing Cepheids in other galaxies.
The goal was to use the recalibrated scale to calculate a more precise value for the
Hubble Constant, H0 which at that time was measured as somewhere between 50 and
100 km s-1 Mpc-1 (kilometres per second per mega parsec) depending on the method
used.
33
The international team of astronomers discovered many new cepheids in the 18

galaxies they studied. In the giant spiral M81, for instance they found 32 Cepheids to
add to only two that had been found previously using ground-based telescopes. Using
the HST they made 22 twenty-minute exposures of each of two fields in M
81containing the Cepheids. Once the data from these was reduced they were able to
calculate a distance to M 81 of 3.4 mega parsecs (about 11 million light years)
compared to the previous range of values of 1.3 to 5.6 mega parsecs.
The final results of the Key project, published in 2001 gave a value of H0 = 72+/-8 km
s-1 Mpc-1. This value was based on the results of the Cepheid studies which were then
combined with other techniques such as observations of Type Ia supernovae, Type II
supernovae, the Tully-Fisher relation and the surface brightness of galaxies. The
uncertainty of the value was close to the original +/- 10% target for the project.
34
Chapter 5
TOOLS FOR EXTARACTING THE STAR
PARAMETERS.
5.1 Period04
Period04 is a computer program especially dedicated to the statistical analysis of large
astronomical time series containing gaps. Fundamentally, the program is composed of
3 modules:
5.1.1 THE TIME STRING MODULE

Within this module the user administrates the time string data. The module contains
tools to split a data set into substrings, combine data sets, set weights, etc.
5.1.2 THE FIT MODULE

Least-squares fits of a number of frequencies can be made in this module. Apart from
basic fitting techniques, Period04 also contains the possibility to fit amplitude and/or
phase variations, or to take into account a periodic time shift. Furthermore, several
tools for the calculation of uncertainties of fit parameters, such as Monte Carlo
simulations, are available
5.1.3 THE FOURIER MODULE

For the extraction of new frequencies from the data, this module is provided. The
Fourier analysis in Period04 is based on a discrete Fourier transform algorithm. We do
not use a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm as astronomical time string data sets
usually are not equally spaced.
35
5.2 PROPERTIES CALCULATED
1. TIME STRUCTURING
Structuring of the plotted data point is done where the star tie and end time of the
plotted data points are noted and using this, the length of the observation period is
found in hours and its mean is also found.
2. CALCULATION OF LEAST SQUARE FIT
Using the standard formula and Fourier calculation, frequency is extracted for original
data first without zero-point shift so that no additional features cantered at 0.0 will
appear. The corresponding amplitude is also noted. Then using the same original data,
frequency extraction is done including zero-point so that these features may even
dominate the frequency spectrum. After that frequency extraction is done using
Residual at original and this process is done repeatedly until the required accuracy is
required, which is done by looking Fourier spectrum. After that all the extracted
frequency is fitted and time string plot and phase plot of the plotted data is extracted.
3. CALCULATION OF PHASE AND AMPLITUDE VARIATION
We have a set of frequencies and a certain subdivision of time string in the attribute
"Date". By calculating a least-squares fit for each substring separately, it was found out
that the amplitude of a frequency might be variable. So this frequency is selected and
appropriately its phase and amplitude is varied and improved so that it becomes
matching with the others.
4. CALCULATE EPOCH
In astronomy, an epoch or reference epoch is a moment in time used as a reference

point for some time-varying astronomical quantity. This time varying quantity includes
the intensity of the stars. Epoch calculation of such astronomical quantities are done
to predict the future values. Here the frequency is specified using a least square fit
formula, i.e. as a polynomial function of the time-interval. Then we are calculating the
epoch as a temporal point of origin. Here we have calculated the time of Maximum
light (maximum intensity), Minimum light (minimum intensity) and Zero-point. Zero-
point is the time when the Fit crosses the average of the fitted function (1/4 period
36
before the maximum light). These epochs can be used as reference along with equinox.
Because, reference to the epoch contribute to specifying the date of the values of
astronomical variables themselves; while the reference to an equinox along with
ecliptic of a certain date, addresses the identification of, or change in the coordinate
system in terms of the astronomical variable expressed. Here the program already
knows whether you are using magnitudes (maximum light at minimum value) or
intensities. Here I have evaluated the values of epoch close to the given time=0.
5. SIGNAL PREDICTION AT A GIVEN TIME

In this project, we are using the data of stars that are obtained from photometry (v
filter) of stars in a CCD image. The longer the exposure time, the higher the signal in a
star and more precise the measurement will be. If we want to make a rough estimate
of the magnitude, to ten percent; we need signals from stars at given times. Here I
have calculated the signal at the starting time and ending time of time structure under
consideration.
6. CALCULATION OF NOISE AT FITTED FREQUENCIES

To check the significance of detected frequency, we calculate the signal to noise ratio.
Here the noise of frequencies that are stored in the frequency list in the Fit module are
calculated.
7. CALCULATION OF ANALYTICAL UNCERTAINITIES

Finally, we calculate the uncertainties of the parameters of a fit. Uncertainties are
calculated from analytically derived formulae assuming an ideal case. The errors of
frequency and phase are correlated. However, by an appropriate choice of a zero point
in time the uncertainties for frequency and phase can be decoupled. But our data set
does not fulfil this condition. Hence, using Period04, we shift the data set by the
required value in time, for the purpose of determining the uncorrelated parameter
uncertainties when the standard fitting formula is being used.
8. CALCULATION OF DISTANCE TO THE STARS

Distance to the classical Cepheid stars are calculated using the period calculated using
the Period04 software.
37
Chapter 6
DATA ANALYSIS
I have collected data from OGLE (The optical gravitational lensing experiment) Atlas
of Variable Star Light Curves. They present typical and not-so-typical light curves of
variable stars of various types observed in the course of the Optical Gravitational
Lensing Experiment.
The OGLE project is a large-scale sky survey conducted since 1992 by astronomers
associated with the University of Warsaw Astronomical Observatory. The PI of the
project is Prof. Andrzej Udalski. Observations are carried out with the 1.3-m Warsaw
Telescope at the Las Campanas Observatory in Chile. Currently, the OGLE survey
regularly monitors the brightness of about one billion stars in the Galactic bulge and
disk, the Magellanic Clouds, and other important regions of the sky. The primary
scientific goal of the project is the search for exoplanetary gravitational microlensing
events, but the huge amount of high quality photometric data collected by the survey
are ideal also for many other astrophysical purposes. During its long history the OGLE
project has contributed significantly to many different fields of observational
astrophysics: gravitational lensing and microlensing, extrasolar planets, cosmic
distance scale, the structure of the Galaxy and Magellanic Clouds, stellar clusters,
interstellar extinction, Kuiper Belt objects, etc. One of the most important results of
the OGLE project is huge collections of variable stars. The OGLE Collection of Variable
Stars consists of over 1,000,000 objects and is now the largest set of variable stars in
the world.
I have collected the data of 10 classical Cepheid (Type l) stars and its light curve is
plotted using Period04. A set of model data, fitted light curve, folded light curve, phase
plot and Fourier- power/amplitude spectrum are found our using the software.
Alongside with this, frequency, time period and apparent magnitude are also
calculated using the software.
38
Spectral window of amplitude Spectral window of power
Fourier Analysis of data without Zero-

point shift
Fourier Analysis of data with Zero-point

shift
39
Residual Adjusted
Phase plot
Time string plot

40
Spectral window of amplitude
Fourier Analysis of data without

Zero-point shift
Fourier Analysis of data with

Zero-point shift
41
Residual Adjusted
Phase plot
Time string plot

42

Zero-point shift

Zero-point shift
43
Residual
Adjusted Phase
plot
Time string
plot
44

Zero-point shift

Zero-point shift
45
Residual
Adjusted
phase plot
Time string
plot

46
Fourier Analysis of data

without Zero-point shift

Zero-point shift
47
Residual
Adjusted phase
plot
Time string
plot

48
Spectral window of Spectral window of power

amplitude

Zero-point shift

Zero-point shift
49
Residual
Adjusted
phase plot
Time string
plot

50

point shift
Fourier Analysis of data with Zero-

point shift
51
Residual
Adjusted
phase plot
Time string plot

52
Spectral window of amplitude Spectral window 0f power

point shift

point shift
53
Residual
Adjusted
phase plot
Time string
plot

54

Zero-point shift

point shift
55
Residual
Adjusted
phase plot
Time string plot

56
Spectral window of amplitude

Spectral window of power

Zero-point shift

point shift
57
Residual
Adjusted phase
plot
Time string plot

58
Chapter 7
OBSERVATIONS
Given below are the properties calculated using period04:
1. Time structuring
Substring
Start time:5274.515370
End time:7401.726300
Length [hrs]:51053.062320
Mean time:5965.028639
Points unknown :28
Total observing time [hrs]:51053.1
Total mean time:5965.028639
2)Type of variation: amplitude and phase variation
F1 Fre = 0.0263592389 Amp = 0.173214 Pha = 0.826944

F2 Fre = 0.01216423 Amp = 0.129961 Pha = 0.431889
F3 Fre = 0.0145482637 Amp = 2.9183 Pha = 0.985512
F4 Fre = 0.0145747546 Amp = 2.56798 Pha = 0.328972
F5 Fre = 0.014257338 Amp = 0.27696 Pha = 0.187034
F6 Fre = 0.0085162261 Amp = 0.0692217 Pha = 0.25015
Zero point: 18.2453035
Residuals: 0.0471101152
Iterations: 2
3)Calculation of epochs
calculate the time of minimum light
close to the time:0
Frequency Time of Epoch
F1 0.0263592389 -21.88773516316346
F2 0.01216423 -14.95275976555205
F3 0.0145482637 -50.55671168094873
F4 0.0145747546 -5.418401864775134
F5 0.014257338 4.416367968913489
F6 0.00851622613 -0.01760634356200605
59
calculate the time of Zero point

close to the time:0
F1 0.0263592389 -31.37207577146925
F2 0.01216423 -35.50482098258701
F3 0.0145482637 -67.74089286870617
F4 0.0145747546 -22.57134932906251
F5 0.014257338 -13.11846219983298
F6 0.00851622613 -29.37333223175396
calculate the time of maximum light
close to the time:0
F1 0.0263592389 -40.85641637977504
F2 0.01216423 -56.05688219962197
F3 0.0145482637 -84.92507405646362
F4 0.0145747546 -39.72429679334989
F5 0.014257338 -30.65329236857944
F6 0.00851622613 -58.7290581199459
4)Signal prediction at a given time
Time The signal
5274.515370(Starting time) 7.8720457
7401.726300(Ending time) 17.9338073
5)Calculation of noise fitted frequencies
Frequency Noise-amplitude
F1 0.0263592389 0.0690755914
F2 0.01216423 0.069050619
F3 0.0145482637 0.069063107
F4 0.0145747546 0.0690640601
F5 0.014257338 0.0690486066
F6 0.00851622613 0.0690773495
6)Analytical uncertainties
Nr. Freq. sigma Ampl. sigma Pha. sigma
F1 1.883944554e-005 0.01259070789 0.01156879298
F2 2.510946553e-005 0.01259070789 0.01541904236
F3 1.118203665e-006 0.01259070789 0.0006866585694
F4 1.270744708e-006 0.01259070789 0.0007803298899
F5 1.178240563e-005 0.01259070789 0.007235256009
F6 4.714197626e-005 0.01259070789 0.02894861015
60
1)Time structuring
Substring
Start time: 5275.516140
End time: 7446.614410
Length [hrs] :52106.358480
Mean time :6085.874147
Points unknown :32
Total observing time [hrs]: 52106.4
Total mean time: 6085.874147
F1 Fre = 0.00127202495 Amp = 0.0953531 Pha = 0.404545
F2 Fre = 0.00530357639 Amp = 0.0953186 Pha = 0.69041
F3 Fre = 0.020718757 Amp = 0.091779 Pha = 0.164154
F4 Fre = 0.0332776964 Amp = 0.0671232 Pha = 0.769678
F5 Fre = 0.0172791189 Amp = 0.0536532 Pha = 0.241169
Residuals: 0.0530353362
Iterations: 2
close to the time:0
F1 0.00127202495 -121.4953872122454
F2 0.00530357639 -83.04024589924342
F3 0.020718757 4.143417793481775
F4 0.0332776964 -15.6164071951915
F5 0.0172791189 0.511106603133402
close to the time:0
F1 0.00127202495 -318.0324130074075
F2 0.00530357639 -130.1782489499199
F3 0.020718757 -7.922943158100719
F4 0.0332776964 -23.12894642910538
F5 0.0172791189 -13.95722375783426
61

close to the time:0
F1 0.00127202495 -514.5694388025696
F2 0.00530357639 -177.3162520005963
F3 0.020718757 -19.98930410968321
F4 0.0332776964 -30.64148566301926
F5 0.0172791189 -28.42555411880193
4)signal predictions at a given time
Time The signal
5275.5161409(starting time) 16.5522917
7446.614410(Ending time) 16.4522807
5)calculation of noise at fitted frequencies
F1 0.00127202495 0.0424850616
F2 0.00530357639 0.0424958097
F3 0.020718757 0.0424933006
F4 0.0332776964 0.0424908645
F5 0.0172791189 0.0425068917
F1 3.531031368e-005 0.01325883404 0.02213045963
F2 3.532312990e-005 0.01325883404 0.02213849209
F3 3.668538371e-005 0.01325883404 0.02299227389
F4 5.016072748e-005 0.01325883404 0.03143783894
F5 6.275394640e-005 0.01325883404 0.03933053923
1)Time structuring
Substring
Start time: 5275.516140
End time :7446.614410
Length [hrs]: 52106.358480
Mean time: 6085.874147
Points unknown: 32
2)Type of Variation: amplitude and phase variation
62
F1 Fre = 0.0319982894 Amp = 0.171286 Pha = 0.871068

F2 Fre = 0.0082963516 Amp = 0.105024 Pha = 0.974637
F3 Fre = 0.0255789529 Amp = 0.0955829 Pha = 0.616404
F4 Fre = 0.0287712331 Amp = 0.0933024 Pha = 0.203769
F5 Fre = 0.00187674524 Amp = 0.083506 Pha = 0.21915
F6 Fre = 0.0177561313 Amp = 0.0574235 Pha = 0.356863
Residuals: 0.0810501666
Iterations: 2
3)calculation of epochs
close to the time:0
F1 0.0319982894 -19.40942437106669
F2 0.0082963516 -87.3440255132229
F3 0.0255789529 -14.32444084995435
F4 0.0287712331 1.606862093433718
F5 0.00187674524 16.43780126416049
F6 0.0177561313 -6.018366440220706
close to the time:0
F1 0.0319982894 -27.22234201864147
F2 0.0082963516 -117.4777532211274
F3 0.0255789529 -24.09810130452812
F4 0.0287712331 -7.082372698776514
F5 0.00187674524 -116.7715418107306
F6 0.0177561313 -20.09801004047993
close to the time:0
F1 0.0319982894 -35.03525966621626
F2 0.0082963516 -147.611480929032
F3 0.0255789529 -33.8717617591019
F4 0.0287712331 -15.77160749098675
F5 0.00187674524 -249.9808848856217
F6 0.0177561313 -34.17765364073916
4)Signal predictions at a given time
Time The signal
5275.51614(Starting time) 18.1209049
7446.614410(Ending time) 18.51928
5)Calculation of noise at fitted frequencies
F1 0.0319982894 0.062457523
63
F2 0.0082963516 0.0624179318
F3 0.0255789529 0.0624875081
F4 0.0287712331 0.0624569976
F5 0.00187674524 0.0624183961
F6 0.0177561313 0.062437474
F1 3.004015774e-005 0.02026254164 0.01882743110
F2 4.899323621e-005 0.02026254164 0.03070612303
F3 5.383256138e-005 0.02026254164 0.03373913178
F4 5.514834214e-005 0.02026254164 0.03456378696
F5 6.161798138e-005 0.02026254164 0.03861858214
F6 8.960565758e-005 0.02026254164 0.05615963669
1)Time structuring
Substring
Start time :5275.516140
End time: 7446.614410
Length [hrs]: 52106.358480
Mean time: 6085.874147
Points unknown :32
F1 Fre = 0.00928075126 Amp = 0.160182 Pha = 0.517656
F2 Fre = 0.0214470903 Amp = 0.0916224 Pha = 0.567242
F3 Fre = 0.0300093764 Amp = 0.108492 Pha = 0.870682
F4 Fre = 0.0177700944 Amp = 0.0895122 Pha = 0.737883
F5 Fre = 0.0164400103 Amp = 0.0671636 Pha = 0.826133
Residuals: 0.0702298847
Iterations: 2
close to the time:0
F1 0.00928075126 -28.83992397229716
F2 0.0214470903 -14.79183272784369
F3 0.0300093764 -20.68292757204973
64
F4 0.0177700944 -27.45529549858093
F5 0.0164400103 -35.04455138227364
close to the time:0
F1 0.00928075126 -55.77739842072605
F2 0.0214470903 -26.44842559458792
F3 0.0300093764 -29.01365715415417
F4 0.0177700944 -41.523875809702
F5 0.0164400103 -50.25135450194658
close to the time:0
F1 0.00928075126 -82.71487286915495
F2 0.0214470903 -38.10501846133215
F3 0.0300093764 -37.34438673625861
F4 0.0177700944 -55.59245612082307
F5 0.0164400103 -65.45815762161952
Time The signal
5275.51614(Starting time) 15.690028
7446.614410(Ending time) 15.8416628
5)Calculation of noise at fitted frequencies
F1 0.00928075126 0.0472360889
F2 0.0214470903 0.047250016
F3 0.0300093764 0.0472338569
F4 0.0177700944 0.0472593748
F5 0.0164400103 0.0472636302
Nr. Freq. sigma Ampl. sigma Pha. sig
F1 2.783420564e-005 0.01755747118 0.01744486809
F2 4.866219996e-005 0.01755747118 0.03049864868
F3 4.109573194e-005 0.01755747118 0.02575642473
F4 4.980934368e-005 0.01755747118 0.03121761193
F5 6.638340042e-005 0.01755747118 0.04160527081
65

1)Time structuring
Substring
Start time :5275.516140
End time: 7446.614410
Length [hrs]: 52106.358480
Mean time :6085.874147
Points unknown :32
F1 Fre = 0.00294346309 Amp = 43.4538 Pha = 0.346161
F2 Fre = 0.00294236742 Amp = 43.4479 Pha = 0.853431
F3 Fre = 0.00772825848 Amp = 0.21298 Pha = 0.326282
F4 Fre = 0.0243600248 Amp = 0.138744 Pha = 0.123689
F5 Fre = 0.0339497125 Amp = 0.115769 Pha = 0.860811
F6 Fre = 0.00171066363 Amp = 0.106651 Pha = 0.720185
Residuals: 0.0959547113
Iterations: 6
close to the time:0
F1 0.00294346309 -32.66946602504369
F2 0.00294236742 -205.0833535636209
F3 0.00772825848 -9.870567012823832
F4 0.0243600248 5.185156407173987
F5 0.0339497125 -17.9916543081484
F6 0.00171066363 -274.8553433266039
close to the time:0
F1 0.00294346309 -117.6034341836749
F2 0.00294236742 -290.0489491751418
F3 0.00772825848 -42.21938150142603
F4 0.0243600248 -5.07755894277808
F5 0.0339497125 -25.35548692392756
F6 0.00171066363 -420.9974575076832
close to the time:0
66

F1 0.00294346309 -202.5374023423061
F2 0.00294236742 -375.0145447866627
F3 0.00772825848 -74.56819599002822
F4 0.0243600248 -15.34027429273015
F5 0.0339497125 -32.71931953970672
F6 0.00171066363 -567.1395716887625
Time The signal
5275.516140(Starting time) 15.0581564
7446.614410(Ending time) 15.2047067
F1 0.00294346309 0.0786119074
F2 0.00294236742 0.0786119215
F3 0.00772825848 0.078607942
F4 0.0243600248 0.0785362714
F5 0.0339497125 0.078617539
F6 0.00171066363 0.0786256372
F1 1.401877455e-007 0.02398867783 8.786155994e-005
F2 1.402068398e-007 0.02398867783 8.787352717e-005
F3 2.860211154e-005 0.02398867783 0.01792614703
F4 4.390606731e-005 0.02398867783 0.02751778018
F5 5.261917838e-005 0.02398867783 0.03297865359
F6 5.711808547e-005 0.02398867783 0.03579830800
1)Time structuring
Substring
Start time :5275.518200
End time :7446.616520
Length [hrs] :52106.359680
Mean time :6029.252518
Points unknown :32
F1 Fre = 0.0191644994 Amp = 0.0873323 Pha = 0.51991
67
F2 Fre = 0.00805129978 Amp = 0.0675373 Pha = 0.221861

F3 Fre = 0.0250761472 Amp = 0.269002 Pha = 0.801409
F4 Fre = 0.0250224572 Amp = 0.213848 Pha = 0.628324
F5 Fre = 0.0240200393 Amp = 0.0384803 Pha = 0.00427042
Residuals: 0.060019308
Iterations: 2
close to the time:0
F1 0.0191644994 -14.08386443568669
F2 0.00805129978 3.494912614283486
F3 0.0250761472 -21.98936773595314
F4 0.0250224572 -15.11938477028814
F5 0.0240200393 10.23019055117042
close to the time:0
F1 0.0191644994 -27.12881772873457
F2 0.00805129978 -27.55597442538036
F3 0.0250761472 -31.95900136012299
F4 0.0250224572 -25.11040995728609
F5 0.0240200393 -0.1777857718898293
close to the time:0
F1 0.0191644994 -40.17377102178245
F2 0.00805129978 -58.6068614650442
F3 0.0250761472 -41.92863498429284
F4 0.0250224572 -35.10143514428404
F5 0.0240200393 -10.58576209495008
Time The signal
5275.518200(Starting time) 17.4191732
7446.616520(Ending time) 17.6069866
F1 0.0191644994 0.0334744336
F2 0.00805129978 0.0334534093
F3 0.0250761472 0.0334700149
F4 0.0250224572 0.0334702707
F5 0.0240200393 0.033479097
68
F1 4.363023388e-005 0.01500482700 0.02734490440

F2 5.641808814e-005 0.01500482700 0.03535959103
F3 1.416468288e-005 0.01500482700 0.008877603088
F4 1.781792358e-005 0.01500482700 0.01116724284
F5 9.902008564e-005 0.01500482700 0.06206005639
1)Time structuring
Substring
Start time :5275.518200
End time :7446.616520
Length [hrs]:52106.359680
Mean time:6029.252518
Points unknown :32
Total
mean time:6029.252518
F1 Fre = 0.0192473755 Amp = 0.115692 Pha = 0.0164271
F2 Fre = 0.00789444243 Amp = 155.252 Pha = 0.0768963
F3 Fre = 0.00786629136 Amp = 72.7776 Pha = 0.752872
F4 Fre = 0.00796193418 Amp = 247.632 Pha = 0.656295
F5 Fre = 0.00795099857 Amp = 330.086 Pha = 0.224243
F6 Fre = 0.0252726077 Amp = 0.0694324 Pha = 0.627251
F7 Fre = 0.0038248551 Amp = 0.0517585 Pha = 0.364849
Residuals: 0.0482566576
Iterations: 8
close to the time:0
F1 0.0192473755 12.13531240088555
F2 0.00789444243 21.9272824251601
F3 0.00786629136 -63.92743236224452
F4 0.00796193418 -51.02965323305418
F5 0.00795099857 3.239477144579093
F6 0.0252726077 -14.92724978874734
F7 0.0038248551 -30.02696591960804
69

close to the time:0
F1 0.0192473755 -0.8534714563753345
F2 0.00789444243 -9.740565213875906
F3 0.00786629136 -95.70860962197314
F4 0.00796193418 -82.42905876189373
F5 0.00795099857 -28.20311436705742
F6 0.0252726077 -24.81938294170921
F7 0.0038248551 -95.38891904502228
close to the time:0
F1 0.0192473755 -0.8534714563753345
F2 0.00789444243 -9.740565213875906
F3 0.00786629136 -95.70860962197314
F4 0.00796193418 -82.42905876189373
F5 0.00795099857 -28.20311436705742
F6 0.0252726077 -24.81938294170921
F7 0.0038248551 -95.38891904502228
Time The signal
5275.518200(Starting time) 17.4573909
7446.616520(Ending time) 17.5897764
F1 0.0192473755 0.0334748705
F2 0.00789444243 0.0334542918
F3 0.00786629136 0.0334543154
F4 0.00796193418 0.0334541105
F5 0.00795099857 0.0334541701
F6 0.0252726077 0.0334691526
F7 0.0038248551 0.0334801084
F1 2.648033432e-005 0.01206416441 0.01659634033
F2 1.973288883e-008 0.01206416441 1.236743218e-005
F3 4.209503753e-008 0.01206416441 2.638273221e-005
F4 1.237148620e-008 0.01206416441 7.753731238e-006
F5 9.281127921e-009 0.01206416441 5.816873601e-006
F6 4.412313069e-005 0.01206416441 0.02765382357
F7 5.918974673e-005 0.01206416441 0.03709670615
70

1)Time structuring
Substring
Start time :5275.516140
End time :7446.614410
Length [hrs] :52106.358480
Mean time :6069.229236
Points unknown :31
Total mean time :6069.229236
F1 Fre = 0.027840423 Amp = 0.149385 Pha = 0.393193
F2 Fre = 0.0195092371 Amp = 0.0494936 Pha = 0.652208
F3 Fre = 0.0253412183 Amp = 0.0644585 Pha = 0.249762
F4 Fre = 0.0108205607 Amp = 0.0428613 Pha = 0.583824
Residuals: 0.0254095919
Iterations: 2
close to the time:0
F1 0.027840423 -5.143356357952903
F2 0.0195092371 -20.61627688270048
F3 0.0253412183 0.009396670871564134
F4 0.0108205607 -30.85086559372069
close to the time:0
F1 0.027840423 -14.12310498255526
F2 0.0195092371 -33.43071953538308
F3 0.0253412183 -9.855953798536952
F4 0.0108205607 -53.95502882896733
close to the time:0
F1 0.027840423 -23.10285360715761
F2 0.0195092371 -46.24516218806566
F3 0.0253412183 -19.72130426794547
71
F4 0.0108205607 -77.05919206421397

Time The signal
5275.516140(Starting time) 16.9825249
7446.614410(Ending time) 16.7706466
F1 0.027840423 0.0425131766
F2 0.0195092371 0.0425362765
F3 0.0253412183 0.0424993191
F4 0.0108205607 0.0424963051
F1 1.097124944e-005 0.006454042796 0.006876143755
F2 3.311416980e-005 0.006454042796 0.02075404383
F3 2.542629733e-005 0.006454042796 0.01593573061
F4 3.823820405e-005 0.006454042796 0.02396549175
1)Time structuring
Substring
Start time : 5275.520260
End time : 7446.618650
Length [hrs] :52106.361360
Mean time : 5945.670509
Points unknown :28
F1 Fre = 0.0172248116 Amp = 0.115165 Pha = 0.733518
F2 Fre = 0.0133087743 Amp = 0.097819 Pha = 0.33759
F3 Fre = 0.0219444029 Amp = 0.0507084 Pha = 0.821669
F4 Fre = 0.0212169001 Amp = 0.13767 Pha = 0.454727
Residuals: 0.0624244329
Iterations: 2
72

close to the time:0
F1 0.0172248116 -28.07100186160895
F2 0.0133087743 -6.58140411024981
F3 0.0219444029 -26.05079810288572
F4 0.0212169001 -9.649247475934791
close to the time: o
F1 0.0172248116 -42.58494868567165
F2 0.0133087743 -25.36600402264538
F3 0.0219444029 -37.4432247145206
F4 0.0212169001 -21.43230714294218
close to the time:0
F1 0.0172248116 -57.09889550973436
F2 0.0133087743 -44.15060393504094
F3 0.0219444029 -48.83565132615547
F4 0.0212169001 -33.21536680994957
Time The signal
5275.520260(Starting time) 16.0691957
7446.618650(Ending time) 16.2324016
F1 0.0172248116 0.0381463583
F2 0.0133087743 0.0381331648
F3 0.0219444029 0.0381846826
F4 0.0212169001 0.0381814376
F1 3.678769670e-005 0.01668363147 0.02305639902
F2 4.331102587e-005 0.01668363147 0.02714484417
F3 8.354911598e-005 0.01668363147 0.05236375007
F4 3.077398873e-005 0.01668363147 0.01928735494
73

1)Time structuring
Substring
Start time :5264.526440
End time : 7500.473780
Length [hrs] :53662.736160
Mean time :6136.652344
Points unknown :456
F1 Fre = 0.0699366037 Amp = 0.0449347 Pha = 0.464164
F2 Fre = 0.112367257 Amp = 0.0430703 Pha = 0.372379
F3 Fre = 0.157847158 Amp = 7.74477 Pha = 0.19565
F4 Fre = 0.157847671 Amp = 7.71222 Pha = 0.691869
F5 Fre = 0.15847956 Amp = 0.0195405 Pha = 0.266402
Residuals: 0.167406146
Iterations: 2
close to the time:0
F1 0.0699366037 -3.062263728319775
F2 0.112367257 -1.089094411918492
F3 0.157847158 0.3443216679556629
F4 0.157847671 -2.799339518244654
F5 0.15847956 -0.1034949437580733
close to the time:0
F1 0.0699366037 -6.636929734792622
F2 0.112367257 -3.313941817157913
F3 0.157847158 -1.239488919341564
F4 0.157847671 -4.383144954399939
F5 0.15847956 -1.680985446101535
close to the time:0
74
F1 0.0699366037 -10.21159574126547
F2 0.112367257 -5.538789222397334
F3 0.157847158 -2.82329950663879
F4 0.157847671 -5.966950390555224
F5 0.15847956 -3.258475948444996
Time The signal
5264.526440(Starting time) 15.0201366
7500.473780(Ending time) 15.091445
F1 0.0699366037 0.0140729405
F2 0.112367257 0.0140936634
F3 0.157847158 0.0140869644
F4 0.157847671 0.0140869655
F5 0.15847956 0.0140863252
F1 6.083744738e-005 0.01108674288 0.03926828475
F2 6.347105027e-005 0.01108674288 0.04096817639
F3 3.529757854e-007 0.01108674288 0.0002278325974
F4 3.544651057e-007 0.01108674288 0.0002287938976
F5 0.0001398997119 0.01108674288 0.09030000373
75
7.11 DISTANCE CALCULATED

Given below is the tabular representation of parameters calculated using period04 and
using this the distance to the stars are found in parsecs
STAR FREQUENCY PERIOD ABSOLUTE APPARENT DISTANC

(P) MAGNITUD MAGNITUD E
DAYS E E-VISUAL
(M) (m) PARSECS
STAR0 0.0263592 37.9373624 -5.758225289 18.2453035 631983

1 5
STAR0 0.0172791189 57.8733213 -6.264440403 16.4615581 350913

2 1
SRAR0 0.031998289 31.2516706 -5.525850137 18.3544309 597112

3
STAR0 0.0300093764 33.3229183 -5.602770761 15.6718131 179852

4 7
STAR0 0.0339497125 29.4553304 -5.454892362 15.4659097 1528172

5 4
STAR0 0.0250761473 39.8785342 -5.818040158 17.5961739 481773

6 9
SATR0 0.0252572607 39.5685445 -5.808686211 17.6002376 480601

7 7 9
STAR0 0.0278404230 35.9189944 -5.69269471 16.917775 332731

8 8
STAR0 0.0219444029 45.5697065 -5.977946399 16.1040929 260860

9 2
STAR1 0.0699366030 14.2986641 -4.588615487 15.0332557 84018

0 8
76
Chapter 8
CONCLUSION
The research on variable star is extremely important as it gives scientists information

on the structure and the composition of star properties of mass, radius, temperature
and luminosity, as well as information on the structure composition of the star.
Within different categories of variable star, some are particularly valuable to

astronomy, since their variability can be measured. Study of pulsating variables is of
great importance to astronomers. Analysis of the light curve provides vital information
about the interior processes in stars. The most valuable property of pulsating variables
is a direct relationship between the period of pulsation and their luminosity.
This project analysed the data of 10 classical cepheids (a class of pulsating variables)
from OGLE database, using period04 software and estimated its parameters such as
frequency, period, apparent magnitude alongside with the calculation of epochs, the
signal at different times and noise at fitted frequencies.
Using the obtained period, the absolute magnitude of each star has been found using
a formula derived from Hubble Space Telescope trigonometric parallax for 10 nearly
cephides. Then using this absolute magnitude along with the apparent magnitude and
period, we have found the distance to the stars in parsecs.
The light curves obtained for all the 10 stars were similar to those of common classical
cephides with fundamental mode of vibration and having a period between 35 and 45
days. From their absolute magnitude, it was found that 9 out of the 10 stars belong to
the spectral class supergiant (la, lb), were the 10th star under consideration belong to
the spectral class Bright giant(ll).
77
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] www.oxfordereference.com
[2]www.space.com
[3]www.nasa.gov
[4] ACTA ASTRONOMICA Vol.67(2017)pp.297-316

[5] Astrophysics of Galaxies(astro-ph.GA); cite as: arXiv:1911.13102

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1

LIGHT CURVE ANALYSIS OF CLASSICAL

Project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN PHYSICS

Guide: Dr. K.Y. SHAJU

Christ College (Autonomous), Irinjalakuda

Post Graduate and Research Department of Physics, Christ College

Irinjalakuda DR. SHAJU K.Y

August,2021 Associate professor

I, hereby declare that this project entitled “LIGHT CURVE ANALYSIS OF

Irinjalakuda DR. SHAJU K.Y

August,2021 Associate professor

5. TOOLS FOR EXTRACTING THE STAR PARAMETERS

1.3 STAR NAMING

1.4 STAR FORMATION

1.5 EVOLUTION OF STARS

1.6 STELLAR STRUCTURE

1.7 STELLAR CLASSIFICATION

The generally accepted system of stellar classification is a combination of two

The following table summarises the MK Luminosity Classes:

2.1 HISTORY OF VARIABLE STARS

In 1669, a second variable star was identified by Geminiano Monanari. It was an

2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLE STARS

2.2.1 INTRENSIC VARIABLES

a) Pulsating variable stars

b) Eruptive variable stars

c) Cataclysmic or Explosive variable stars

2.2.2 EXTRENSIC VARIABLES

b) Rotating variable stars

2.3 VARIABLE STARS: FUTURE RESEARCH

Research on variable stars is extremely important as it gives scientists information on

Within the different categories of variables, some are particularly valuable to

Cataclysmic variables help in understanding active galaxies and supermassive black

The study of pulsating variables is of great importance to astronomers. Analysis of light

3.1 TYPES OF PULSATING VARIABLES

➢ Type I Classical Cepheids

Classical Cepheids follow a well-defined period-luminosity relationship. This means

3.1.4Long-Period Variables (LPVs)

➢ Semiregular Variables (SR)

3.2 REASON FOR STELLAR PULSATION

Steps involved in a pulsating stars:

4.1 DISCOVERY OF THE PERIOD - LUMINOSITY RELEATIONSHIP

The Danish astronomer, Ejnar Hertzsprung (1873-1967) quickly realised the

Harlow Shapley, an American astronomer using a larger number of Cepheids,

4.1.2 APPARENT MAGNITUDE AND ABSOLUTE MAGNITUDE

The solution of this resulted in the implementation of an absolute magnitude scale to

M= - [2.76(log 10 𝑃-1)] -4.16

4.2 CALCULATING DISTANCES USING CEPHEIDS

1. Photometric observations, be they naked-eye estimates, photographic plates, or

This can also be written as:

now substituting in:

4.3 STANDARD CANDLES

Type Ia supernovae may be approximated to standard candles as their absolute

4.4 HUBBLE KEY PROJECT

The international team of astronomers discovered many new cepheids in the 18

5.1.1 THE TIME STRING MODULE

5.1.2 THE FIT MODULE

5.1.3 THE FOURIER MODULE